Sources

Cheating is a difficult subject to research. With the exception of the large body of research on cheating by students, there is a lack of data about most forms of cheating—but especially data that allow for comparisons across time. For example, given the lack of comprehensive or effective drug testing in professional sports, it is impossible to say for sure how many athletes currently use performance-enhancing drugs—much less reliably compare rates of such use today to past periods. Likewise, while some forms of white-collar crime are carefully tracked, many other incidents of unethical or illegal conduct in business go undiscovered or are dealt with internally by companies and not recorded in any public place. Reliable data on ethical misconduct within specific professions is also difficult to get for various reasons. State bar associations are in charge of disciplining lawyers, but most of them do not keep good records that date back in time and are easily accessible to the public. Much the same can be said of state medical societies and licensing boards, which are in charge of disciplining doctors. In such cases where data can be found that document the incidence of misconduct over time, that data must be evaluated carefully: after all, it can be hard to say whether people are cheating more often or whether their behavior is just being discovered more frequently due to better enforcement efforts, more transparency, or other reasons.

Survey research in which respondents self-report on their ethics is very scarce, again with the exception of education. There are few surveys of lawyers, doctors, professional athletes, or accountants that have asked the same questions about ethics over time. Surveys on the ethics of corporate employees by several organizations, including the Ethics Resource Center, do allow for comparisons over time, but most of these surveys only began a few years ago. Throughout the book, I have mainly used opinion-survey data in an effort to understand the public’s views about personal values, job satisfaction, economic security, social trust, perceptions of fairness, and the like. Here and there, I have found surveys on Americans’ attitudes toward different forms of cheating, such as auto-insurance fraud, music piracy, or tax evasion. Typically, though, these polls are one-shot deal, and don’t allow for serious comparisons over time. For example, over the past thirty years, the General Social Survey has only twice asked a question about cheating on taxes, in 1991 and 1998. In all cases where I used polling data, I approached such data with caution. Many polls have small sample sizes and outcomes can be strongly affected by how questions are posed. In most cases, my conclusions about public-opinion trends are drawn from multiple polls across a number of years.

Given these limitations on available quantitative data, I necessarily have relied heavily on qualitative evidence to support my claims. My lead research assistant for this book, LeeAnna Keith, did an extraordinary job of unearthing a voluminous quantity of secondary and primary source material on the various issues explored in this book, much of it dating back decades. Thus, for example, my exploration of integrity in the accounting profession not only draws on many contemporary sources but also on government studies of accounting undertaken in the wake of the corporate scandals of the 1960s and early 1970s, as well as the numerous articles written on the accounting profession in the early 1990s, when the large accounting firms were under fire for their role in the savings and loan scandals. Similarly, my analysis of ethics in the legal profession draws on a host of books, articles, and studies dating back to the 1970s that describe the major changes to the profession over the past thirty years. Some of the best sources for the book were found in specialized magazines, newsletters, and journals, or on industry-specific Web sites. Readers who want to dig deeper into the subjects covered in the book will find that the notes provide many leads for further exploration. I also suggest visiting my Web site at www.cheatingculture.com, which contains much additional source material on cheating. One comment about the citations: in many cases, full citations—especially accurate page numbers—were not available for sources accessed through electronic databases or over the Internet.

Extensive interviewing proved critical to this book. My research assistant Carolyn Rendell conducted and transcribed most of these interviews, bringing exceptional persistence, skill, and accuracy to this large undertaking. Most of the names of those interviewed are cited directly in the text, although a number of people requested anonymity. Those interviewed or consulted for this project include the following: Frankie Andreu, manager, U.S. Postal Service Cycling Team 2000–2002, USPS racer 1998–2000; Gerard Bisceglia, CEO, USA Cycling; Dr. Carlo Brugnara, professor of pathology, Children’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School; Deborah Briggs, executive director, New York Huntington Learning Center; Jane Brown, vice president of enrollment and college relations, Mt. Holyoke College; James E. Delany, commissioner, Big Ten Conference; William C. Dowling, professor of English, Rutgers University; James Duderstadt, president emeritus and university professor of science and engineering, University of Michigan; William F. Ezzell, chairman (2002), American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, and partner, Deloitte & Touche; Stuart C. Gilman, president, Ethics Resource Center; Robert Hirshon, president (2002), American Bar Association and partner, Drummond, Woodsum & MacMahon; Dr. Sheldon Horowitz, director of professional services, National Center for Learning Disabilities; Arnold Huberman, Arnold Huberman Associates; Cecil Ingram, athletic director, University of Alabama, 1980–90; Marty Jemison, U.S. Postal Service racer, 1995–2000; John Kendzior, manager, employment services, Harvard University; Lisa Lerman, director, law and public policy program, Columbus School of Law, Catholic University of America; Stephen Loeb, professor of ethics, Smith School of Business, University of Maryland; Johnny Majors, head football coach, University of Pittsburgh, 1993–2001; Dr. Jim Martinoff, professor of finance, Graziadio School of Business and Management, Pepperdine University; Dominic Morandi, Schneider Legal Search; Randall Neal, managing director, The Broadmoor Group; Dr. Stephen J. Nicholas, director, Nicholas Institute of Sports Medicine and Athletic Trauma; Tom Parker, dean of admissions and financial aid, Amherst College; Gary Pavela, director, judicial programs, University of Maryland; David Pentlow, Katten, Muchin, Zavis & Rosenmen; Edward S. Petry, executive director, Ethics Officers Association; Dr. Jeff Podraza, PharmD manager, Drug Reference Line, U.S. Anti-doping Agency; Monica Ronan, senior human resources specialist, TV Guide; Chris Rugutsky, guidance counselor, Rudolph Steiner School; Dr. Allen Sack, professor of sociology and director of the Management of Sports Industries Program, University of New Haven; Esther F. Schaeffer, executive director and CEO, Character Education Partnership; Frederick A.O. Schwarz, Jr., senior counsel, Brennan Center for Justice and chair, City Campaign Finance Board; Dr. Scott Sherman, assistant professor of management, Graziadio School of Business and Management, Pepperdine University; Thomas Siciliano, general counsel, Municipal Credit Union of New York; Stephen M. Voltz, managing director, QuantiLex LLP; Joseph T. Wells, founder and chairman, Association of Certified Fraud Examiners; David B. Wilkins, director, Program on the Legal Profession, Harvard Law School; Charles Yesalis, professor of epidemiology, Penn State; Gail Kenney, director of financial crimes, Internal Revenue Service.

Finally, during the process of writing and revising, I received generous help from various people who read all or parts of the book. Thanks to Tom Bonnett, Lew Daly, Tamara Draut, David Cay Johnston, Jessie Klein, James Lardner, David Smith, and Eric Uslaner. Thanks also to Leslie McCall for sharing with me her considerable knowledge about the different dimensions of economic inequality in the United States.