Genetic Justice: DNA Data Banks, Criminal Investigations, and Civil Liberties

Abandoned DNA, garbage analogy, justice axioms, privacy issues, race, routine amounts shed, special technology and expectations of privacy, State of Washington v. Athan and, terminology, universal data bank proposals

African Americans. See Race and ethnicity issues

Airport searches, special-needs privacy exceptions and

Alleles, counting stringency for familial searching

Alphanumeric names, of DNA sites

American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU): abandoned DNA, destruction of samples, dragnets, familial searches, fingerprint/DNA collection analogy, prison population

American Society of Human Genetics

Analysis of DNA, privacy issues and

Ancestral genotyping

Ancestry Informative Markers (AIMs)

Anderson, Marvin Lamont

Appearance, predicting with phenotyping

Arizona: cold hits, exoneration, familial search policies

Athan, John Nicholas

Australia, abandoned DNA, chronology of data banking, database operations, databases in, Model Bill and collection guidelines, public concerns

Autoradiograph (autorad)

Backlogs/unprocessed samples: in Australia, DNA Analysis Backlog Elimination Act of 2000, efficacy issues, in United Kingdom, in United States

Behavioral genetics, abandoned DNA, privacy issues, racial and ethnic disparities

Belgium: destruction of samples, phenotyping policies, size of DNA database, Treaty of Prüm and

Berger v. United States

Blooding, The (Wambaugh)

Brown’s Chicken Massacre

Buccal swabs, as “intimate procedure,” privacy issues

Burlington Northern Sante Fe Railroad Company

California: cold hits, contaminated samples in, database size and efficacy, DNA collection in, dragnets in, exoneration, familial searches, racial issues

California v. Greenwood

Canada: CODIS software, universal data bank proposals

Carabinieri Special Corps. See also Reparto Investigativo Speciale (RIS)

Case of the Midwife Toad, The (Koestler)

Chakraborty, Ranajit

Chamberlain, Michael

Civil liberties: dragnets, familial searches. See also Privacy issues

Coding region (exon), of DNA

CODIS (Combined DNA Index System): anonymous contributors to, delay in updating DNA information to, DNA analysis and, establishment of, familial search stringencies, federal expansion of DNA collection, guidelines for use, increase in number of profiles in, indexes of, law enforcement’s primary role and, privacy provisions, racial composition of, random-match probability and, sex offenders and, size and efficacy of, state expansion of DNA collection. See also Universal data bank

Coercion, DNA dragnets and

Cold hits: contamination myth of infallibility

Collection issues and policies: in Australia, fingerprint analogy, in Japan, from juveniles, from newborns, privacy issues and, in specific states

Colorado: familial search policies, phenotyping in

Combined DNA Index System (CODIS). See CODIS (Combined DNA Index System)

Common knowledge doctrine, abandoned DNA and

Consent. See Informed consent

Consistency, infallibility and myth of

Constitution, U.S. See Fourth Amendment; U.S. Constitution

Contamination: cold hits, myth of infallible matches, NDNAD prevention measures

Convicted Offender Index, of CODIS

Crime prevention, universal data banks and. See also Efficacy issues

Cross-contamination. See Contamination

Data banks, justice axioms and limitations on. See also Universal data bank; specific countries

Daubert v. Merrill Dow Pharmaceuticals

Davis v. Mississippi

Deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

Department of Justice (DOJ), United States, interpretation of DNA Fingerprint Act of 2005

Destruction of samples: ACLU and, in Europe, justice axioms and

Differential extraction

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): genes and, persistence and degradation of, size of, structure and functions of. See also Forensic DNA analysis

DNA Analysis Backlog Elimination Act of 2000

DNA Crime-Solving Efficacy (CES) Index

DNA Fingerprint Act of 2005

DNA Identification Act of 1994

Double helix structure, of DNA

Dragnets, civil liberties concerns with, efficacy in crime solving, evolution of, justice axioms, racial aspects, refusal to provide sample, special-needs exceptions, uniform standards and good practices, universal data bank proposals

Efficacy issues current measurement standards, dragnets, factors for evaluating, justice axioms, size of databases

Eisenberg, Arthur J.

Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC)

England: databases in, privacy and use restrictions, race and databases in, retention of samples in. See also United Kingdom

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Enzymes, in PCR process

Essentially Yours: The Protection of Human Genetic Information in Australia

Ethnicity issues. See Race and ethnicity issues

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms

European Court of Human Rights

European Digital Rights (EDRI)

Evidence, fabricating of. See also Tampering with evidence

Exonerations, Dotson and first exoneration, Hunt and lack of DNA match, justice axioms, match failure and burden of proof of innocence, postconviction testing, racial bias, science’s role in judicial process, scientific versus legal proof, universal data bank

Expectation of privacy: convicted offenders and, justice axioms and, medical treatment and, prisoners and. See also Abandoned DNA; Privacy issues

Expungement provision, of DNA Fingerprint Act of 2005

Eye color, predicting with phenotyping

Facial geometry, predicting with phenotyping

Fairchild, Lydia Kay

Fallibility, justice axioms, myth of cold hit, myth of consistency, myth of individuality, myth of infallible matches, myth of infallible mismatches, myth of objectivity, myth of physical presence, myth of rape evidence

Familial searches, advanced techniques, allelle counting, allelle counting’s limitations, civil liberties concerns, exoneration, federal policies, justice axioms, privacy issues, racial and ethnic issues, state policies, techniques and practices, U.K. policies, universal data bank proposals

Federal Bureau of Information (FBI): “Crime Index” of, forensic DNA lab of. See also CODIS (Combined DNA Index System)

Fingerprints: distinguished from DNA collection, for identification versus determination of guilt or innocence, Japan and legal DNA collection, privacy issue arguments

Florida: DNA database expansion dragnets, familial searches

Forensic DNA analysis, DNA basics, fallibility and, laboratory analysis process, PCRs, polymorphisms, quality control procedures, random-match probability, restriction fragment length polymorphism, typing of DNA

Forensic Index, of CODIS

Forensic Use of Bioinformation: Ethical Issues, The

Fourth Amendment, to U.S. Constitution, abandoned DNA, airport searches, case law trends, dragnets, privacy rights under, universal data bank proposals. See also U.S. Constitution

Garbage, abandoned DNA analogy and

Gaucher’s disease, as hypothetical example of use of medical genetics

Genetic Information and Nondiscrimination Act (GINA)

Genetic predispositions, revealed with phenotyping

Genetic testing, growth of

Germany, databases in, destruction of samples, dragnets in, legal basis guidelines for databases, phenotyping policies, size of DNA database, Treaty of Prüm

Global Genome Project

Greineder, Dirk and Mabel

Griswold v. Connecticut

Hair color, predicting with phenotyping

Health information, medical genetics and law enforcement

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)

High-stringency familial searches

Homeland Security Act

Houston Police Department Crime Laboratory

Human Genetics Commission, United Kingdom

Human Genome Diversity Project

Human Tissue Act of 2004, United Kingdom

Identity: DNA as means of establishing, justice axioms, right to withhold

Illinois: dragnets in, exoneration in

Individuality, myth of infallibility and

Infallibility. See Fallibility

Informational privacy

Informed consent: dragnets justice axioms, prisoners

Innocence, justice axioms and presumption of

Innocence Project, exoneration, match failure and burden of proof of innocence, universal data bank proposals

Intimate/nonintimate forensic procedures, distinguished in Australia

Italy, abandoned DNA, civil liberties concerns, databases in, legal basis for databases, multiple databases in, privacy, Treaty of Prüm and

Japan, Ashikaga case, collection and use policies, databases in, expansion issues, legal basis and call for reform

Japan Federation of Bar Associations (JFBA)

John Doe indictments

Justice, vision of, criminal law concepts, expanded DNA use and, privacy issues of forensic DNA, visionary axioms for

Justice Mapping Center

Justice Policy Institute

Juveniles, DNA collection from

Kappen, Joseph and Paul

Karolinska Institute

Katz v. United States

Kyllo v. United States

Legal proof, scientific proof contrasted to

Legislative Guidelines for DNA Databases (FBI)

Likelihood ratios (LRs), familial searches and

Local DNA Index Systems (LDIS)

Locus: polymorphisms, random-match probability, use of term

Louisiana: database expansion, dragnets in, phenotyping in

Low-copy-number (LCN) DNA analysis

Low-stringency familial searches

MAOA. See Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA)

Maryland: dragnets in, racial aspects of detention and arrest

Massachusetts: dragnets in, familial search policies, privacy and use restrictions

Massachusetts v. Greineder

Matches, myth of infallible

Match rate, as measure of efficacy

Medical genetics, justice axioms, privacy issues, racial and ethnic disparities

Michigan: dragnets in, myth of infallible matches, universal data bank proposals

Minnesota: DNA database expansion, privacy and collection issues

Mismatches, myth of infallibility and

Missouri: database expansion, familial search policies, phenotyping in

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

Moderate stringency familial searches

Molecular Photofitting: Predicting Ancestry and Phenotype Using DNA (Frudakis)

Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), deficiency

Moore, Curtis Jasper

National Academy of Sciences

National DNA Database (NDNAD), in United Kingdom

National DNA Index System (NDIS), in United States

Netherlands: destruction of samples, phenotyping policies, size of DNA database, Treaty of Prüm

Newborn screening, DNA collection proposals and

New York City: forensic DNA lab of, racial aspects of detention and arrest, universal data bank proposals

New York State: abandoned DNA, database size, DNA database expansion, exoneration in, familial search policies, low-copy DNA testing in

Noncoding region (intron), of DNA

North Carolina: exoneration in, familial search policies

Nucleotides, DNA typing and, list of

Nuffield Council on Bioethics

Objectivity, myth of infallibility and

Olmos-Alcalde, Diego

Oregon: abandoned DNA, DNA database expansion, familial search policies

Partial-match familial searches. See Moderate stringency familial searches

PCR. See Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Pennsylvania: evidence fabrication, exoneration, privacy and collection issues, sample switch

Peterson, Rebecca Sasser

Pew Charitable Trusts

Phenotyping, ancestral testing, behavioral genetics, medical genetics, policies on, prediction of physical characteristics with, socioethical concerns

Physical/bodily privacy

Physical presence, myth of infallibility and

Pigmentation, probabilistic profiling and

Point (site) mutation. See Singlenucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), analyzers for sale, exoneration and

Population-specific alleles (PSAs). See also Phenotyping

Postconviction DNA testing

Predictive possibilities of DNA

Primers, in PCR process

Prison population, behavioral and medical research and

Privacy issues, abandoned DNA and, abandoned DNA and special technology considerations, case law evolution, case law trends, convicted versus innocent persons, digital information concerns, DNA collection as search and seizure, DNA Identification Act provision, law-enforcement principle, medical/behavioral/law-enforcement principles contrasted, medical genetics and health information, special-needs exceptions to, specific issues, universal data bank proposals and

Probabilistic profiling, race and

Property crimes, DNA efficacy issues

Protect America Act of 2007

Quality control, in DNA processing

Race and ethnicity issues, abandoned DNA, CODIS’s racial composition, criminal justice system disparities regarding detention and arrest familial searching, phenotyping, prison population and behavioral and medical research, privacy, probabilistic profiling and pigmentation, United Kingdom’s NDNAD, universal data bank proposals

Random-match probability (RMP), cold hits, individuality and

Rape evidence, myth of infallibility and

Rare-allelle familial searches

Recidivism. See Crime prevention, universal data banks and

Relative fluorescence units (RFUs)

Relatives of Missing Persons Index, of CODIS

Reparto Investigativo Speciale (RIS)

Responsible use principles. See Justice, vision of

Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), exoneration and, used in Germany

Retention of DNA, privacy issues and, in United Kingdom, in United States

Retributive (punitive) justice

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Right to privacy, origins of

Saliva. See Abandoned DNA; Buccal swabs

S. and Marper v. The United Kingdom

Schellekens, Maurice

Schmerber v. California

Scientific proof: legal proof contrasted, role in judicial process

Scotland, Baroness Patricia Janet

Search and seizure: DNA collection as, dragnets and, justice axioms

Sex, predicting with phenotyping

Short tandem repeats (STRs), laboratory analysis process, quality control, used in Germany

Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

Skin color, predicting with phenotyping

South Carolina: DNA collection, familial search policies

Spatial/locational privacy

Special-needs exception, to privacy

State DNA Index Systems (SDIS)

State of Washington v. Athan

State of Washington v. Boland

States: CODIS establishment and, expansion of DNA collection, familial search policies, lack of requirements for retaining crime-scene evidence, phenotyping policies, voluntary DNA submissions to. See also specific states

Statutes of limitations, universal data banks and

Structure of Scientific Revolutions, The (Kuhn)

Summerlin, William T.

Surreptitious sampling. See Abandoned DNA

Surveillance technologies, universal databases and

Switzerland, destruction of samples and

Tampering with evidence

Terrorist Surveillance Program

Texas: exoneration in, myth of infallibility and

Thompson, William C.

Truth Machine (Lynch, Cole, McNally, and Jordan)

Unidentified Human Remains Index, of CODIS

United Kingdom, abandoned DNA, current efficacy measurement standards, database size and efficacy, dragnets in, establishment, composition, and expansion of database, factors for evaluating efficacy, familial searches in, good practice guidelines, legal basis for database, low-copy DNA testing in, Marper and, other applications of database, public opposition to databases, racial and ethnic disparities, random-match probability, universal data bank proposals

United States, CODIS establishment, indexes, and guidelines, concerns about centralized digital profiles, crime rates compared to United Kingdom, dragnets in, familial search policies, federal expansion of DNA collection, number and parameters of databases, phenotyping policies, racial skewing of databases, state expansion of DNA collection

United States v. Kincade

United States v. Mitchell

Universal data bank, crime prevention and, efficiency and, exoneration and, fairness issues and, feasibility of, privacy issues, safeguard proposals

Unprocessed DNA. See Backlogs/unprocessed samples

U.S. Constitution: Eighth Amendment, Fifth Amendment, Fourteenth Amendment, protections of privacy, Sixth Amendment. See also Fourth Amendment

Uses of DNA, privacy issues and

Vanishing twin thesis

Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act of 2005

Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act

Violent crimes, DNA efficacy issues

Virginia: DNA collection and, DNA database expansion and, dragnets in, exoneration in, familial search policies, myth of infallibility and, privacy and collection issues

Wales: databases, race and databases, retention of samples. See also United Kingdom

Warrants, justice axioms and. See also Search and seizure

Washington State: abandoned DNA and, contaminated samples in, DNA collection and, DNA database expansion and, mismatches and