10
Nuts: Agricultural and Economic Importance Worldwide

Albino Bento, Paula Cabo, and Ricardo Malheiro

Mountain Research Centre (CIMO), School of Agriculture, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Portugal

10.1 Introduction

Several tree nuts have agronomic and economic importance: almonds, Amazonia nuts (Brazil nuts), cashews, chestnuts, hazelnuts, macadamias, peanuts, pecans, pine nuts, pistachios, and walnuts are just some examples (Figure 10.1). While some of these nuts have local or regional importance, others have worldwide significance, which is the case for almonds, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and walnuts.

Figure 10.1 Main nuts produced worldwide and main producers in 2014–15 season (1, almonds; 2, pecans; 3, Brazil nuts; 4, pistachios; 5, hazelnuts; 6, cashews; 7, peanuts; 8, macadamias; 9, pine nuts; 10, chestnuts; 11, walnuts) (ICN 2015).

The production of nuts worldwide is increasing. In the season 2014–15, according to the International Nut and Dried Fruit Council (INC), more than 3.6 million tons of nuts (shelled) were produced (INC 2015). This is 8.5% higher than production from the 2013–14 season and 56% higher compared to 2004–05 (INC 2015). Moreover, production is expected to grow in the coming years. The USA, the main producer of nuts worldwide, estimates a continuous increase in production until 2024, with an expectation of export values of nuts in 2024 of over US$13 745 million (USDA 2014).

Regarding consumption, high‐ and middle‐income economies are increasing their intake while in low‐income economies consumption is more unstable.

This chapter presents a detailed agronomic and economic perspective based on almonds, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and walnuts. The research is based on international sources of statistics, from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and INC, mainly from the 2000–13 period. We discuss the current situation and recent evolution in world production, trade and consumption of almonds, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and walnuts, including top producers, importers, exporters, and main consumer countries.

10.2 Almond

Almond (Prunus dulcis Mill. D.A. Webb) is mainly cultivated in regions with temperate and subtropical climate conditions. Almonds are classified into two categories: sweet and bitter. The sweet almond is Amygdalus communis L. var. dulcis while the bitter almond is A. communis L. var. amara.

Worldwide, for domestic consumption and for trade purposes, the sweet almond is more popular, while the bitter almond is commonly used for industrial purposes, as a flavor included in several food products, among them alcoholic beverages. This nut is used in several forms: whole (blanched or natural), sliced (blanched or natural), slivered, diced, as flour, as a paste, and as a vegetable oil. The diverse food products and healthy properties inherent in almonds’ chemical composition (Chen et al. 2006) attract consumers’ attention. Almonds are a good source of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins (Yada et al. 2011), as well as a source of minor compounds with bioactive characteristics (Barreira et al. 2008a; Monagas et al. 2007). This has boosted the world production of almonds (Figure 10.2). Figure 10.2 shows that between 2000 and 2013, the harvested area was reduced around 2.3% but production (shown in detail in Table 10.1), and consequently the yield, has increased tremendously since 2000.

Figure 10.2 Evolution of almond (with shell) production, harvested area, and yields from 2000 to 2013 (FAOSTAT 2015).

Table 10.1 World production and trade of almonds (2000–12 period) (elaboration based on FAOSTAT data; FAOSTAT 2015).

	Production					World traded,e
Year	Volumea (tons)	Gross valueb (US$1000)	Unit pricec (US$)	Implicit price index (2000 = 100)	Volume index (2000 = 100)	Volume (tons)	Value (US$1000)	Unit price (US$)
2000	1 479 636	1 967 780	1.33	100.00	100.00	268 963	777 347	2.89
2001	1 560 612	1 988 350	1.27	92.21	105.47	299 614	796 499	2.66
2002	1 877 574	2 585 820	1.38	97.82	126.89	346 694	993 352	2.87
2003	1 717 743	3 481 850	2.03	137.92	116.09	361 139	1 247 275	3.45
2004	1 617 261	4 687 830	2.90	189.75	109.30	364 774	1 652 910	4.53
2005	1 864 411	5 741 610	3.08	236.66	126.00	344 764	2 304 176	6.68
2006	2 024 753	5 281 290	2.61	182.78	136.84	399 800	2 369 507	5.93
2007	2 253 125	6 221 740	2.76	164.12	152.28	436 905	2 264 590	5.18
2008	2 479 892	6 021 300	2.43	140.34	167.60	463 137	2 194 737	4.74
2009	2 456 874	5 865 640	2.39	152.76	166.05	533 660	2 118 056	3.97
2010	2 597 441	7 372 880	2.84	167.05	175.55	541 919	2 548 472	4.70
2011	3 013 215	10 153 890	3.37	185.50	203.65	601 779	2 960 270	4.92
2012	3 004 847	10 879 650	3.62	198.11	203.08	639 885	3 453 685	5.40

^a Production relates to almonds in the shell or in the husk.

^b Current prices, calculated without any deductions for seed.

^c Price received by farmers for 1 kg of product.

^d Shelled almonds, amount related to the average of exports and imports.

^e Export values are mostly reported as free‐on‐board (FOB) (i.e. insurance/transport costs are not included) and import values mostly as cost‐insurance‐freight (CIF) (i.e. insurance/transport costs are included).

Improvements in efficiency and technology are the main factors for the tremendous increase of almond yields over the years. Other factors, such as advances in tree varieties, planting patterns, improvements in mechanization and orchard agronomy, together with irrigation, have also encouraged the increase in almond production and yield.

According to the most recent statistics from the FAO (FAOSTAT 2015), worldwide almond production reached about 2 917 894 tons in 2013, being cultivated and spread all over the world (Figure 10.3). The top 10 producers accounted for more than 90.5% of almond production in 2013. Nevertheless, almond production is mainly concentrated in the United States of America (USA, California) with more than 62% of world production, followed by Australia (5.5%) and Spain (5.1%) (see Figure 10.3).

Figure 10.3 Worldwide almond with shell production (tons) and top 10 producers for 2013 (FAOSTAT 2015).

In the USA, mainly in California, about 10 almond varieties count for about 70% of the production: Nonpareil, Carmel, Butte, Padre, Mission, Monterey, Sonora, Fritz, Price, and Peerless (Almond Board of California 2015). Half of USA almond production is usually intended for domestic consumption and the remainder for foreign markets, thus making the USA the world’s main exporter and consumer of this nut. In Australia, the most popular varieties are Nonpareil, Carmel, Price, and Peerless. Australian almonds are mainly consumed domestically, with only 25% of the country’s annual production being exported. In Spain, the varieties Marcona, Largueta, Planet, Communes or Valencianas, and Mallorca are mostly grown. Spain is an important producer and also a major consumer of almonds, since almond is an important element in the traditional Mediterranean diet, either as an appetizer or an ingredient in the confection industry, such as traditional nougat, marzipan, and pastries. Additionally, Spain is a major processor of almonds; accordingly, Spanish international trade in almonds is very intense (Spain is the second largest importer and exporter of almonds). As a result, Spanish national production is insufficient to satisfy its domestic and foreign demand, and this country presents a deficit trade balance. This deficit, however, is not verified in terms of value, since being an almond‐processing country, Spain adds value to its almond exports.

10.2.1 Evolution of Almond Production and Trade Facts

In 2012, world production of almonds with shell reached 3 million tons, corresponding to US$10 880 million at current prices (see Table 10.1). This is 103% higher than in 2000, an annual average growth rate of 6.4%. This evolution was associated with a price increase of around 98% (7.5% a year, on average). Hence, overall production value increased 453% at current prices, in the 2000–12 period. These findings indicate the increasing market valorization of almond production, despite some loss of momentum during 2006–09, with an overall increase of more than 172.5% of unit price per kg over the decade. These results are also confirmed by the evolution of consumption with an average yearly growth rate of over 7% in the 2004–12 period.

World trade in shelled almonds in 2012 was almost 640 000 tons, worth US$3.45 million. Compared to 2000, this represents an increase of 138% in volume, and 344% in value. Table 10.2 presents the world top exporters and importers of shelled almonds.

Table 10.2 Top exporters and importers of shelled almonds (three year average) (elaboration based on FAOSTAT data; FAOSTAT 2015).

Exportsa				Importsb
Volume (tons)		Value (US$1000)		Volume (tons)		Value (US$1000)
USA	440 234	USA	2 137 431	Germany	79 978	Germany	379 834
Spain	61 206	Spain	341 997	Spain*	63 244	China	268 032
China	24 458	China	100 643	China	56 181	Spain	267 101
Australia	17 710	Australia	86 424	UAE**	36 671	UAE	215 973
Netherlands	11 449	Germany	58 126	Italy	31 997	Italy	161 932
Others	59 795	Others	361 891	Others	306 132	Others	1 545 491

^a Export values are mostly FOB.

^b Import values are mostly reported as CIF.

* Processing country.

** United Arab Emirates (UAE), Transit country.

The USA is the main exporter of shelled almonds, with over 440 000 tons per year (see Table 10.2), approximately 70% of the world export total in volume and value. The main export destinations of USA almonds are Spain, Germany, and China, and together these countries represent almost 40% of USA exports. Spain is the second biggest exporter with about 61 000 tons per year, approximately 10% of world trade; 60% of Spanish exports are destined for Germany, Italy, and France.

Imports are less concentrated, Germany, Spain, and China being the main importers with 80 000, 63 000, and 56 000 tons per year, respectively. This represents around 14%, 11%, and 10% of the volume and 13%, 9%, and 9%, of the value of world imports, respectively.

10.2.2 Consumption of Almonds Worldwide

Table 10.3 reports the evolution of almond consumption worldwide from 2004 to 2012. World almond consumption is increasing (71.1% from 2004 to 2012); in 2012 the consumption of shelled almonds per capita was 135 g (INC 2013), the highest value ever recorded.

Table 10.3 Shelled almond consumption (tons) in the period 2004–12 (elaboration based on INC) (INC 2009, 2013).

										Variation
Country	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	Overall	Mean
USA	164 382	152 407	183 840	193 412	207 701	211 752	234 781	253 294	269 061	63.7%	6.6%
Germany	56 917	56 828	61 169	62 415	63 136	60 972	70 282	71 729	71 516	25.6%	3.0%
Spain*	29 801	65 517	59 734	44 594	61 760	42 815	43 305	61 649	57 664	93.5%	16.3%
Italy	27 470	36 684	34 958	40 028	29 252	28 583	29 333	39 915	37 130	35.2%	5.7%
China	7073	7 679	12 654	7805	16 305	24 476	28 070	36 103	34 810	392.2%	29.2%
Australia	5054	11 688	11 952	21 282	29 423	33 213	25 307	34 369	30 606	505.6%	33.0%
France	23 800	27 957	23 207	27 616	25 415	29 337	29 712	28 956	30 309	27.3%	3.8%
Japan	24 152	20 233	22 171	24 149	19 240	23 390	21 023	21 777	25 932	7.4%	2.0%
Canada	13 538	12 419	14 768	18 560	18 911	20 146	20 734	24 817	23 800	75.8%	7.9%
Turkey	13 664	15 458	15 476	10 226	12 570	16 114	21 524	22 775	23 172	69.6%	8.9%
WORLD	543 146	588 955	641 763	660 188	685 433	735 699	800 962	908 026	929 472	71.1%	7.0%

* Processing country.

The USA is responsible for almost 30% of world consumption of shelled almonds. The rise in world consumption was mainly driven by domestic demand from the USA, Spain, China, and Australia. These four countries jointly are responsible for half of the increase in world consumption of shelled almonds. From 2004 to 2012, the consumption of shelled almonds in China rose 392.2%, while in Australia the increase was even higher, at 505.6% (see Table 10.3). When consumption is reported by per capita/year, in 2012 higher consumption was verified in Australia, Tunisia, and Greece, with 1.498, 1.227, and 1.100 kg/capita/year respectively (INC 2013).

10.3 Chestnut

Chestnuts worldwide include three species: Chinese chestnut (Castanea mollissima Blume), European chestnut (C. sativa Mill.), and Japanese chestnut (C. crenata Siebold & Zucc.). Chestnuts are normally sold to the consumer with shell, in order to increase their shelf‐life. However, they can be sold without shell, mainly frozen, throughout the year. Chestnuts are normally used as a whole or as an ingredient (as a paste) to be included in several dishes or for sweets, cakes, and dessert preparations. A very popular preparation is the “marron glacé,” eaten as a whole or as an ingredient in desserts. The nutmeat can be consumed raw, boiled, cured or roasted (Nazzaro et al. 2011).

Chestnuts are an excellent source of carbohydrates, with a caloric intake around 400 kcal/100 g (Vasconcelos et al. 2010). Fat composition of chestnuts is mainly polyunsaturated fatty acids, due to the high content of linoleic acid; there are also appreciable amounts of oleic acid and low levels of saturated fatty acids (Vasconcelos et al. 2010). Even after culinary processing (boiling and roasting), chestnuts retain appreciable amounts of minor components, such as phenolic compounds (Gonçalves et al. 2010) and vitamins A, B₁, B₂, B₃, B₅, B6, C, and E (Vasconcelos et al. 2010). These minor components are responsible for the antioxidant potential verified in the nutmeat (Barreira et al. 2008b). A more detailed description on these aspects is given in Chapter 13.

Chestnut production is beating records each year. For the first time in history, chestnut production passed the 2 million ton mark in 2012, and in 2013 another production record of 2 009 000 tons was reported (FAOSTAT 2015), the highest production ever recorded (Figure 10.4).

Figure 10.4 Evolution of chestnut production, harvested area, and yields from 2000 to 2013 (FAOSTAT 2015).

Production was also boosted by the increase in harvested area, which has steadily risen in recent years, reaching 552 478 ha worldwide in 2013 (FAOSTAT 2015). Yields are also increasing continuously, to 3.63 tons per ha in 2013 (see Figure 10.4). Distribution of world chestnut production in 2013 is represented in Figure 10.5.

Figure 10.5 Worldwide chestnut production (tons) and top 10 producers for 2013 (FAOSTAT 2015).

China is the main producing country with more than 82% of world chestnut production. South Korea and Turkey are the second and third producers with around 3.4% and 3.0% respectively (see Figure 10.5). In China and South Korea, the main cultivated chestnut variety is C. mollissima, while in Turkey the main variety is C. sativa. The top 10 chestnut‐producing countries account for about 99.3% of worldwide production (FAOSTAT 2015). Despite being the world’s main producer of chestnuts, China only exports approximately 2% of its annual production. South Korea’s and Turkey's harvests are also primarily destined for domestic consumption, with only 15% being sold in foreign markets. In contrast, Portugal and Spain export almost half of their annual chestnut production, mainly to supply French and Italian chestnut‐processing factories and Brazilian markets. Italy exports about 40% of its production, processed and fresh, mainly to France, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria.

10.3.1 Evolution of Chestnut Production and Trade Facts

According to FAO statistics (FAOSTAT 2015), in 2012 world production of chestnuts was around 2 million tons, corresponding to US$4 751 000 at current prices (Table 10.4). This represents a growth of 112% from 2000 (an average annual rate of more than 6.5%). This remarkable increase was associated with an implicit prices index of 260.45, and consequently a growth rate of chestnut production value over 400%. Moreover, Table 10.4 shows that although chestnut production experienced a decrease in market value in the early years, there has been a significant recovery in recent years, in terms of both unit price production and world trade unit prices.

Table 10.4 World production and trade of chestnuts (2000–12 period) (elaboration based on FAOSTAT data; FAOSTAT 2015).

	Production					World traded,e
Year	Volumea (tons)	Gross valueb (US$1000)	Unit pricec (US$)	Implicit price index (2000 = 100)	Volume index (2000 = 100)	Volume (tons)	Value (US$1000)	Unit price (US$)
2000	943 234	947 510	1.00	100.00	100.00	99 076	222 952	2.25
2001	943 212	839 530	0.89	88.56	100.00	97 630	199 462	2.04
2002	1 037 692	907 020	0.87	88.43	110.01	103 010	199 803	1.94
2003	1 119 142	1 017 510	0.91	94.62	118.65	105 823	239 856	2.27
2004	1 250 818	1 261 000	1.01	107.20	132.61	110 448	216 526	1.96
2005	1 367 236	1 449 560	1.06	113.4	144.95	100 241	195 611	1.95
2006	1 493 156	1 710 340	1.15	122.57	158.30	112 169	206 427	1.84
2007	1 591 247	2 170 090	1.36	146.97	168.70	102 248	226 357	2.21
2008	1 791 430	3 071 300	1.71	187.23	189.92	103 292	243 818	2.36
2009	1 899 255	2 275 930	1.20	131.40	201.36	104 294	228 053	2.19
2010	1 964 598	2 960 790	1.51	164.89	208.28	100 739	246 779	2.45
2011	1 935 232	3 894 360	2.01	221.49	205.17	96 890	263 672	2.72
2012	2 002 810	4 751 680	2.37	260.45	212.33	104 517	325 025	3.11

^a Production relates to nuts in the shell or in the husk.

^b Current prices, calculated without any deductions for seed.

^c Price received by farmers for 1 kg of product.

^d Amount related to the average of exports and imports.

^e Export values are mostly reported as FOB and import values mostly as CIF.

At the beginning of this century, 10% of world chestnut production was traded internationally. These figures have decreased over time as world trade volume remained relatively stable and, at present, world trade flows involve a little more than 5% of the overall supply (around 100 000 tons per year), representing about US$325 000. Table 10.5 presents the world’s top exporters and importers of chestnuts.

Table 10.5 Top world exporters and importers of chestnuts (three year average) (elaboration based on FAOSTAT data; FAOSTAT 2015).

Exportsa				Importsb
Volume (tons)		Value (US$1000)		Volume (tons)		Value (US$1000)
China	36 707	China	79 049	China	15 534	Japan	57 267
Italy	16 800	Italy	76 145	Japan	11 861	Italy	29 058
South Korea	11 189	Portugal	29 508	Italy*	11 381	China	27 694
Portugal	9340	South Korea	28 473	France*	6877	Switzerland	16 340
Spain	7723	Spain	19 426	Thailand	4947	Germany	15 745
Others	19 677	Others	53 312	Others	49 393	Others	124 967

^a Export values are mostly FOB.

^b Import values are mostly CIF.

* Processing country.

Chestnut world trade flows are concentrated in China, simultaneously the world’s main exporter and importer, with over 36 000 tons of outflow and 15 000 tons of inflow per year. China is followed by Italy, with about 17 000 tons of exports and 11 000 tons of imports per year. Together, they are responsible for half the world’s exports and 25% of imports.

The leaders of international trade also include South Korea, Portugal, and Spain, which are accountable for around 30% of exports, and Japan, France, and Thailand, responsible for 25% of imports. China exports chestnuts mainly to Japan and Thailand, and imports chestnuts mainly from South Korea. Italy exports mainly to France and Switzerland and imports come from Portugal and Spain.

10.3.2 Consumption of Chestnuts Worldwide

Table 10.6 provides an estimation of chestnut annual consumption based on production, import, and export values (FAOSTAT 2015). Chestnut consumption worldwide increased from 1256 tons in 2004 to 2000 tons in 2012, an increase of 59%, and with an annual growth of 6.1% (see Table 10.6). In regard to consumption per capita, consumption increased from 195 g in 2004 to 282 g per capita in 2012.

Table 10.6 Chestnut consumption (tons) in the period 2004–12 (elaboration based of FAOSTAT 2015).

										Variation
Country	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	Overall	Mean
China	904 962	1 016 247	1 115 171	1 238 111	1 427 085	1 520 294	1 600 339	1 576 353	1 629 788	80.1%	7.8%
South Korea	57 251	62 087	70 795	67 694	64 950	64 762	57 383	56 450	61 317	7.1%	1.2%
Bolivia	52 758	57 055	55 000	42 801	58 443	55 001	52 200	55 984	57 000	8.0%	2.1%
Turkey	41 798	45 341	50 178	54 949	52 997	59 138	56 345	56 312	52 603	25.9%	3.2%
Italy	24 071	35 690	36 797	38 484	42 780	38 764	36 644	42 048	55 995	132.6%	12.5%
Japan	48 625	42 986	44 559	38 698	37 994	33 939	34 378	30 276	31 159	–35.9%	–5.2%
Greece	19 367	19 417	17 726	15 590	10 140	14 316	20 794	21 257	27 737	43.2%	8.0%
Portugal	26 082	18 734	23 070	17 926	19 376	18 255	16 981	11 584	8 408	–67.8%	–11.4%
France	24 763	13 533	15 612	11 042	17 026	13 490	14 375	12 809	9 300	–62.4%	–7.2%
Spain	3282	8513	7430	7083	8781	11 498	13 175	11 829	8 436	157.0%	21.6%
WORLD	1 256 762	1 376 486	1 497 526	1 589 166	1 795 542	1 894 887	1 962 716	1 935 536	2 000 061	59.1%	6.1%

China is the main chestnut consumer, being responsible for more than 80% of chestnut world demand. The other leading chestnut consumers are South Korea, Bolivia, Turkey, and Italy, with around 10% of world demand, jointly. Chinese per capita chestnut consumption has consistently increased over the time period of 2004–12, from 0.675 kg per capita to 1.157 kg per capita. Italian demand for chestnuts has also grown and its share increased in the same period. Other traditional chestnut‐consuming countries such as Japan, Portugal, and France have decreased their demand. Bolivia is the main per capita consumer of chestnuts with 5.431 kg (2012 estimation), followed by Greece (2.493 kg) and South Korea (1.251 kg).

10.4 Hazelnut

Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) varieties are classified in three main groups according to their fruit shape. Hazelnuts can be round, spindle shaped or almond shaped. Round hazelnut varieties are preferred for cultivation as they have better characteristics for food industry processing (Ozdemir & Akinci 2004).

Hazelnuts can be consumed raw or dried (blanched or natural). They are used as a paste for cakes and in a diversity of desserts, diced for cake and dessert decoration, and also as a vegetable oil. In addition, hazelnut is a very important ingredient for the chocolate sector in Italy and several other Central European countries, like Austria, Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg, and Switzerland. For instance, in Italy, the Ferrero® Group, responsible for the production of Nutella® and Ferrero Rocher®, is responsible for about 25% of global hazelnut demand.

Hazelnuts are a good source of protein (around 20%) and possess high fat content (from 57% to 63% depending on variety) (Ozdemir & Akinci 2004). One hundred grams of shelled hazelnuts have a caloric value between 649 and 680 kcal, depending on variety (Ozdemir & Akinci 2004). Hazelnuts are also a good source of essential amino acids and minerals (Köksal et al. 2006). They also have antioxidant and antimicrobial properties (Oliveira et al. 2008) and comparatively to other nuts, they have higher antioxidant properties that have been linked to their phenolic compound content (Delgado et al. 2010).

Figure 10.6 reports the evolution of harvested area, production, and hazelnut yield from 2000 to 2013. Harvested area increased about 25% from 2000 to 2013. However, production is relatively unstable which also affects yields. The yield for 2013 was 1.38 tons per ha (see Figure 10.6).

Figure 10.6 Evolution of hazelnut production, harvested area, and yields from 2000 to 2013 (FAOSTAT 2015).

Figure 10.7 represents the worldwide dispersion of hazelnut production and the main producers in 2013. The top 10 producers worldwide represent about 99.4% of production. Around 859 000 tons of hazelnuts were produced in 2013, mainly concentrated in Turkey (63.9%). According to Ozdemir and Akinci (2004), the following varieties of hazelnuts are cultivated in Turkey: Aci, Cavcava, Fosa, Kan, Kargalak, Kus, Mincane, Sivri, Uzunmusa, Yassi Badem, Yuvarlak Badem, Cakildak, Kara, Palaz, and Tombul, but the last four are the major commercial Turkish varieties. Half of Turkish hazelnut production is usually sold abroad, making this country the world’s main exporter and the second consumer of hazelnuts, right behind Italy.

Figure 10.7 Worldwide hazelnut production (tons) and top 10 producers for 2013 (FAOSTAT 2015).

Italy is the second biggest producer with 13.1% of world production. In Italy, the main hazelnut varieties are native: Tonda di Giffoni, Mortarella, San Giovanni, Camponica, Riccia di Talanico, Tonda Bianca, Tonda Rossa, Tonda Gentile delle Langhe, and Santa Maria de Jesus.

Despite being the second largest world producer, Italian hazelnut production is insufficient to satisfy its domestic demand and, in terms of volume, the country presents a trade deficit. This deficit is not verified in terms of value since, as mentioned, Italy is an important processor hazelnuts, especially as input for the chocolate industry, thus adding value to its hazelnut exports.

10.4.1 Evolution of Hazelnut Production and Trade Facts

The worldwide production of hazelnuts is quite unstable, with maximum production values in 2008. Hazelnut production is cyclical, bearing heavily in alternate years, which helps to explain the unstable worldwide production. Table 10.7 details the evolution of production from 2000 to 2012 and the world trade. In 2012, world production of hazelnuts with shell was around 916 000 tons, corresponding to over US$2 600 000 at current prices (see Table 10.7). This production value presents a 150% increase from 2000, essentially because of the prices rising around 89% (implicit price index = 189.08), while volume only increased 35% since 2000, indicating an annual average increase of 4.7%.

Table 10.7 World production and trade of hazelnuts (2000–12 period) (elaboration based on FAOSTAT data; FAOSTAT 2015).

	Production					World traded,e
Year	Volumea (tons)	Gross valueb (US$1000)	Unit pricec (US$)	Implicit price index (2000 = 100)	Volume index (2000 = 100)	Volumea (tons)	Gross value (US$1000)	Unit price (US$)
2000	676 847	1 042 490	1.54	100.00	100.00	175 552	571 157	3.25
2001	878 055	979 590	1.12	72.26	129.73	216 255	624 363	2.89
2002	832 551	904 820	1.09	70.11	123.00	217 476	524 998	2.41
2003	679 466	835 800	1.23	81.06	100.39	202 812	597 791	2.95
2004	615 024	1 046 600	1.70	112.85	90.87	174 513	902 151	5.17
2005	758 629	2 036 320	2.68	176.08	112.08	178 011	1 481 886	8.33
2006	964 015	2 391 920	2.48	162.29	142.43	190 042	1 076 967	5.67
2007	814 500	2 243 850	2.76	182.55	120.34	198 391	1 151 175	5.80
2008	1 069 175	2 937 250	2.75	178.35	157.96	195 618	1 244 145	6.36
2009	775 146	1 860 720	2.40	160.84	114.52	196 138	1 095 580	5.59
2010	854 918	2 229 080	2.61	173.33	126.31	206 885	1 258 987	6.09
2011	742 146	2 147 950	2.89	197.22	109.65	211 401	1 456 621	6.89
2012	915 846	2 603 840	2.84	189.08	135.31	210 784	1 416 406	6.72

^a Production relates to nuts in the shell or in the husk.

^b Current prices, calculated without any deductions for seed.

^c Price received by farmers for 1 kg of product.

^d Shelled hazelnuts, amount related to the average of exports and imports.

^e Export values are mostly reported as FOB and import values mostly as CIF.

Additionally, despite the relatively modest but steady increase in hazelnut cultivated area (see Figure 10.6) during the period of analysis (an average of 1.9% per year), hazelnut volume and producer’s price show substantial annual oscillations. These findings indicate that hazelnut production has experienced somewhat erratic returns, its growth is stuck and its market value, although significantly increasing overall, is relatively unstable. On the other hand, the world trade price trend of shelled hazelnuts may suggest a recovery of the economic attractiveness of hazelnuts in international markets. Indeed, after the decline in the early years and the abnormal 2004–05 upper peaks, the price of shelled hazelnuts in world trade has shown a steady recovery in recent years, and in 2012 reached US$6.72 per kg, a 19% increase from 2006.

According to the last five years of statistics from the INC, approximately half of shelled hazelnut world production is traded in foreign markets. In 2012, it accounted for approximately 210 000 tons, and over US$1 400 000 (see Table 10.7). The volume of shelled hazelnuts increased over 20% in the 2010–12 period, while value improved more than 148% overall, suggesting a recovering of hazelnut pricing in international markets. Table 10.8 reports the world top exporters and importers of shelled hazelnuts.

Table 10.8 Top world exporters and importers of hazelnuts (three year average) (elaboration based on FAOSTAT data; FAOSTAT 2015).

Exportsa				Importsb
Volume (tons)		Value (US$1000)		Volume (tons)		Value (US$1000)
Turkey	152 463	Turkey	995 992	Germany*	60 068	Germany	417 490
Georgia	14 104	Italy	98 995	Italy*	29 942	Italy	209 311
Italy	13 877	Georgia	84 218	France	20 284	France	139 380
Azerbaijan	10 533	Azerbaijan	46 044	Russia	13 044	Canada	78 080
Germany	4490	Germany	34 691	Belgium*	10 853	Belgium	75 887
Others	12 624	Others	82 465	Others	77 096	Others	492 124

^a Export values are mostly FOB.

^b Import values are mostly reported as CIF.

* Processing country.

Turkey is the main exporter of shelled hazelnuts worldwide, with over 152 000 tons per year, approximately 73% of the world export in volume and value, half of which goes to Italy, France, and Germany. Georgia comes in second place with about 14 000 tons per year, corresponding to approximately 6% of exports, whose main destination is Germany. Italy is close, with almost the same volume of exports but with higher export income. Imports are concentrated in Germany, Italy, and France and altogether, they represent more than half of world imports in volume and value, over 110 000 tons per year. Germany, Italy, and Belgium are processing countries.

10.4.2 Consumption of Hazelnuts Worldwide

Annual consumption of shelled hazelnuts, from 2004 to 2012, was volatile but experienced an overall decrease of 4%, expressed as a yearly average rate growth of 1.4% as shown in Table 10.9. This scenario was not worse thanks to Turkish consumption. Turkey, the main producer of hazelnuts, is also responsible for almost 25% of world consumption. Excluding Turkish hazelnut consumers, the world’s consumption decreased overall by around 22%.

Table 10.9 Shelled hazelnuts consumption (tons) in the period 2004–12 (elaboration based on INC) (INC 2009, 2013).

										Variation
	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	Overall	Mean
Turkey	23 269	66 052	48 142	12 050	87 466	45 000	45 661	54 419	84 214	261.9%	91.8%
Italy*	82 186	86 055	129 29	79 397	93 429	79 660	67 342	103 250	71 884	‐12.5%	3.3%
Germany*	73 830	62 871	65 306	74 820	63 515	28 980	27 380	24 830	28 553	‐61.3%	‐8.2%
France	25 115	21 470	24 297	29 827	20 584	14 149	26 907	26 890	27 880	11.0%	6.6%
USA	18 874	12 138	18 680	17 127	17 024	17 450	11 897	14 968	15 067	‐20.2%	0.8%
Russia	10 442	8959	10 967	12 991	13 866	8647	11 013	13 922	13 174	26.2%	5.5%
Canada	–	–	–	–	–	4811	7885	10 198	11 105	130.8%	34.0%
Spain	9529	5008	12 483	10 375	14 743	9640	12 089	11 270	10 922	14.6%	13.5%
Poland	1657	1 834	1518	9757	6040	6235	6946	7 023	10 159	513.1%	69.8%
Switzerland*	12 064	12 308	11 994	11 898	11 347	9767	9311	9 398	8 556	‐29.1%	‐4.1%
WORLD	373 280	377 022	414 074	338 446	423 593	273 501	291 599	345 234	357 993	‐4.1%	1.4%

* Processing country.

World consumption per capita in 2012 was about 52 g of hazelnuts (INC 2013). When consumption data are translated into consumption per capita, the average Georgian consumed about 1.805 kg of hazelnuts in 2012, followed by Italians and Turks, with 1.188 and 1.151 kg of hazelnuts, respectively (INC 2013). The main evolution in terms of consumption between 2004 and 2012 occurred in Poland (513.1%) and Turkey (261.9%). In contrast, consumption reduced considerably in Germany (61.3%).

10.5 Walnut

Walnuts are divided into two types: Persian or English walnut (Juglans regia L.) and black walnut (Juglans nigra L.). The first type originated in Persia while the second is from North America, being more common in the USA.

Walnuts are sold in‐shell after drying or shelled. The nutmeat is consumed whole, in halves, or used in pieces of different grades in several food products. Walnuts are used for the confection of snacks (chocolate bars, nougat, caramelized nut mixes, energy bars, etc.), bakery products (inclusion in bread, cookie decorations, sheet cake decorating, pastry filling, etc.), frozen dairy products for toppings, and savory products (as paste, soup, sauces, toppings, seasoned breads, and seasoning blends).

Walnuts are considered almost as a medicine with diversified health benefits (Hayes et al. 2016). From a nutritional point of view, walnuts are an excellent source of fat, considered a healthy fat, because no other nut provides such amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), some of them essential fatty acids (Amaral et al. 2003). Walnuts also provide plant protein, dietary fiber, plant sterols, and polyphenols, responsible for part of the bioactive potential exhibited by these nuts (Pereira et al. 2008).

Figure 10.8 demonstrates that since 2000, walnut production, harvested area, and yield have increased considerably. Production nearly doubled, while harvested area increased about 65% and yield multiplied from 2.12 tons/ha in 2000 to 3.46 tons/ha in 2013 (FAOSTAT 2015).

Figure 10.8 Evolution of walnut production, harvested area, and yields from 2000 to 2013 (FAOSTAT 2015).

Figure 10.9 shows the main producing countries and their contribution to walnut production.

Figure 10.9 Worldwide walnut production (tons) and top 10 producers for 2013 (FAOSTAT 2015).

Overall, the top 10 producing countries account for 91% of world production. China is by far the biggest walnut producer, followed by Iran and USA with 49%, 13.1%, and 12.2% of world production, respectively. In China, according to the International Society for Horticultural Science, the most common varieties are Liaoning, Zhonglin, Xiangling, and Jinlong (ISHS 2015). In the USA several varieties are cultivated but five of them account for 80% of production: Chandler, Hartley, Howard, Payne, and Serr (UCDavis 2015).

Chinese walnut production is mainly for domestic demand, with approximately 80% of the country’s production consumed domestically. Iranian walnut exports are insignificant and the country’s production is intended to satisfy domestic demand. In contrast, about 40% of USA walnut production is sent to foreign markets .

10.5.1 Evolution of Walnut Production and Trade Facts

Walnut production (with shell) in 2012 reached nearly 3.43 million tons, corresponding to US$14 490 000 (Table 10.10). This volume has increased 168% since 2000, leading to an annual increase of 8.7%, on average, from the beginning of this century. This evolution is even more extraordinary in relation to production values: 620% increase since 2000. This outstanding percentage could be due to the effect of price growth of over 160%, e.g. 9.4% per year on average, in the period 2000–12. These findings demonstrate the increasing market valorization of walnuts, also verified by the change in producers’ unit price, from US$1.57 per kg in 2000 to US$4.23 per kg in 2012, an increase of 169%.

Table 10.10 World production and trade of walnuts (2000–12 period) (elaboration based on FAOSTAT data; FAOSTAT 2015).

						World traded,e
	Production					With shell			Shelled
Year	Volumea (tons)	Gross valueb (US$1000)	Unit pricec (US$)	Implicit price index (2000 = 100)	Volume index (2000 = 100)	Volume (tons)	Value (US$1000)	Unit price (US$)	Volume (tons)	Value (US$1000)	Unit price (US$)
2000	1 280 467	2 013 600	1.57	100.00	100.00	97 297	174 776	1.80	69 224	224 238	3.24
2001	1 323 697	2 102 260	1.59	103.53	103.38	87 071	153 711	1.77	74 461	260 584	3.50
2002	1 411 374	1 573 540	1.12	71.64	110.22	99 140	155 182	1.57	87 114	288 151	3.31
2003	1 535 902	2 010 430	1.31	85.58	119.95	99 613	173 532	1.74	94 020	336 060	3.57
2004	1 563 622	2 474 740	1.58	103.14	122.11	124 191	238 168	1.93	112 652	410 204	3.64
2005	1 783 813	3 248 920	1.82	117.29	139.31	110 126	238 983	2.17	126 528	535 646	4.23
2006	1 766 007	3 479 470	1.97	127.20	137.92	120 389	284 272	2.36	135 168	682 379	5.05
2007	2 045 746	5 250 930	2.57	160.88	159.77	123 999	317 045	2.56	141 514	805 771	5.69
2008	2 424 530	6 925 740	2.86	178.47	189.35	132 247	390 644	2.95	143 525	902 571	6.29
2009	2 648 796	8 237 030	3.11	191.24	206.86	200 788	517 618	2.58	163 132	787 861	4.83
2010	2 943 573	10 257 700	3.49	216.83	229.88	198 646	591 084	2.98	170 854	997 460	5.84
2011	3 307 729	13 914 030	4.21	262.29	258.32	217 612	793 967	3.65	169 315	1 298 315	7.67
2012	3 425 834	14 490 160	4.23	260.62	267.55	224 724	793 419	3.53	178 043	1 452 651	8.16

^a Production relates to nuts in the shell or in the husk.

^b Current prices, calculated without any deductions for seed.

^c Price received by farmers for 1 kg of product.

^d Amount related to the average of exports and imports.

^e Export values are mostly reported as FOB and import values mostly as CIF.

In 2012, world trade flow of walnuts exceeded US$2 246 000, corresponding to 224 000 tons of walnuts with shell (above 6.5% of the world production) and 178 000 tons of shelled walnuts. At the beginning of the decade, international walnut trade was mostly with shell. This changed over the years and in the 2005–08 triennium the world trade volume of shelled walnuts outperformed that of walnuts with shell. In recent years, the proportion of shelled/with shell has once more favored walnuts with shell. According to statistics on the last five years from the INC (INC 2015), only approximately 35% of shelled walnut world production is directed to world trade. There is a significant difference in price between with‐shell and shelled walnuts, which are, on average, more than twice the price reached by walnuts with shell. Furthermore, international trade has experienced increased appreciation of shelled walnuts; prices rose 152% in the period 2000–12, against an increase of only 97% for walnuts with shell. Table 10.11 presents the world top exporters and importers of shelled walnuts.

Table 10.11 Top world exporters and importers of walnuts (three year average) (elaboration based on FAOSTAT data; FAOSTAT 2015).

Shelled								With shell
Exportsa				Importsb				Exportsa				Importsb
Volume (tons)		Value (US$1000)		Volume (tons)		Value (US$1000)		Volume (tons)		Value (US$1000)		Volume (tons)		Value (US$1000)
USA	74 632	USA	576 325	Germany	15 920	Germany	136 533	USA	118 677	USA	424 455	China	50 463	China	157 945
Ukraine	25 618	Mexico	136 672	Russia	12 076	Japan	92 119	France	28 247	France	110 816	Turkey	28 949	Italy	105 418
Mexico	20 403	Chile	121 265	Japan	10 107	South Korea	82 510	China	25 124	Mexico	93 138	Italy	26 055	Turkey	76 710
Moldova	10 934	Ukraine	90 370	South Korea	9286	Spain	80 823	Mexico	22 738	Chile	64 356	Mexico	16 466	Mexico	60 084
Chile	9429	Moldova	75 692	Spain	8723	Canada	61 188	Chile	14 569	China	51 346	Spain	14 676	Spain	53 620
Others	67 076	Others	342 080	Others	155 176	Others	959 098	Others	29 906	Others	73.97	Others	51 451	Others	180 452

^a Export values are mostly FOB.

^b Import values are mostly reported as CIF.

The USA is the main exporter of walnuts worldwide, with around 75 000 and 119 000 tons per year of shelled walnuts and with shell, respectively. It provides about 50% of the shelled walnut world export volume and value, and 36% and 43% of walnuts with shell total exports, in volume and value, respectively. The USA’s main foreign markets include South Korea, Japan, Germany, Canada, and Australia. On the other hand, imports of shelled walnuts are quite diverse and the five leading importers, Germany, Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Spain, only represent 25% of world volume imports. Moreover, import of walnuts with shell is more concentrated and the three main importers (China, Turkey, and Italy) take roughly 55% of imports.

10.5.2 Consumption of Walnuts Worldwide

World consumption of walnuts has intensified, with a rate growth from 2004 to 2012 of 48.3% overall, with an average yearly increase of around 5% (Table 10.12).

Table 10.12 Shelled walnuts consumption (tons) in the period 2004–12 (elaboration based on INC) (INC 2009, 2013).

										Variation
Country	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	Overall	Mean
China	126 660	144 952	160 350	187 026	171 266	196 302	160 885	172 823	181 625	43.4%	5.3%
USA	107 821	101 684	105 708	87 123	123 823	119 745	161 703	128 363	144 493	34.0%	5.8%
Turkey	39 950	34 275	34 111	31 054	29 487	32 527	29 157	29 029	29 857	–25.3%	–3.3%
France	13 851	15 875	17 377	16 287	14 519	15 934	18 824	17 086	16 271	17.5%	2.6%
Japan	11 256	15 158	13 600	9 142	10 399	8 813	13 224	13 006	12 409	10.2%	4.2%
Germany	8970	10 912	10 930	11 727	8476	10 571	13 826	14 264	12 085	34.7%	5.6%
Russia	–	–	–	–	–	10 732	13 200	10 625	9134	–14.9%	–3.5%
Italy	8365	10 404	11 661	7822	9852	8813	9234	8295	9124	9.1%	2.9%
Spain	5265	8168	6399	8573	7497	10 149	8972	8952	7951	51.0%	8.4%
South Korea	4096	4931	7613	6517	6445	10 343	9262	9749	12 416	203.1%	17.7%
WORLD	341 255	378 604	406 087	393 030	421 512	435 983	436 510	509 208	506 013	48.3%	5.2%

World walnut consumption per capita increased from 50 g to 73 gg from 2004 to 2012 (INC 2009, 2013). These results are mainly from Chinese and North American consumption; together they are responsible for more than 60% of world demand and 55% of its increase. Regarding consumption per capita, the USA, Israel, and Turkey are the main consumers with 0.468, 0.438, and 0.408 kg of walnuts per capita in 2012, respectively (INC 2013). South Korea recorded the highest consumption increase between the years 2004–12 (203.1%), while Turkey reduced its consumption by 25.3% (see Table 10.12).

10.6 Conclusion

Nuts are a very important economic source for many countries worldwide. Despite often being marginal in economic productive terms in national agro‐food industries, nut farms are of vital importance for the areas in which cultivation of these products is strongly rooted. Chestnut cultivation in Europe, for example, is very often carried out in mountainous areas where other sorts of farming are difficult and other economic opportunities are scarce. Historically rooted in local farming, although being an additional activity for most of the farmers, chestnut cultivation is an important source of income, ensuring not only that local communities can continue but also that the land receives the care and attention needed to prevent physical and environmental degradation.

Statistics show that the position of nuts in the international markets is increasing and will continue to increase in years to come. More recently, producers are investing to increase yields and nut quality, by applying more efficient agronomic practices and improving technology and efficiency in the orchards. Nuts are also becoming more important in the diets of many countries, which has lead to their consumption rising in recent years, a factor probably related to the many reports of their health benefits.

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