The Resurrection (24:1–12)
Luke provides three accounts of resurrection appearances: the women at the tomb (24:1–12), the appearance to two disciples on the road to Emmaus (24:13–35), and the appearance to the eleven disciples in Jerusalem (24:36–49). He then concludes his Gospel with a short account of Jesus’ ascension (24:50–53).
All four Gospels agree that women first discovered the empty tomb on Sunday morning and that the resurrected Jesus first appeared to women. This is particularly striking since women were not considered reliable witnesses in first-century Judaism. Josephus claims to be reporting the law of Moses when he writes:
Put not trust in a single witness, but let there be three or at the least two, whose evidence shall be accredited by their past lives. From women let no evidence be accepted, because of the levity and temerity of their sex.652
While the reference to two or three witnesses comes from Deuteronomy 17:6; 19:15, the statement about women is nowhere found in the Old Testament and must come from first-century rabbinic traditions. Philo, too, claims that women are “irrational” and should not be trusted.653 Considering this background, it is unlikely that the followers of Jesus would have created stories in which women were the primary witnesses to the empty tomb. Few would have believed them. This is a strong argument for the essential historicity of these accounts.
They found the stone rolled away from the tomb (24:2). This stone would have been a disk-shaped stone placed in a track or groove and rolled in front of the opening.654
TOMB WITH A ROLLING STONE
The first-century A.D. tomb of Queen Helena of Adiabene.
Two men in clothes that gleamed like lightning (24:4). In the Old Testament and Judaism angels are often called “men” because of their human appearance.655 They often appear shining and in white clothing—signs of purity and holiness (Dan. 10:5–6; cf. Luke 9:29).656
GARDEN TOMB
In their fright the women bowed down (24:5). Fear is a common response to the appearance of an angelic presence (see comments on 1:12).657
On the third day be raised again (24:7). The “third day” does not refer to three twenty-four hour days, but inclusively to any part of three days: Friday, Saturday, and Sunday. The “third day” may be an allusion to Hosea 6:2, a reference to Israel’s national restoration. As the Messiah, Jesus both represents and brings restoration to God’s people.
It was Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Mary the mother of James, and the others with them (24:10). For the first two women see comments on 8:2–3. The third name says literally “Mary of James,” which could refer to James’s wife, mother, or even sister. Mark 15:40 suggests “mother” is meant. This is not the mother of James and John, who appears beside this woman in Matthew 27:56. It may be the mother of James the son of Alphaeus (Luke 6:15) or of another unknown James.
But they did not believe the women, because their words seemed to them like nonsense (24:11). The disciples’ unbelief may have been partly due to a first-century view of women (see comments on 24:1–12), but relates primarily to the strangeness of the report. In Jewish understanding the resurrection of the dead occurred not within history, but at the end of time (see comments on 8:55; 14:14; 20:27).
On the Road to Emmaus (24:13–35)
The account of two disciples on the road to Emmaus occurs only in Luke and represents his most theologically significant contribution to the resurrection narratives. Cleopas and his companion represent the discouragement and unbelief of Jesus’ followers. When they meet Jesus on the road, his identity is hidden from them. They express their profound disappointment at the tragic events in Jerusalem. While Jesus of Nazareth was clearly a great prophet, they had hoped that he might be even more—the Messiah who would redeem Israel. Yet his crucifixion dashed all such hopes. Jesus responds by rebuking them for their hardness of heart. Did not the Scriptures predict the suffering of the Messiah? School is in session as Jesus takes them through the Old Testament, showing them that all the Scriptures point to the coming of the Christ. He is the center-point of salvation history.
JERUSALEM AND ITS VICINITY
Emmaus was located just northwest of Jerusalem.
Though now equipped with the truth of Scripture, the disciples’ recognition of Jesus does not occur until they invite him into their home and he breaks bread with them. Jesus meets them—as us—in personal fellowship and communion. When Jesus disappears from their presence, they joyfully rush back to Jerusalem to report their experience. There they find the apostles already announcing the same message: Jesus is risen indeed!
Two of them … Cleopas (24:13, 18). Nothing else is known about Cleopas or the identity of his companion. It may have been his wife. They are probably returning home after a Jerusalem Passover visit and probably assume the stranger walking with them is doing the same.
A village called Emmaus, about seven miles from Jerusalem (24:13). The location of Emmaus is uncertain, although two possible sites have been suggested.658 (1) Josephus mentions an Ammaous thirty stadia (three and a half miles) from Jerusalem. In this case Luke could be describing a roundtrip distance. (2) There is an Arab village seven miles northwest of Jerusalem on the road to Lydda named El-Qubeibeh, where the Crusaders built a fort called Castellum Emmaus. While this village is the right distance from Jerusalem, no first-century evidence attaches the name “Emmaus” to it.
But they were kept from recognizing him (24:16). While this could have something to do with the differences in Jesus’ resurrection body, the passive suggests that God intentionally prevents their recognition until the moment of revelation (see 2 Kings 6:17 for God’s opening blind eyes to spiritual realities).
“Did not the Christ have to suffer these things… ?” And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets … (24:26–27). This is a surprising revelation since first-century Jews did not view the Messiah as a suffering figure (see comments on 9:22; 18:31).659 “Moses and the Prophets” is a shorthand way of describing the Old Testament—the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings (see comments on 16:16, 19; 24:44). The whole Old Testament points forward to Jesus the Messiah. The early church recognized the suffering of the Messiah in passages like Psalms 2; 16; 22; 118; Isaiah 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12.660
But they urged him strongly, “Stay with us …” (24:29). Middle Eastern culture demanded such hospitality (see Gen. 18:3; 19:2; Judg. 19:5–9; also comments on Luke 11:1–13).
He took bread, gave thanks, broke it (24:30). Although in the home of these disciples, Jesus takes over the role of the host. As with so many meals in Luke, this one points forward to the messianic banquet over which the Messiah will preside (see comments on 13:29; 14:15). The breaking of bread recalls the feeding of the five thousand (9:16) and the Last Supper (22:19), both of which contain messianic-banquet imagery.
He disappeared from their sight (24:31). Jewish and Greco-Roman literature speaks of similar disappearances by angelic and divine figures.661 Jesus’ disappearance confirms he has received a unique and glorified resurrection body.
Were not our hearts burning within us (24:32). This idiom could mean that their hearts were grieved at Jesus’ convicting words on the road (see Ps. 72:21 LXX), but more likely means they felt a strong urge to respond to Jesus’ powerful words (see Ps. 38:4 LXX; Jer. 20:9).
The Lord has risen and has appeared to Simon (24:34). The Greek grammar makes it clear that this is a report coming from the Eleven, not the Emmaus disciples. A resurrection appearance to Peter is independently confirmed by Paul in 1 Corinthians 15:5.
Jesus Appears to the Disciples (24:36–49)
While the Emmaus disciples are giving their report to the Eleven, Jesus suddenly appears before them all. There is a strong emphasis in the scene on the real and bodily resurrection of Jesus, as he lets the disciples touch him and eats before them. Jesus reveals to them how his death and resurrection were in fulfillment of Scripture—a key theme throughout Luke-Acts. The salvation he has achieved means that repentance and forgiveness of sins can now be preached in his name to all nations. They will be his witnesses, going forth in the power of the Spirit from Jerusalem to the ends of the earth.
They were startled and frightened, thinking they saw a ghost (24:37). Although Jewish eschatology focused on the resurrection of the body at the end of time, there was also popular belief in disembodied spirits or ghosts. As today, spiritualists and mediums consulted with the dead.662
Look at my hands and my feet (24:39). This provides indirect evidence that Jesus was nailed rather than tied to the cross.
Touch me and see; a ghost does not have flesh and bones (24:39). Jesus’ resurrection is neither the simple resuscitation of his body nor the appearance of a disembodied spirit, but rather a true resurrection into a new and glorified body (1 Cor. 15:20–23, 35–49). It is the beginning—the firstfruits and guarantee—of the end-time resurrection of all believers.663
Everything must be fulfilled that is written about me (24:44). See comments on 24:26.
Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms (24:44). This is a reference to the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures: the Law (Torah), the Prophets (Neviʾim), and the Writings (Ketuʾbim). The Psalms stood at the head of the Writings and here represents them (see comments on 16:16, 29; 24:27).
This is what is written: The Christ will suffer and rise … repentance and forgiveness of sins will be preached in his name to all nations (24:46–47). For Old Testament texts related to the suffering of the Christ see comments on 24:26. The resurrection is defended by the apostles in Acts from Psalms 2:7; 16:9–10; 110:1–2; and the universal proclamation of the Gospel from Isaiah 42:6; 49:6; Joel 2:28–32; Amos 9:11–12.664
I am going to send you what my Father has promised (24:49). In the Old Testament God promised the outpouring of his Spirit on his people in the end times.665
The Ascension (24:50–53)
The Gospel ends with a brief account of Jesus’ ascension, described in more detail in Acts 1:1–11. Luke here abbreviates events, giving the appearance that Jesus ascended on the day of his resurrection rather than forty days later, as Acts will clarify (see comments on Acts 1:3). This ascension gives closure to Luke’s Gospel and sets the stage for Jesus’ guidance over his church from his authoritative position at the right hand of God (cf. Acts 2:33–36).
The vicinity of Bethany (24:50). Bethany was located two miles east of Jerusalem on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives. Acts 1:12 identifies the ascension with the Mount of Olives, the place where the Messiah will return in glory (Zech. 14:4).
He lifted up his hands and blessed them (24:50). Jesus’ blessing provides closure of this Gospel and sends the disciples on their way to accomplish God’s purposes. Sirach 50:20 describes a similar blessing by the high priest Simon II (219–196 B.C.) during worship at the Jerusalem temple: “Then Simon came down and raised his hands over the whole congregation of Israelites, to pronounce the blessing of the Lord with his lips, and to glory in his name.” Jesus is portrayed as the authoritative mediator between God and his people.
He left them and was taken up into heaven (24:51). In the Old Testament Elijah ascended to heaven in a whirlwind with a fiery chariot (2 Kings 2:11; cf. 1 Macc. 2:58), and Enoch “was no more, because God took him away” (Gen. 5:24). In later Jewish traditions various Old Testament heroes ascend to heaven.666 These are sometimes journeys to heaven to receive revelations and then return to earth (Enoch, Abraham, Isaiah, Baruch, Ezra). Other times they are permanent departures—a royal transport—at the end of life (Enoch, Moses, Elijah). Jesus’ ascension is much more significant, establishing his exalted position of glory and power over all of creation.667
They stayed continually at the temple (24:53). The temple was a place of worship and prayer as well as a place of sacrifice.
Annotated Bibliography
Bailey, Kenneth E. Poet and Peasant and Through Peasant Eyes: A Literary-Cultural Approach to the Parables of Luke. Combined edition. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983.
This is a fascinating and informative work on the Lukan parables by a biblical scholar who has spent years studying contemporary Middle Eastern peasant culture. Many unique cultural insights into the parables may be found here.
Bock, Darrell L. Luke. 2 vols. BECNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; Volume 1: 1:1–9:50, 1994; Volume 2: 9:51–24:53, 1996.
This massive two-volume commentary provides extensive discussion in all key aspects of Luke’s Gospel, including background, historicity, and theology. Though written in a popular and accessible style, it is well documented, with extensive references to other commentaries and background material.
Boring, Eugene M., Klaus Berger, and Carsten Colpe, eds. Hellenistic Commentary to the New Testament. Nashville: Abingdon, 1995.
This volume gathers a wide range of Hellenistic texts related to the New Testament. An excellent resource for those without easy access to the more obscure primary sources.
Danker, Frederick W. Jesus and the New Age: A Commentary on St. Luke’s Gospel. 2d ed. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988.
This commentary provides a wealth of classical and Hellenistic background. While most commentaries focus on Jewish background, Danker keeps a constant eye on the wider literature of the Greco-Roman world.
Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Gospel According to Luke: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 2 vols. AB 28, 28A. New York: Doubleday; Luke I-IX, 1981; Luke X-XXIV, 1985.
Fitzmyer’s expertise in New Testament background, and especially in Aramaic and the Dead Sea Scrolls, makes this two-volume commentary a wealth of information for background material on Luke’s Gospel.
Jeremias, Joachim. Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus. Translated by F. H. Cave and C. H. Cave. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1969.
This classic work by one of the foremost New Testament scholars of the twentieth century is a wealth of background material on first-century Palestinian culture and society. Caution must be exercised, however, against uncritical acceptance of later rabbinic material as necessarily applicable to Jesus’ day.
Malina, Bruce J. and Richard L. Rohrbaugh. Social-Science Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992.
This volume is a unique and helpful resource for the distinct sociological background to the New Testament, particularly with references to issues like social status, honor and shame, rich and poor, etc. Such issues, while often overlooked in the past, have profound significance for the interpretation of certain texts.
Manson, T. W. The Sayings of Jesus. London: SCM, 1949.
Manson’s constant eye on the rabbinic literature makes this a helpful background resource for the sayings of Jesus common to Matthew and Luke.
Marshall, I. Howard. The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text. NIGTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978.
Marshall’s careful and erudite scholarship makes this a classic commentary not only for Lukan purpose and theology, but also for background and historical material.
Nolland, John L. Luke. 3 vols. WBC 35. Dallas: Word; 1989 (a); 1993 (b, c).
This three-volume work provides extensive bibliographical material on individual passages. An excellent research tool.
Chapter Notes
Main Text Notes
2. Col. 4:7–17; 2 Tim. 4:10–11; Philem. 23–24.
3. Josephus, J.W. 1.1 §§1–2.
4. For examples see J. A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB 28, 28A; New York: Doubleday, 1981, 1985), 1:292.
5. Cf. 1 Chron. 26:13–16; Neh. 11:1; Jonah 1:7.
6. m. Tamid 5:2–6:3.
7. Josephus, Ant. 13.10.3 §§282–3.
8. Cf. Sir. 48:10; 2 Esd. (4 Ezra) 6:26; Justin, Dialogue with Trypho 8, 49; Str-B 4:784–89, 792–98; J. Jeremias, “ ‘Ηλίας,” TDNT, 2:928–34.
9. Dan. 8:16; 9:21; the other is Michael: 10:13; 12:1; cf. 1 En. 20:1–7.
10. m. Yoma 5.1.
11. See Jeremias, Jerusalem, 105–8, 206.
12. For more details see Jeremias, Jerusalem, 364–67.
13. See Isa. 9:6–7; 11:1–5; Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:24–25.
15. See also 4QFlor 1.11 (=4Q174); 1QSa 2.11.12 (=1Q28a); Ps. 2:7; 89:26; Isa. 7:14.
17. Cf. John 10:30 (and throughout John); Rom. 1:3; Gal. 4:4; Heb. 1:1–4.
18. Both cited by I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978), 80.
19. Ex. 6:6; Deut. 4:34; Ps. 44:3.
20. 1 Sam. 2:5, 7; cf. Ps. 147:6; Jer. 5:27–29.
22. See Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 88; John L. Nolland, Luke (WBC 35; Dallas: Word Books, 1989, 1993), 1:79.
23. Ezra 7:6, 28; Isa. 41:20; Ex. 9:3; Judg. 2:15; etc.
24. See Luke 1:46–55; 2:14; 2:29–32.
25. Cf. Ps. 2; 72; 89; 110; 132.
26. 1 Kings 1:48; 1 Chron. 16:36; Ps. 41:13; 68:19; 72:18; 106:48; etc.
27. Jer. 31:34; 33:8; 50:20.
28. See Isa. 11:1–5; Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Zech. 3:8; 6:12; 4QFlor 1.10–13; 4QPBless 1–5 (4Q252); 4QpIsaa; Shemoneh Esreh 14.
29. Isa. 9:2; 42:6–7; 49:6.
30. See, for example, 4QTestim 12; CD 7.18; 1QM 9.6; T. Levi 18.3; T. Jud. 24.1–6.
31. See Isa. 58:8–10; 60:1–3; Mal. 4:2.
33. See Jos. Ant. 18.1.1 §§3ff.; 18.2.1 §26.
34. See W. M. Ramsay, The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament (4th ed.; London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1920), 275–300. Unfortunately the inscription is damaged (the name Quirinius does not appear on it), and so this proposal is highly speculative.
35. Nolland, Luke, 1.101.
36. 1 Sam. 17:12, 58; 20:6.
37. Ex. 13:2; Deut. 21:15–17.
38. Cf. the description of Solomon in the Wisd. Sol. 7:4.
39. See Ex. 4:24 LXX; 1 Kingdoms 1:18 LXX; Jer. 14:8 LXX.
40. The tradition that Jesus was born in a cave appears in the Protevangelium of James 18–19, Justin, Dialogue with Trypho 78:4; Origin, Against Celsus 1:15.
41. For the rabbinic evidence see Str-B 2:113–14.
42. John 10:11; Heb. 13:20; 1 Peter 2:25.
43. Ex. 16:7, 10; 33:18, 22; 40:34, etc.
45. For the full text and references see Frederick W. Danker, Jesus and the New Age: A Commentary on St. Luke’s Gospel (2d ed.; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), 54.
46. Ps. 18:46; 24:5; Isa. 17:10, etc.
48. 2 Sam. 22:51; Ps. 2:2; 89:20, 38.
49. Cf. 4QFlor (4Q174) 1:13. Cf. Pss. Sol. 17:21–43; 18:5–9; 1QSb (1Q28b) 5:21–29; 4 Ezra 11:1–12:39; etc.
50. For details see Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 112; Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:411, 412; Nolland, Luke, 1:109.
51. Ex. 13:1–15; 34:19–20; Num. 3:11–13, 40–51; 18:15–16.
52. Isa. 40:1–2; cf. 49:13; 57:18; 61:2.
53. Ps. 118:22; Isa. 8:14; 28:16.
54. Borne of Zilpah, Leah’s maidservant; Gen. 30:12–13; cf. Num. 1:40, 41; Rev. 7:6.
55. 1 Cor. 7:8, 34; 1 Tim. 5:3–16; Titus 1:10.
56. Josephus, Ant. 18.6.6 §180.
57. Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:432.
58. Ibid., 1:440; m. Nid. 5:6; m. ʾAbot 5:21; Gen. Rab. 63:10.
59. Josephus, Ant. 5.10.4 §348; cf. 1 Sam. 3.
60. Moses (Josephus, Ant. 2.9.6 §§230–31; Philo, Moses 1:21); Cyrus the Great (Herodotus 1:114–15); Alexander the Great (Plutarch, Alex. 5); Apollonius (Philostratus, Vita Apoll. 1:7).
61. Josephus, Life 2 §9.
62. A similar neuter plural expression appears in the LXX at Gen. 41:51; Est. 7:9; Job 18:19; and in Josephus (Ant. 8.5.3 §145; 16.10.1 §302).
63. Deut. 21:18–21; Prov. 30:17; 2 Tim. 3:2.
64. Ex. 20:12; Deut. 5:16; Mark 7:10 pars.; 10:19 pars.; Eph. 6:2.
65. Luke 3:7–14; see also Matt. 3:1–12; Mark 1:2–8.
66. For details see Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 13. The other rulers mentioned here do not help to narrow the date further since their dates overlap with all of these.
67. Josephus, Ant. 17.11.4 §§317–20; J.W. 2.6.3 §§93–100.
68. Luke 23:1–24, 52; cf. Acts 3:13; 4:27; 13:28.
69. Luke 3:19–20; cf. Mark 6:17–29.
70. Josephus, Ant. 14.13.3 §330; 15.4.1 §92.
71. Josephus, Ant. 19.5.1 §275; 20.7.1 §138; J.W. 2.11.5 §215; 2.12.8 §247. The inscriptional evidence may be found in A. Böckh, Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum (Berlin: Reimer, 1828–1877). See Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:457–58.
72. Josephus, Ant. 18.2.2 §§33–35.
73. Cf. John 18:13–14, 24; Acts 4:6.
74. BAGD, 131.
75. Ex. 30:19–20; Lev. 14:7–8, 51; 15:5–27; Num. 19:18.
76. 1QS 3:5–9; 1QS 5:13–14.
77. b. Yebam. 47ab.
78. 2 Chron. 7:14; Isa. 6:10; Jer. 36:3; Ezek. 18:21, 30, 32; 33:9, 14.
79. Jer. 33:8; Ezek. 34:25–26.
80. 1QS 5:13–14.
81. Josephus, Ant. 18.5.2 §117.
82. See K. R. Snodgrass, “Streams of Tradition Emerging from Isaiah 40:1–5 and Their Adaptation in the New Testament,” JSNT 8 (1980): 24–45.
83. 1QS 8:12–15; 9:19–20.
84. Sir. 48:24–25.
85. See Isa. 11:15–16; 42:14–16; 43:1–3, 14–21; 48:20–21; 49:8–12; 52:11–12; 55:12–13; Pss. Sol. 11:2–5; 17:21–46; 4 Ezra 13; Tg. Lam. 2:22.
86. The eventual destruction of evil will mean the harmlessness of snakes: “The young child [will] put his hand into the viper’s nest” (Isa. 11:8).
87. 1QH 3:12–18.
88. See also John 8:33–39; Acts 7:2; Rom. 4:1.
89. Pss. Sol. 18:4.
90. Cf. Str-B 1.116–21; Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:468; T. Levi 15:4; cf. m. ʾAbot 5:19.
91. Cf. O. Michel, “τελώνης,” TDNT 8:88–105; J. R. Donahue, “Tax Collectors and Sinners: An Attempt at Identification,” CBQ 33 (1971): 39–61.
92. For evidence of abuses see Josephus, Ant. 18.6.5 (§§172–78); J.W. 2.14.1 (§§272–76); Philo, Embassy 199.
93. Josephus, Ant. 17.8.3 §§198–99; 18.5.1 §113.
94. Cf. Str-B 1:121; 4:2, 712, 717–18; Darrell L. Bock, Luke (BECNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 1:320–21.
95. Isa. 32:15; Ezek. 36:26–27; Joel 2:28–32.
96. See Gen. 19:24; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:22; Amos 7:4; Zeph. 1:18; 3:8; Mal. 4:1; 4 Ezra 13:10–11, 27; 1 En. 67:13; 90:24–27; 1QS 2:8; 4:13.
98. Cf. 1QH 8:20; 1QS 3:7–9; 4:21; T. Isaac 5:21–32; T. Ab. 12–13.
99. See 1 Kings 13:4; 18:13; 19:2; 22:26–27; 2 Kings 1:9; 6:31; 2 Chron. 24:21.
100. Jer. 18:18, 23; 26:11, 20–23; 36–38.
102. Ezek. 1:1; John 1:51; Acts 7:56; 10:11; Rev. 19:11.
103. b. Ḥag. 15a.
104. Gen. 22:17–18; Luke 1:54–55, 72–73; 2 Sam. 7:12–16; Luke 1:32–33.
105. Philo, Virtues 204–5.
106. Philo, Virtues 205.
107. Deut. 8:3; 6:13, 16.
109. 1 Chron. 21:1; Job 1–2; Zech. 3:1–2.
110. John 8:44; 2 Cor. 12:7; 1 Peter 5:8; Rev. 12:9; 20:2.
111. Dio Cassius, Roman History 62.5.3; cited by Danker, Jesus and the New Age, 102.
112. Josephus, Ant. 15.11.5 §415.
113. Pesiq. Rab. §36; cited by Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:517.
114. Cf. Matt. 4:12–17; Mark 1:14–15; 6:1–6.
115. See J. A. Sanders, “From Isaiah to Luke 4,” in Luke and Scripture: The Function of Sacred Tradition in Luke-Acts (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993), 46–69.
116. See J. L. Nolland, “Classical and Rabbinic Parallels to ‘Physician, Heal Yourself’ (Lk iv 23),” NovT 21 (1979):193–209.
117. See J. Blinzer, “The Jewish Punishment of Stoning in the New Testament Period,” in The Trial of Jesus (FS C. F. D. Moule, ed. E. Bammel; London: SCM, 1970), 147–61.
118. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 193.
119. Though this work postdates the New Testament, its traditions probably come from much earlier; cf. Josephus, Ant. 8.2.5, where Solomon’s gifts of exorcism are described: T. Sol. 1:7.
120. H. C. Kee, “The Terminology of Mark’s Exorcism Stories,” NTS 14 (1967–1968): 232–46.
121. See, for example, the many rituals described in the T. Sol.
122. See H. J. Cadbury, “Lexical Notes on Luke-Acts: II. Recent Arguments for Medical Language,” JBL 45 (1926): 190–209.
124. See Jer. 33:17, 22; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 7:27; Pss. Sol. 17:4; 1 En. 62:14; Str-B 2:552.
125. See 4 Ezra 7:28–29 (400 yrs.); 12:34; b. Sanh. 97a, 99a; cf. Rev. 20:4–6. See Schürer, 2:536–37.
126. Josephus, Ant. 18.2.1 §28.
127. See E. F. Bishop, “Jesus and the Lake,” CBQ 13 (1951): 398–414, esp. 401.
128. Lev. 13:45–46; cf. Luke 17:12, 14.
129. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 213.
130. m. Sanh. 7:5.
131. For references see H. W. Beyer, “βλασφημέω,” TDNT, 1:621–25.
132. Cf. Matt. 9:9–13; Mark 2:13–17.
133. Danker, Jesus and the New Age, 126.
134. See Luke 18:12; Didache 8:1; b. Taʿan. 12a.
135. Est. 4:16; 2 Sam. 12:23; Joel 1:14; Jonah 3:5.
136. Isa. 58:4–5; Jer. 14:12.
137. For more on first-century marriage customs see J. Jeremias, The Parables of Jesus (rev. ed.; trans. S. H. Hooke; New York: Scribner’s, 1963), 171–75.
138. Cf. Ex. 20:8–11; Deut. 5:14.
139. Cf. y. Šabb. 7.9b; Str-B 1.617; m. Šabb. 7:2.
140. Ex. 25:30; 35:13; 40:23; Lev. 24:8–9.
141. Josephus, Ant. 6.12.1 §§242–243.
142. Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:609; Str-B 1.618–19.
143. m. Yoma 8:6.
144. m. Šabb. 18:3; 19:2.
145. BAGD, 622.
146. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 236.
147. Cf. Mark 3:13–19.
148. George A. Turner, Historical Geography of the Holy Land (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1973), 104–6.
149. Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:620.
150. For a good discussion of the similarities and differences, and a general introduction to the sermon, see Bock, Luke, 1:931–49.
151. Cf. Ps. 149:4; Isa. 66:5.
152. See Ps. 22:26; 107:9, 36–41; 132:15; Isa. 49:10–13; 65:13; Jer. 31:12, 25; Ezek. 34:29; 36:29.
153. See Ps. 126; Isa. 40:1; 51:3; 57:18; 61:2; 66:13.
154. 1 Kings 22:12–13; Isa. 30:9–11; Jer. 5:31; 6:14; 23:16–17.
155. Cf. Deut. 24:10–17; Amos 2:8.
156. For other texts see Danker, Jesus and the New Age, 146–47; Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:639–40; Seneca, De Beneficiis 2.1.1.
157. b. Šabb. 31a.
158. See the sources cited by Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 262.
159. F. W. Danker, Benefactor: Epigraphic Study of a Graeco-Roman and New Testament Semantic Field (St. Louis: Clayton, 1982), 78; idem, Jesus and the New Age, 147.
160. Ex. 22:25; Lev. 25:35–37; Deut. 23:20; Ps. 112:5; Sir. 29:1–2.
161. Cf. Ruth 3:15; Isa. 65:6.
162. m. Soṭah 1:7.
163. Nolland, Luke, 1:301.
164. See examples in W. Schrage, “τυφλός,” TDNT, 8:275–76, 286. The image of the blind leading the blind appears in Sextus Empiricus, Pyrrhonic Elements 3.259.
165. Cf. Plutarch, De curios 515d; Horace, Satires 1.3.25. The Jewish example often cited (b. ʿArak. 16b) is probably anti-Christian polemic dependent on Jesus’ saying. It is attributed to Rabbi Tarphon (c. A.D. 100), a strong opponent of Palestinian Christians; it criticizes those (Christians?) who will not accept correction: “If one says to a man, ‘Remove the spelk [sic] from your eye,’ he will reply, ‘Remove the beam from yours.’ ” See T. W. Manson, The Sayings of Jesus (London: SCM, 1949), 58.
166. U. Wilckens, “ὑποκρίνομαι, κ.τ.λ.,” TDNT, 8:559–71.
167. A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1963), 123–24.
169. W. Schrage, “συναγωγή,” TDNT, 7:813.
170. W. Dittenberger, Orientis graeci inscriptiones selectae (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1903–5), §96; cited by Fitzmyer, Luke 1:652; Creed, St. Luke, 101.
171. For these terms and a description of Roman patronage see Bruce J. Malina and Richard L. Rohrbaugh, SSCSG, 326–29.
172. m. ʾOhal. 18:7.
173. b. Ber. 34b.
174. Philostratos, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 4.45; for other parallels see Hellenistic Commentary to the New Testament, 203–5; Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 283. A somewhat similar account of resuscitation at a funeral can be found in Apuleius of Madaura, Florida 9:2–6.
175. Burial customs are referred to in various rabbinic tracts, especially in the tractate Ṣemaḥot. See D. Zlotnick, The Tractate “Mourning” (Ṣemaḥot): Regulations Relating to Death, Burial, and Mourning (YJS 17. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1966). Cf. m. Ber. 3.1–2; m. Šabb. 23.4–5; m. Sanh. 6:5; t. Neg. 6:2.
176. Ex. 22:22; Deut. 10:18; 27:19.
177. Jer. 6:26; Amos 8:10; Zech. 12:10.
178. Cf. Str-B 1:1047–48; m. Ber. 3:1–2; b. Ketub. 17a.
179. 4QPBless (4Q252) 1–5; cf. 1QS 9:11.
180. Isa. 26:19; 29:18–19; 35:5–6; 61:1–2.
182. Job 14:1; 15:14; 25:4.
183. HCNT, 207; Herodotus, Histories 1.141; cf. Aesop, Fables, 27b.
184. See Prov. 1:20–33; 8:1–9:6; Sir. 1; 24; 1 En. 42; Wisd. Sol., passim; Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 303; G. Fohrer and U. Wilckens, “σοφία,” TDNT, 7:465–526.
185. See Malina and Rohrbaugh, SSCSG, 331.
186. J. Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Jesus (trans. Norman Perrin; London: SCM, 1966), 20–21; Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:688.
187. BAGD, 34.
188. BAGD, 534; Bock, Luke, 1:696.
189. Jeremias, Parables, 126. Jeremias cites t. Soṭah 5.9; y. Giṭ. 9.50d.
190. See Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 309.
191. Malina and Rohrbaugh, SSCSG, 332–33.
192. Josephus, J.W. 2.17.6 §§426–27 (LCL, 491).
193. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 311.
194. See L. Goppelt, “ὕδωρ,” TDNT, 8:324 n.63; Str-B 4.615.
195. See 2 Sam. 15:5; Job 31:27; Luke 22:47; Rom. 16:16; 1 Peter 5:14; Cant 8:1.
196. Mark 15:40, 47; Luke 24:10; John 19:25; 20:1, 18.
197. BAGD, 303.
198. See especially Jeremias, Parables, 11–12, 149–51; Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:703.
199. Cf. m. Šabb. 7.2, where sowing is listed before plowing in a list of agricultural work that appears to be in chronological order; Jub. 11:11.
200. Nolland, Luke, 1:371, citing G. Dalman for typical crop yields.
201. Dan. 2:18, 19, 27–30, 47.
202. Cf. 1QpHab 7:4–5, 8; 1QS 3:23; 1 QM 3:9; 1QH 4:23–24.
203. 1QpHab 7:4–5.
205. 2 Esd. 8:41; cf. 9:31.
206. Cf. Jub. 11:11 (see comments on 11:5); 1 En. 90:2–4, 8–13; Apoc. Ab. 13:3–7.
207. Apoc. Ab. 13:3–7.
208. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 327; citing W. Grundmann, “ἀγαθός,” TDNT, 1:11–12; 3:538–44. See Tobit 5:14; 2 Macc. 15:12 for its use in Hellenistic Judaism.
209. J. Rousseau and R. Arav, Jesus and His World (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995), 246; Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:729.
210. See 2 Sam. 22:16; Ps. 18:15; 104:7; 106:9; Isa. 50:2; Nah. 1:4.
211. Nolland, Luke, 1:398. Nolland notes that such attribution was given to, among others, Caesar, Caligula, Xerxes, Apollonius of Tyana, and Empedocles. The closest parallel is that of Apollonius, where people press to travel in the same boat because he is reportedly more powerful than storm, fire, or other dangers (Philostratus, Life of Apollonius 4:13).
212. Cf. y. Ber. 9.1; cf. the account of R. Gamaliel in b. B. Meṣiʿa 59b. These and other parallels are conveniently surveyed in HCNT, 66–68.
213. Ps. 65:7; 89:9; 104:6–7; 107:23–32.
214. Philostratus, Life of Apollonius 4:20 (LCL); cf. HCNT, 71–72.
215. Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:736, wryly notes that if this were the location, it would have been the most energetic herd of pigs in history.
216. Jub. 22:16–17.
217. y. Ter. 1.1 [40b]; cited in HCNT, 72. Cf. Str-B 1:491.
218. Nolland, Luke, 1:409.
219. 2 Peter 2:4; Rev. 9:1–2, 11; 11:7; 17:8; 20:1, 3.
220. Lev. 11:7; Deut. 14:8.
221. See HCNT, 72–73, where examples are provided of the banishment of disease (epilepsy?) into wild goats and of a demon into the head of a bull.
223. See Gen. 22:16; 1 Kings 17:17–24; Jer. 6:26; Amos 8:10; Zech. 12:10.
224. Lev. 15:19–31; Ezek. 36:17.
225. Num. 15:38–39; Deut. 22:12.
226. See John 11:11; Acts 7:60; 13:36; 1 Cor. 11:30; 15:6, 18, 20, 51; 1 Thess. 4:14–15; 5:10.
227. Cf. Luke 23:46; Acts 7:59.
228. Cf. 1 En. 22; 39:4–8.
229. Luke 24:46–48; Acts 1:1–2, 8; 2:33.
230. Manson, Sayings, 181, 182; m. Ber. 9.5.
231. See Nolland, Luke, 1:427.
232. Cf. Str-B 1:571.
233. Luke 12:35–40; 13:24–30; 14:15–24; cf. 22:30; see comments on 13:29; 14:15.
234. Keener, BBC, 213.
235. BAGD, 436.
236. m. Ber. 6:1.
237. Job 22:26–27 LXX; Ps. 121:1; 123:1.
238. Priests: Lev. 4:3, 5, 16; 8:12. Prophets: 1 Kings 19:16; CD 2:12; 6:1; 1QM 11:7. Kings: 1 Sam. 10:1; 16:13; 1 Kings 19:16.
239. See Sydney H. T. Page, “The Suffering Servant Between the Testaments,” NTS 31 (1985): 481–97.
240. See Luke 20:1; 22:52; Acts 23:14; 25:15. See Nolland, Luke 2:466; G. Schenk, “ἀρχιερεύς,” TDNT, 3:268–72; J. Jeremias, Jerusalem, 160–81; Schürer 2:213, 233–36.
241. See Jeremias, Jerusalem, 222–32.
242. On crucifixion see especially M. Hengel, Crucifixion in the Ancient World and the Folly of the Message of the Cross (tr. J. Bowden; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977); Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:787.
243. 1 En. 37–71.
244. There is a growing consensus that the Similitudes of Enoch (1 En. 37–71) are Jewish Palestinian and that they are pre-A.D. 70. See J. H. Charlesworth, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha and the New Testament (SNTSMS 54; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985), 89.
245. See the descriptions of angels and heavenly beings at Dan. 10:5–6; Matt. 28:3; Mark 16:5; Luke 24:4; John 20:12; Acts 1:10; Rev. 4:4; 19:14; 1 En. 71:1, and of glorified saints at Dan. 12:3; Rev. 3:4–5, 18; 6:11; 7:9, 13; 1 En. 62:15–16; 38:4; 104:2; 4 Ezra 7:97.
246. See Wisd. Sol. 3:2; 7:6; Josephus, Ant. 4.189; cf. 2 Peter 1:15; BAGD, 276.
247. See Ex. 19:1; Num. 33:38; 1 Kings 6:1; 10:29 (cf. Judg. 5:4; Ps. 104:38; 113:1).
248. Isa. 11:11–16; 40–55; Jer. 23:7–8.
249. See Lev. 23:42; Neh. 8:14–17.
250. See Ex. 16:10; 19:9; 33:9; 40:34–35; Lev. 16:2; Num. 11:25; 1 Kings 8:10–11; 2 Chron. 5:13–14; Ps. 18:11–12; 97:2; Isa. 4:5; Ezek. 1:4, 28; 10:3–4; Zech. 2:17 (LXX); 2 Macc. 2:8. See Oepke, “νεφέλη,” TDNT, 4:905.
251. Ex. 19:16; 20:18; 34:30; Deut. 5:5, 23–27.
252. See Wanke, “φοβέω,” TDNT, 9:200–203; Balz, “φοβέω,” TDNT, 9:209–12; see Luke 1:12; 2:9; 5:26; 7:16; 8:25, 35–37; Acts 5:5, 11.
254. Many Old Testament persons are described as being “chosen” by God, including Abraham (Neh. 9:7; cf. 4 Ezra 3:13; Apoc. Ab. 14), Moses (Ps. 105:26; Sir. 45:4), Levi and Aaron (Num. 17:5; Ps. 105:26; Sir. 45:16), Saul (1 Sam. 10:24; 12:13), David (Ps. 89:20; cf. Sir. 45:4), Solomon (1 Chron. 28:5, 6), Zerubbabel (Hag. 2:23), and others. The Teacher of Righteousness, the leader of the Dead Sea sect, is called “his elect” in 1QpHab 9:12. Throughout the intertestamental book of 1 En., the Messiah is called the “Elect One.”
255. Gen. 22:16; 1 Kings 17:17–24; Jer. 6:26; Amos 8:10; Zech. 12:10; see comments on Luke 7:12; 8:42.
256. For the status of children in the ancient world see A. Oepke, “παῖς,” TDNT, 5:639–52.
257. Cicero, Pro Ligario 33.
258. Cited by Danker, Jesus and the New Age, 206. For other references see Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:821.
259. See Nolland, Luke 2:534–35 for references.
260. Plutarch, Lives 828c; cited by Danker, Jesus and the New Age, 210.
261. Ex. 20:12; Deut. 5:16.
262. Cited by Nolland, Luke, 2:542. See also M. Hengel, The Charismatic Leader and His Followers (trans. J. C. G. Greig; New York: Crossroad, 1981), 8–10; Str-B 1:487–89; 4:1, 578–92; b. Ber. 31a.
263. Cf. Gen. 50:5; Tobit 4:3; 6:15.
264. This latter is suggested by Keener, BBC, 215.
265. See Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 412, for this and other parallels.
266. Jer. 5:6; Ezek. 22:27; Zeph. 3:3; cf. the Babylonians in Hab. 1:8.
267. Tanchuma, Toledoth, 32b; cited by J. Jeremias, “ἀρνός,” TDNT, 1:340.
268. Cf. 1 Cor. 9:14; Did. 13:1–2.
269. Isa. 29:18–19; 35:5; see comments on Luke 7:22; 4:43.
270. See Deut. 29:23; 32:32; Isa. 1:9–10; 3:9; 13:19; Jer. 23:14; 49:18; 50:40; Lam. 4:6; Ezek. 16:46–56; Amos 4:11; Zeph. 2:9.
271. See also Str-B 1:574; 4:2; 4:1188; m. Sanh. 10:3.
272. Turner, Hist. Geog. 96.
273. Nolland, Luke 2:555–56.
274. E.g., Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31; 1 Kings 21:27; Est. 4:1, 3; Isa. 58:5; Dan. 9:3.
275. See Life of Adam and Eve 12–16; Wisd. Sol. 2:24.
276. See Num. 21:6–9; Deut. 8:15; 1 Kings 12:14; Isa. 11:8; Ezek. 2:6; Sir. 21:2; 39:30.
277. Gen. 3:15; Rom. 16:20; Rev. 12:9; 20:2.
278. Old Testament: Ex. 32:32–33; Ps. 69:28; Isa. 4:3; Dan. 12:1; Mal. 3:16–17; Jewish Literature: Jub. 19:19; 30:19–23; 1 En. 47:3; 104:1, 7; 108:3, 7; 1 QM 12:2; New Testament: Phil. 4:3; Heb. 12:23; Rev. 3:5; 13:8; 17:8; 20:12, 15; 21:27.
279. See Tobit 7:17; Judith 9:12; 1QapGen. 22:16, 21; cf. Gen. 14:19, 22.
280. 1 Cor. 1:18–31; cf. 2:6–13; 3:18–20.
281. Bar. 3:32, 36; cf. Wisd. Sol. 8:4.
282. Pss. Sol. 17:21, 44; 18:6.
283. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 442, citing b. Ber. 28b; Str-B 1:808.
284. See 2 Macc. 7:9; 4 Macc. 15:31; 17:18; 1 En. 37:4; 40:9; 58:3; Pss. Sol. 3:12; 13:11; 14:10; 1QS 4:7; 4Q181 1:4; cf. R. Bultmann, “ζάω,” TDNT, 2:855–61.
285. The command to love one’s neighbor appears in Jub. 7:20; 36:7–8; CD 6:20–21; Sir. 7:21; 34:15; T. Benj. 3:3–4; T. Dan 5:3. The two are linked in T. Iss. 5:2; 7:6; T. Dan 5:3; cf. Philo, Spec. Laws 2.63.
286. 2 Sam. 12:7; cf. 2 Esd. 4:20; 1 Kings 20:40–42.
287. 1QS 1:9–10.
288. Sir. 12:1–7.
289. Josephus, J.W. 4.8.3 §474.
290. Luke 10:32; John 1:19; Acts 4:36.
291. See John 11:1–44; 12:1–11.
292. m. ʾAbot 1:4.
293. Jeremias, Jerusalem, 363. For the role of women in Jewish society see Jeremias, Jerusalem, ch. 18; Malina and Rohrbaugh, SSCSG, 348–49.
294. m. Soṭah 3:4.
295. Malina and Rohrbaugh, SSCSG, 348.
296. See especially Kenneth E. Bailey, Poet and Peasant and Through Peasant Eyes: A Literary-Cultural Approach to the Parables of Luke (combined ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983), 119–41.
297. Cf. Rom. 8:15–16; Gal. 4:6.
298. See J. Jeremias, The Prayers of Jesus (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978); idem, New Testament Theology (London: SCM, 1971), 63–68.
299. Cited in Jeremias, New Testament Theology, 198.
300. Ex. 16:4; 20:20; Deut. 8:2, 16; Judg. 2:22.
301. Cf. b. Ber. 60b; cited by Bock, Luke, 2:1056.
302. Bailey, Poet and Peasant, 121.
303. Ibid., 122; Jeremias, Parables, 157, claims bread was baked daily.
304. Jeremias, Parables, 158, citing A. Fridrichsen.
305. Bailey, Poet and Peasant, 130–33.
306. Nolland, Luke, 2:631.
307. 2 Kings 20:8–11; Isa. 38:7–8.
308. E.g., Isa. 13:10; 34:4; Joel 2:30–31.
309. See Ps. 23; Isa. 53:6; Jer. 13:17; Ezek. 34; Zech. 10:3; 13:7; cf. comments on 10:3; 12:32; 15:4.
310. Tobit 12:15.
311. Satyricon 4:1; cited by Danker, Jesus and the New Age, 234; cf. Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.320–24.
312. m. ʾAbot 2:8.
313. Jonah 1:2; cf. Nah. 1:11; 2:12–13; 3:1, 19.
314. Nolland, Luke, 2:657.
315. See D. C. Allison Jr., “The Eye Is the Lamp of the Body (Matthew 6.22–23 = Luke 11.34–36),” NTS 33 (1987): 61–83.
316. For the literature see H. Conzelmann, “σκότος, κ.τ.λ.,” TDNT, 7:423–45; cf. 9:310–58.
318. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 493–94.
319. m. Yad. 1:1–5.
320. See m. Kelim 25; Str-B 1:934–35.
322. Lev. 27:30–33; Num. 18:21–32; Deut. 14:22–29; 2 Chron. 31:5–12; see the tractates m. Maʿaś. (“Tithes”); m. Maʿaś. Š. (“Second Tithe”), and m. Demai (“Produce not certainly tithed”).
323. E.g., Isa. 1:17, 21; 5:7; Mic. 6:8.
324. Cf. y. Ber. 4b [2.1]; Str.-B 1:382; H. Windisch, “ἀσπάζομαι,” TDNT, 1:498.
325. 1 Kings 19:10, 14; Neh. 9:26; Jer. 2:30; 26:20–24; cf. Matt. 5:12; 23:34–36; Luke 4:24; 6:23, 26; 13:34; Acts 7:52.
326. See Prov. 1:20–33; 8:1–9:6; Sir. 1; 24; 1 En. 42; Wisd. Sol., passim; Bar. 3–4.
327. Ex. 20:5; Isa. 65:7; Jer. 32:18.
328. See Gen. 9:5–6; 2 Sam. 4:11.
329. Deut. 32:43; 2 Kings 9:7; Ps. 79:10; cf. 1 En. 47; Rev. 6:10.
330. Cf. Str-B 1:940–943; Keener, BBC, 222.
331. Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:951.
332. Cf. Str-B 1:128–29; H. Windisch, “ζύμη,” TDNT, 2:905–6.
333. Job 10:4–7; 11:11; Ps. 11:4; 33:15; 139:2.
334. 4 Macc. 13:14–17, NRSV.
335. 2 Kings 16:3; 21:6; 23:10; Jer. 7:32; 19:4–6; 32:34–35.
336. Judith 16:17; 4 Ezra 7:36; 1 En. 10:13; 18:11–16; 27:1–3; Jub. 9:15; Mark 9:45–48; Rev. 20:10–15.
337. Manson, Sayings, 108.
338. 1 Sam. 14:45; 2 Sam. 14:11; 1 Kings 1:52; Dan. 3:27; cf. Luke 21:18; Acts 27:34.
339. Cf. Str-B 3:545–49; m. B. Bat. 8–9.
340. See Ex. 20:17; Deut. 5:21; Job 31:24–25; Ps. 49; Eccl. 2:1–11.
341. T. Jud. 18–19; Sir. 11:18–19; 1 En. 97:8–10.
342. Mark 7:22; Col. 3:5; 1 Tim. 6:10; 2 Peter 2:3.
343. Old Testament and Jewish: Eccl. 2:24; 3:13; 5:18; 8:15; Isa. 22:13; Tobit 7:10; Sir. 11:19; cf. 1 Cor. 15:32 (citing Isa. 22:13). Greek parallels include Euripides, Alcestis 788–89; Menander, Fragment 301 (Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:973).
344. Ps. 39:6; 49:10; Eccl. 2:18.
345. See references in Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:978.
346. See ibid., 2:979.
347. Manson, Sayings, 112.
348. See Job 8:12; Ps. 37:2; 90:5–6; 102:11; 103:15–16; Isa. 37:27; 40:6–8.
349. See Jer. 13:17; Ezek. 34; Zech. 10:3; 13:7.
350. Sir. 29:8–17; Tobit 4:7–11; Pss. Sol. 9:5.
351. See 1 Kings 18:46; 2 Kings 4:29; 9:1; Job 38:3; Jer. 1:17; 1 Peter 1:13.
352. Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:988.
353. BAGD, 199.
354. Prov. 23:2; Zech. 7:6; Rom. 14:17; Ex. 32:6; Isa. 22:2; 1 Cor. 10:7; Prov. 20:1; Isa. 28:7; 56:12; Luke 21:34; Rom. 13:13; 1 Cor. 11:21; Gal. 5:21; 1 Peter 4:3.
355. Sir. 23:6; 31:29–30; 37:30–31; Tobit 4:15; 4 Macc. 1:3.
356. Ibid., 200.
357. Homer, Odyssey 18.339; Herodotus 2.139; Judith 5:22; Sus. 55; 2 Macc. 1:13; Heb. 11:37.
358. See Gen. 19:24; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:22; Amos 7:4; Zeph. 1:18; 3:8; Mal. 4:1; 4 Ezra 13:10–11, 27; 1 En. 67:13; 90:24–27; 102:1; Pss. Sol. 15:4–5; Jub. 9:15; 36:10; 1QS 2:8; 4:13; T. Isaac 5:21–25; T. Ab. 12–13.
359. Isa. 4:4; Mal. 3:2; 1 Cor. 3:10–15.
360. Ps. 18:4; 42:7; 69:1–2; Isa. 8:7–8; 30:27–28; Jonah 2:5; see also Mark 10:38.
361. m. Soṭah 9:15.
362. Jub. 23:16, 19; 4 Ezra 6:24.
363. Job 15:2; 37:17; Jer. 4:11; Ezek. 17:10; Sir. 43:16.
364. Josephus, Ant. 18.3.1 §§55–59.
365. Ibid., 18.3.2 §§60–62; J.W. 2.9.4 §§175–77. For other incidents see Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 553; Fitzmyer, Luke 2:1006–7.
366. See also Job 8:4, 20; 22:5; Ps. 34:21; 75:10; Prov. 3:33; 10:3, 6–7, 16, 24–25; John 9:2–3.
367. Josephus, J.W. 5.4.2 §145; John 9:7, 11.
368. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 554.
369. Jer. 8:13; 24:1–10; Hos. 9:10; Mic. 7:1; Isa. 5:1–7.
370. See Matt. 21:19–21; Mark 11:12–14, 20–21.
371. 1 Kings 4:25; 2 Kings 18:31; Isa. 36:16; Joel 2:22; Isa. 5:5; 9:10; Jer. 5:17; Hos. 2:12; Joel 1:7.
373. Syriac Ahikar 8:35; cited in HCNT, 218. Cf. other parallels in Str-B 4:1, 474; Armenian Philo, De Jona §52.
374. Luke 4:31–41; 6:6–11; cf. 14:1–6.
375. Jeremias, Jerusalem, 373; Bock, Luke, 2:1215; m. Ber. 3:3; Acts 16:13; 17:4.
376. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 557; Bock, Luke, 2:1215; Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1012.
379. m. Yoma 8:6; m. Šabb. 18:3; 19:2.
380. m. Šabb. 5:1–4.
381. Ibid., 15:1–2; 7:2.
382. CD 11:5–6 forbids taking an animal beyond 1000 cubits (1500 feet) for pasturing. The Qumran sectarians appeared to be stricter than the Pharisees, forbidding help for an animal giving birth or pulling it out of a well on the Sabbath (CD 11:13–14).
383. m. ʿErub. 2:1–4.
384. Keener, BBC, 227.
385. m. Nid. 5:2.
386. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 561; cf. Str-B 1:669; O. Michel, “κόκκος, κόκκινος,” TDNT, 3:810 n.1.
387. Bock, Luke, 2:1227.
388. Hist. Plant. 7.1, 2–3; noted by Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1016–17.
389. Ps. 104:12; Ezek. 17:22–24; Dan. 4:10–15.
390. BAGD, 745 (“a peck and a half”); Bock, Luke, 2:1228.
391. Cf. 2 Esd. (4 Ezra) 7:47; 9:15; 2 Bar. 44:15; 48:45–50; Str-B 1:883.
392. Danby, The Mishnah, 397 n.4.
394. Nolland, Luke, 2:734; Str-B 1:469; 4:293.
395. Cf. John 7:27–28; 9:29–30.
396. Matt. 8:12; 13:42, 50; 22:13; 24:51; 25:30.
397. See also Job 16:9; Ps. 112:10; Lam. 2:16; cf. Sir. 51:3; Acts 7:54.
398. Ex. 2:24; cf. Gen. 50:24; Ex. 3:6, 15.
399. See Tobit 4:12; Judith 8:26; Sir. 51:12; Bar. 2:34; 2 Macc. 1:2; 4 Macc. 13:17.
400. See also Isa. 6:7; Mic. 4:1–2; Mal. 1:11; cf. Isa. 51:4; 52:10; 59:19; Zech. 2:13. For the eschatological regathering of Israelites see Ps. 107:3; Isa. 43:5–6; 49:12; 66:19–20.
401. Cf. 2 En. 42:5; m. ʾAbot 3:17; also the “wedding supper of the Lamb,” Rev. 19:9.
402. See also Isa. 55:1–2; 65:13–14; 1 En. 62:14; 2 Bar. 29:1–8.
403. 1QSa (1Q28a) 2:1ff.
405. For Greek literature Fitzmyer (Luke, 2:1031) cites Pindar, Pyth. Od. 2.77.78; Plato, Resp. 2.8 §365c; Plutarch, Life of Solon 30.2; Epictetus, Diatr. 1.3.7–8. For the rabbinic writings see Str-B 2.200–1.
406. Ezek. 13:4; cf. Lam. 5:18; 1 En. 89:42–50.
407. Keener, BBC, 228.
408. Ibid., 228.
409. See also Ruth 2:12; Ps. 17:8; 36:7; 57:1; 61:4; 63:7; 91:4.
410. The close parallel in 2 Esd. 1:33 is probably dependent on the Gospel text (see previous note); Jer. 26:9; 12:7; 22:5; cf. Isa. 24:10.
411. Cf. Str-B 1:849–50, 876.
412. American Heritage Electronic Dictionary (New York: Houghton and Mifflin, 1992).
413. Cf. Str-B 1:629. See Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 580.
414. Lev. Rab. 11.5 on 1:1 (commenting on Prov. 25:7); cited by Manson, Sayings, 278; Str-B 1:916.
415. Theophrastus, Characteres 21.2; noted by Manson, Sayings, 278.
416. See B. J. Malina and J. H. Neyrey, “Honor and Shame in Luke-Acts: Pivotal Values of the Mediterranean World,” pp. 25–65 in The Social World of Luke-Acts: Models for Interpretations (ed. J. H. Neyrey; Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1991); Malina and Rohrbaugh, SSCSG, 76–77, 213–14, 309–11.
417. Malina and Rohrbaugh, SSCSG, 365.
418. E.g., 2 Macc. 7:9, 14; 1 En. 103:4.
419. Josephus, Ant. 18.1.3 §14.
421. Cf. y. Sanh. 6:23c, 30–43. The text is reproduced in HCNT, 228–9 §338.
422. Cited by G. B. Gray, The Book of Isaiah (ICC; New York: Scribner’s Sons, 1912), 1:429–30.
423. Pss. Sol. 17:22–25; cf. 17:30–31; 1 En. 62:9–13.
424. The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo notes that “givers of a banquet…do not send out the summonses to supper till they have put everything in readiness for the feast” (Creation 25 §78). For additional Greek and Jewish references see Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 587–88; Nolland Luke, 2:755.
425. Bailey, Through Peasant Eyes, 94–95.
426. Ibid., 95–96.
427. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 589.
428. Bailey, Through Peasant Eyes, 97–98.
429. Ibid., 98–99.
430. Ibid., 99.
431. Isa. 29:18–19; 35:5–6; 61:1–2.
432. 1QSa (1Q28a) 2:2–7.
433. Gen. 29:31, 33; Deut. 21:15; Rom. 9:13.
434. See Josephus, J.W. 5.4.3 §§156–71 for towers in Jerusalem. For a vineyard watchtower see Isaiah 5:2; Mark 12:1.
435. Epictetus, Dissertationes 3.15.8; cited by Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1065.
436. Philo, Abraham 21 §105.
437. Nolland, Luke, 2:765.
438. Cf. m. Bek. 8b; cited by Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 596, and Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1069.
439. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 596. A less likely solution noted by Marshall involves the use of salt in ovens, where it gradually loses its catalytic power.
440. Ibid., 597.
441. Mekilta de Rabbi Ishmael, tractate Amalek 3.55–57 on Ex. 18:1; cited by Bock, Luke, 2:1299.
442. Jeremias, Parables, 133.
443. Bailey, Poet and Peasant, 149–50 n.34.
444. Jeremias, Jerusalem, 100; idem, Parables, 134–35; Bailey, Poet and Peasant, 157, points out the headdress would be a Bedouin custom, while the necklace would be characteristic of a village woman.
445. Keener, BBC, 232.
446. Bailey, Poet and Peasant, 161–65.
447. m. B. Bat. 8:7.
448. Bailey, Poet and Peasant, 162–66; Manson, Sayings, 286–87.
449. BAGD, 782; Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 607.
450. Bock, Luke, 2:1310.
451. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 608.
452. Bailey, Poet and Peasant, 167–68.
453. Cf. b. B. Qam. 82b. Cf. Str-B 1:492–93.
454. Bailey, however, claims that this is not Syrian carob (ceratonia siliqua), which is sweet, but a bitter variety of wild carob (Poet and Peasant, 171–73).
455. Rabbi Acha (c. A.D. 320) in Lev. Rab. 35.6 on 26.3; cited by Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 609.
456. Lam. Rab. 1.34 on 1:7; Str-B 2:215–16.
457. See references in Bailey, Poet and Peasant, 181–82.
458. Ibid., 185.
459. Ibid., 186–87.
460. Ibid., 168, 195–96.
461. J. D. M. Derrett, Law in the New Testament (London: Darman, Longman and Todd, 1970), 48–77; Ex. 22:25; Lev. 25:35–37; Deut. 15:7–8; 23:20–21.
462. Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1098.
463. Cf. Sir. 38:24–34; Aristophanes, The Birds 1430–33.
464. Sir. 40:28.
465. Jeremias, Parables, 181; Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 618–19.
466. See Bailey, Poet and Peasant, 86–110.
467. See 1QM 1:3, 11, 13; 1QS 1:9; 3:13, 24–26; cf. 1 En. 108:11. For additional references see Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1108.
468. See Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 621 for details.
469. Cited in James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (3rd ed., Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969), 413; cf. HCNT, 226–7 §335.
470. Ex. Rab. on Ex. 3:1; cited by Manson, Sayings, 293–94. For other parallels see Bock, Luke, 2:1335 n.27.
471. See Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 624 for other examples.
472. Josephus, Ant. 13.10.6 §298. The Pss. Sol. (a Pharisaic document from the first century B.C.) repeatedly condemns the unrighteous aristocracy of Jerusalem.
473. Cf. Str-B 1:937; Jeremias, Jerusalem, 114; Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 625.
474. See also Isa. 51:6; 65:17; 66:22; 2 Peter 3:7, 10; Rev. 21:1.
475. See also Isa. 40:8; 55:10–11; Bar. 4:1; 2 Esd. (4 Ezra) 9:36–37.
476. BAGD, 428.
477. Cf. Matt. 5:32; 19:9; Mark 10:11–12.
478. Demotic Narrative about Setme Chamois, in HCNT, 227–28 §338.
479. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 635.
480. Cf. b. Beṣah 32b; cited by Manson, Sayings, 299.
481. See also Ps. 22:16, 20; 59:6, 14; Jer. 15:3.
482. See Sir. 21:9–10; 1 En. 10:13; 2 Esd. (4 Ezra) 8:59; Matt. 25:41; Rev. 20:10, 14–15.
483. See Luke 16:31; 24:27, 44; Acts 26:22; 28:23.
484. 1QS 1:3.
485. See also Isa. 10:1–3; Jer. 5:26–28; Ezek. 18:12–18; Amos 5:11–12; Mal. 3:5; Deut. 15:7; 24:14, 19–21; Isa. 58:10; Isa. 3:14–15; 5:7–8.
486. See Sir. 28:2; 1QS 5:24–6:1; CD 9:3–4; T. Gad 6:1–7; Str-B 1:795–99. The Testament of Gad text is closest, but it may have undergone Christian redaction.
487. m. Nid. 5:2.
488. Bock, Luke, 2:1391.
489. m. ʾAbot 2:8.
490. m. ʾAbot 1:3.
491. Pss. Sol. 17:21–46; 18:5–9.
492. See 2 Esd. (4 Ezra) 5:4–10; 1 En. 91, 93; 2 Bar. 25–27, 53. These passages have their background in the apocalyptic passages of the Old Testament (see Isa. 24–27; Ezek.; Dan. 7–12; Joel 2; etc.).
493. Cf. m. Ber. 1:5; 2 Esd. (4 Ezra) 13:52; Str-B 2:237; 4:826–27.
494. See Josephus, Ant. 17.10.5 §§271–72 (Judas the Galilean); Ant. 17.10.6 §§273–77 (Simon); Ant. 17.10.7 §§278–81 (Anthronges); Ant. 20.5.1 §§97–99 (Theudas); Ant. 20.8.6 §§169–72; J.W. 2.13.5 §§261–63 (the Egyptian); Ant. 18.4.1 §§85–87 (a Samaritan).
495. Josephus, J.W. 2.13.4–6 §§258–65; cf. 6.5.4 §§312–13.
496. See also Ezek. 30:3; Joel 1:15; 2:1, 11, 31; Amos 5:18; Obad. 15; Zeph. 1:14; Mal. 4:5.
497. See Wisd. Sol. 10:4–6; 14:6; 3 Macc. 2:4–5; T. Naph. 3:4–5; Philo, Moses 2:10–12 §§52–65; Gen. Rab. 27 on 6:5–6; Str-B 1:564. Cf. 2 Peter 2:5–7.
498. m. Sanh. 10:3.
499. See 2 Esd. (4 Ezra) 14:9, 52; 1 En. 48:6; 62:7; Str-B 2:334.
500. A. Edersheim, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), 2:287.
501. See also Deut. 24:17; 27:19; Ps. 68:5; Isa. 1:23; 10:2; Jer. 22:3; Ezek. 22:7; Amos 5:10–13; Zech. 7:10; Mal. 3:5; Ex. 22:22; Deut. 10:18.
502. 2 Esd. 2:20; Sir. 35:17–21; Wis. 2:10.
503. Bailey, Through Peasant Eyes, 134–35, recounts a similar story witnessed by a Western traveler in Iraq.
504. See m. Soṭah 9:15; 2 Esd. 6:24; 9:1–12; 13:29–31; Matt. 24:10–12; 2 Thess. 2:3; 1 Tim. 4:1.
505. m. B. Qam. 10:1.
506. m. Ṭehar. 7:6.
507. Cf. y. Ber. 2.7d; cited by Manson, Sayings, 311. Cf. b. Ber. 28b; b. Sukkah 45b; Jeremias, Parables, 142; Bock, Luke, 2:1463 n.7.
508. This is attested in later Judaism (b. Ta‘an. 12a) and is implied in the Did. 8:1, where Christians are instructed not to fast on these two days “with the hypocrites” (Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1187).
509. Isa. 32:12; Jer. 31:19; Ezek. 21:12; Nah. 2:7; Luke 23:48.
510. Psalm 51:1, 3; cf. Ps. 6; 32; 38; 102; 130; 143.
511. For such blessings in Judaism see Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 682; Str-B 2:138.
512. Deut. 32:4; 2 Sam. 22:31; Job 36:4; cf. Matt. 5:48.
513. Ex. 20:12–16; Deut. 5:16–20.
514. Cf. Str-B 1:814; b. Sanh. 101a; Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 684.
515. 2 Chron. 1:11–12; Ps. 112:3; 128:2; Prov. 8:18; Isa. 61:6; Wisd. Sol. 8:18.
516. Ps. 62:10; Prov. 11:28; Jer. 9:23–24; 49:4–5; Sir. 5:1, 8; 40:13.
518. Pss. Sol. 17:21.
519. Cf. Isa. 9:6–7; 11:1–5; Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:24–25.
520. O. Michel, “τελώνης,” TDNT, 8:97–99; Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 696.
521. m. Ned. 3:4.
522. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 696; C.–H. Hunzinger, “συκάμινο, συκομορέα, συκοφαντέω,” TDNT, 7:758–59.
523. Cf. Str-B. 4:546–47; b. Ketub. 50a; S. T. Lachs, A Rabbinic Commentary on the New Testament: The Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke (New York: Ktav, 1987), 331 n.6; Bock, Luke, 2:1482.
524. Lev. 5:16; Num. 5:7.
525. For references see Michel, “τελώνης,” TDNT, 8:105 n.154; Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 698; Bock, Luke, 2:1520.
526. m. Ketub. 3:9.
527. See, e.g., Isa. 2:2–4; 35:1–10; 65:17–25; Jer. 30–31; Ezek. 37, 40–48; Mic. 4:1–5; Pss. Sol. 17–18; 1 En. 45, 51; 2 Bar. 71–74.
528. Josephus, Ant. 14.14.1–4 §§370–85 (Herod the Great); idem, J.W. 2 §§20–22; idem, Ant. 17.9.4 §§224–27 (Antipas); Ant. 17.11.1 §303 (Philip); Ant. 18.6.1–11 §§143–239 (Agrippa I).
529. Josephus, Ant. 17.8.1 §188; 17.9.3 §§213–18; 17.11.1–4 §§299–320; idem, J.W. 2.6.1–3 §§80–100; 2.1.3 §§8–13.
530. m. ʾAbot 4:2.
531. See also 1 En. 62:15; 96:1; Dan. 7:18, 22; Luke 12:32; 22:30; 1 Cor. 6:2–3.
532. Cf. m. B. Meṣiʿa 3:10–11; Str-B 1:970–71; 2:252.
533. m. B. Meṣiʿa 3:11.
534. There are many examples of this in the ancient world. See Josephus, Ant. 13.14.2 §380 (Alexander Jannaeus); idem, Ant. 14.9.4 §175; 14.16.4 §489 (Herod the Great).
535. John 11:1, 18; 12:1; cf. Luke 10:38.
536. See J. D. M. Derrett, “Law in the New Testament: The Palm Sunday Colt,” NovT 13 (1971): 241–58; esp. 243–49.
537. Cf. Josephus, Ant. 9.6.2 §111.
538. 1 Macc. 13:51.
539. Later rabbis interpreted the psalm messianically, but it is uncertain whether this interpretation goes back to Jesus’ day. See Str-B 1:849–50, 876.
540. See also Jer. 13:17; 14:17; Lam. 1:1–4, 16; 3:48; Mic. 1:8; Isa. 22:4; Jer. 9:1–2, 10.
541. Josephus, J.W. 5.11.4–6 §§466–490; 5.12.1–4 §§491–526.
542. Ibid., 5–6.
543. Ibid., 6.3.3 §§193–195; 6.8.5 §§403–406.
544. Ibid., 6.9.3 §§420–21.
545. Ibid., 6.9.4 §434; 7.1.1 §§1–3; 7.8.7 §§375–77.
546. Cf. Str-B 1:850–52.
547. Ex. 30:11–16; m. Šeqal. 1:3; 2:1, 4; 4:7–8.
548. See Luke 20:1; 22:52; Acts 23:14; 25:15. See Nolland, Luke, 2:466; G. Schenk, “ἀρχιερεύς,” TDNT, 3:268–72; J. Jeremias, Jerusalem, 160–81.
549. See also 2 Chron. 24:21; 36:16; Neh. 9:26; Jer. 2:30; 26:20–24; 37:15; 2 Chron. 24:19; 36:15–16; Jer. 7:25–26; 1 Kings 19:10, 14.
550. Ps. 2:7; 89:26–29; Isa. 7:14.
551. Cf. 4QFlor 1:11 (= 4Q174).
552. Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1282.
553. Esp. Ps. 118:22–23; Isa. 8:14; 28:16; Rom. 9:32–33; Eph. 2:20; 1 Peter 2:6–8; 2:34.
554. BAGD, 215.
555. See also Ps. 78:36; Prov. 26:28; 28:23; 29:5; Ezek. 12:24.
556. See also Job 23:11; Ps. 27:11; 119:15; 1QS 3:8–11; CD 20:18–19.
557. Josephus, J.W. 2.8.1 §118. For tribute to Rome in general see J.W. 1.7.6 §154; idem, Ant. 14.10.6 §§202–3.
558. Rom. 13:1–7; Titus 3:1; 1 Peter 2:13–17.
559. Isa. 40:23; Dan. 2:21; 4:17.
560. Cf. Matt. 22:23–33; Mark 12:18–27.
561. Job 19:26; Ps. 16:9–11; Isa. 25:7–8; 26:19; Hos. 13:14.
562. Tobit 3:7–17; 6:10–8:18.
563. The same concept prevailed in Judaism, where saints receive glory and immortality like that of the angels; see Wisd. Sol. 5:5; 2 Bar. 51:10; 1 En. 104:5–6; 1QSb (1Q28b) 4:28.
564. 1 En. 15:7; 6–10.
565. Midrash Sifre on Numbers 112; cited in HCNT, 127. Cf. m. Meg. 3:3; Sifre on Deut. 32:2.
566. See Mark 14:62; Acts 2:34; 7:56; Rom. 8:34; 1 Cor. 15:25; Eph. 1:20; Col. 3:1; Heb. 1:3, 13; 5:6; 7:17, 21; 8:1; 10:12–13; 1 Peter 3:22; Rev. 3:21.
567. Cf. b. Giṭ. 52a-b.
568. Cf. Pss. Sol. 4:1–13.
569. Josephus, J.W. 6.5.2 §282; 5.5.2 §200; idem, Ant. 19.6.1 §294; 1 Macc. 14:49; 2 Macc. 3:4–40.
570. Cf. m. Šeqal. 6:1, 5; cf. Neh. 12:44.
571. Aristotle, Nikomachean Ethics 4.1.19; cited by Danker, Jesus and the New Age, 328. Cf. Euripides, Danaë frg. 319. For a later Jewish parallel involving a widow see Lev. Rab. 3.5 on 1:7 (see comments on Mark 12:42).
572. Cf. Matthew 24:1–35; Mark 13:1–37.
573. Cf. b. B. Bat. 4a; b. Sukkah 41b.
574. Josephus, J.W. 5.5.6 §§ 222–24; idem, Ant. 15.11.3–7 §§ 391–425; cf. m. Mid.
575. Josephus, J.W. 6.5.3 §300–309.
576. Ibid., 6.5.4 §§312–13; cf. Tacitus, Hist. 5.13.
577. See 2 Chron. 15:6; Isa. 19:2; Jer. 4:20; Dan. 11:44; Joel 3:9–14; cf. Rev. 6:4, 8.
578. Earthquakes: 1 Sam. 14:15; Ps. 18:7–8; Isa. 5:25; 13:13; 29:6; Amos 1:1; Hag. 2:6, 21; Zech. 14:4; famines and plagues: Jer. 14:12; 21:6–7; Ezek. 14:21.
579. See Isa. 2:19, 21; 13:13; 24:18; 29:5–6; Ezek. 38:19; Joel 2:10.
580. See also 2 Esd. 13:31; 2 Bar. 27:7; 70:2–8; Josephus, J.W. 6.5.3 § 299; cf. Rev. 6:12; 8:5; 11:13, 19; 16:18; 2 Esd. 9:1–5.
581. See Schürer, 2:427–33.
582. See also Num. 23:5; Deut. 18:18; Isa. 50:4; 51:16; Ezek. 29:21; Acts 6:10.
583. On excommunication in Judaism see Schürer, 2:431–33.
584. m. Soṭah 9:15; 4 Ezra 6:24; Jub. 23:16, 19.
585. 1 Sam. 14:45; 2 Sam. 14:11; 1 Kings 1:52; Dan. 3:27.
586. Cf. 9:24; 17:33; John 12:25.
587. Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 3.5.3.
588. 1 Kings 9:6–9; Jer. 6:1–30; 32:24–25; Ezek. 14:12–23; Dan. 9:26; Mic. 3:12.
589. Josephus, J.W. 6.3.4 §§201–13 (my translation).
590. 1 Macc. 3:45, 51; 4:60; 2 Macc. 8:2; Pss. Sol. 2:19–21; 8:14–22; 17:7–18, 22–24, 30.
591. See also Jer. 4:23, 28; Ezek. 32:7–8; Joel 2:10, 30–31; 2 Esd. 5:4–5; 7:39; T. Mos. 10:5.
592. Josephus, J.W. 6.5.3 §289; cf. Sib. Or. 3.797.
593. Josephus, J.W. 6.5.3 §§297–98; Tacitus, History 5:13; cf. 2 Macc. 5:2–3; Sib. Or. 3:795–807; 1QM 12:9; 19:1–2.
594. See 2 Esd. (4 Ezra) 6:24; 9:1–12; 13:29–31; 2 Bar. 27:1–15; 70:2–8; m. Soṭah 9:15; 1QM passim; cf. 1 Cor. 7:26.
595. 1QM 1:11–12.
596. BAGD, 154.
597. Nissan 15–21; see Ex. 12:1–20; 23:15; 34:18; Deut. 16:1–8.
598. Josephus, Ant. 14.2.1 §21; 17.9.3 §213; idem, J.W. 2.1.3 §10.
599. Ex. 12:1–11; Num. 9:11–12; Deut. 16:1–8.
600. Deut. 16:3; m. Pesaḥ. 10:5.
601. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 791.
602. m. Pesaḥ. 10:1.
603. J. Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Jesus (trans. Norman Perrin; London: SCM, 1966), 84–88; Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1390. The use of the fourth cup in first-century Palestine is disputed; Ps. 115–118; see m. Pesaḥ. 10:2, 4, 7.
604. See 2 Macc. 4:2; 3 Macc. 3:19; prologue to Sirach; Josephus, J.W. 3.9.8 §459 (Vespasian). See Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1417 for inscriptions of Caesar Augustus and Nero using the title.
605. Danker, Jesus and the New Age, 348.
606. Cf. 1 En. 62:14.
607. Acts Pet., 37–38.
608. Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1426.
609. m. B. Qam. 7:7.
610. Josephus, J.W. 2.8.4 §125.
611. See Ps. 11:6; 60:3; 75:8; Isa. 51:17, 21–23; Jer. 25:15–29; 49:12; 51:57; Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:31–34; Hab. 2:16; Zech. 12:2.
612. See also Prayer of Azariah 26; Tobit 5:17, 22; Bar. [Letter of Jeremiah] 6:7; 2 Esd. (4 Ezra) 5:15, 31; 7:1; 1 Kings 19:5–8; Ps. 91:11–12; Dan. 3:28; 10:16–19; cf. Heb. 1:14.
613. Jos. and Asen. 4:11; see Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 832, for additional sources.
614. See Bock, Luke, 2:1761.
615. See also 2 Sam. 15:5; Song 8:1; 1 Esd. (3 Ezra) 4:47; Rom. 16:16; 1 Cor. 16:20; 2 Cor. 13:12; 1 Peter 5:14.
616. Josephus, J.W. 2.13.2–3 §253–54.
617. Ps. 2:7; 89:26; Isa. 7:14.
618. Cf. y. Sanh. 1.1, 18a; Josephus, Ant. 20.9.1 §§ 200–203.
619. See Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law, 12–23.
620. Ibid., 24–27.
621. Josephus, J.W. 2.8.1 §118.
622. Schürer 1:343. See sidebar on Herod the Great at 1:5.
623. For individuals staying silent at their trials see Josephus, Ant. 15.7.5 §235 (Mariamne, the wife of Herod the Great); Diogenes Laertius 3:19 (Plato); 9.115 (the sophist philosopher Timon). Cf. Danker, Jesus and the New Age, 365.
624. Philo, Embassy 38. It is not certain whether this episode was before or after Jesus’ crucifixion.
625. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law, 27.
626. Luke 23:17 does not occur in the best Greek manuscripts and is probably a later scribal harmonization; Matt. 27:15; Mark 15:6; John 18:39.
627. R. L. Merritt, “Jesus Barabbas and the Paschal Pardon,” JBL 104 (1988): 57–68.
628. Josephus, Ant. 17.10.5 §§271–72; idem, J.W. 2.8.1 §118 (Judas the Galilean); idem, Ant. 17.10.6 §§273–77 (Simon); Ant. 17.10.7 §§278–81 (Anthronges); Ant. 20.5.1 §§97–99 (Theudas); Ant. 20.8.6 §§169–72; idem, J.W. 2.13.5 §§261–63 (the Egyptian); idem, Ant. 18.4.1 §§85–87 (a Samaritan).
629. See Josephus, Ant. 20.8.10 §186–88; idem, J.W. 2.13.3 §254; 2.17.6 §425; 4.7.2 §400.
630. Josephus, J.W. 7.8.1 §253–54.
631. See Josephus, Ant. 18.3.1 §55–59; Philo, Embassy 38.
632. Tacitus, Ann. 15.44.
633. Josephus, Ant. 18.3.3 §§63–64.
634. Shlomo Pines, An Arabic Version of the Testimonium Flavianum and Its Implications (Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1971), 16.
635. Josephus, J.W. 5.11.1 §451.
636. Digesta iuris Romani 48.19.28.15, cited in Hengel, Crucifixion, 50. Cf. Quintilian, Training in Oratory 274.
637. Brown, Death, 853–958; Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law, 46.
638. BAGD, 574.
639. Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 5.1; Suetonius, Caligula 32; Domitian 10; Dio Cassius, Roman History 54.3; BAGD, 291; Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 870.
640. Gen. 2:8–10, 15; Josephus, Ant. 1.1.3 §37; 1 En. 20:7; 60:8.
641. See also 4 Ezra 4:7; 6:2; 7:36, 123; 1 En. 32:3; T. Dan 5:12; T. Levi 18:11.
642. Isa. 13:9–13; Joel 2:10; 3:14–15; Amos 5:18, 20; 8:9; cf. Ex. 10:21–23.
643. Darkness is reported with reference to the deaths of Alexander the Great (Ps-Callisthenes 3.3.26); Caesar (Virgil, Georgics 1.463ff.), Aeschylus (Aristophanes, Ael. Aristid. 32.32), and others (see BAGD, 757; H. Conzelmann, “σκότος,” TDNT, 7:439; for rabbinic parallels see Str-B 1:1040–41).
644. Ex. 26:33–37; 27:16.
645. Josephus, J.W. 5.5.4 §212.
646. Josephus, J.W. 6.5.3 §293–96.
647. Isa. 32:12; Jer. 31:19; Ezek. 21:12; Nah. 2:7.
648. See Josephus, J.W. 4.5.2 § 317; Ag. Ap. 2.29 §211; Philo, Flaccus 83–84; Tobit 1:17–18.
649. Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 879; Rathamin (1 Macc. 11:34) and Ramathain (Josephus, Ant. 13.4.9 §127) may designate the same location.
650. Finegan, Archaeology, 166–68; 181–219; Rachel Hachlili, “Burials, Ancient Jewish,” ABD 1:789–91; Rousseau and Arav, Jesus and His World, 164–69.
651. m. Šabb. 23:5.
652. Josephus, Ant. 4.8.15 §219.
653. Philo, QG 4:15.
654. See J. Finegan, Archaeology, 198, 202.
655. Gen. 18:2; 19:1, 10; Josh. 5:13; Judg. 13:6–11; Tobit 5:4–5; cf. Heb. 13:2.
656. See also 1 En. 71:1; 2 Macc. 11:8; Acts 1:10; Rev. 4:4; 19:14.
657. Judg. 6:22–23; 13:22; Dan. 8:16–17; 10:10–11.
658. Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:1561–2; Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 892.
659. See Sydney H. T. Page, “The Suffering Servant Between the Testaments,” NTS 31 (1985): 481–97.
660. Cf. Luke 18:32; 20:17; 23:47; Acts 2:25ff.; 4:25–26.
661. See 2 Macc. 3:34; Euripides, Orestes 1496; idem, Helen 605–6; Virgil, Aeneid 9.656–58.
662. 1 Sam. 28:3–19; Isa. 8:19; 19:3.
664. Acts 2:25–28, 34; 13:33–35; 2:17–21; 13:47; 15:16–18.
665. Isa. 32:15; Ezek. 36:26–27; Joel 2:28–32; cf. Jer. 31:33; see Acts 2:14–21.
666. Enoch: Gen. 5:24; Heb. 11:5; Sir. 44:16; 49:14; 1 En. 17–36; 39:3; Elijah: Sir. 48:9, 12; 1 En. 89:52; 93:8; Jos. Ant. 9 §28; Bar.: 3 Apoc. Bar.10–17; Moses: As. Moses. In Greco-Roman traditions too, heroes and gods sometimes ascend. Dio Cassius, Roman History 56.46 describes the ascent of Caesar Augustus, supposedly witnessed by the senator Numerius Atticus. For this and other examples see HCNT, 309 §485.
667. Acts 2:32–36; 5:31; Eph. 1:19–23; Phil. 2:9–11; Heb.
Sidebar and Chart Notes
A-1. Cf. A. W. Mosley, “Historical Reporting in the Ancient World,” NTS 12 (1965–66): 10–26; and C. J. Hemer, The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History, ed. C. H. Gempf (WUNT 2.49; Tübingen: Mohr, 1989), 43–44, 75–79.
A-2. On Luke’s value as a historian see the above-mentioned works; also M. Hengel, Acts and the History of Earliest Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979).
A-3. Josephus, Ag. Ap. 1.1 §§1–4.
A-4. Josephus, Ag. Ap. 2.1 §§1–2.
A-5. The fascinating story of Herod the Great is given in great detail by the Jewish historian Josephus in his Antiquities of the Jews. See Ant. 14.15.2 §403 (Edomite or “1/2 Jewish” heritage); 15.7.3 §§215–17 (allegiance switched to Caesar); 15.7.4–6 §§230–39 (execution of Miriamme); 15.10.4 §365 (Jewish taxes relieved); 15.11 §§380–425 (building the temple); 17.7.1. §§182–87 (execution of sons); 17.6.5 §§174–78 (death of key Jews ordered); 17.8.1 §§188–92 (death of Herod).
A-6. See especially J. Neusner, W. C. Green, and E. S. Frerichs, eds., Judaisms and Their Messiahs at the Turn of the Christian Era (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987).
A-7. See 2 Esd. (4 Ezra) 12:32; 13:3–11, 26–38; 1 En. 48:10; 49:3; 62:2.
A-8. See 4QFlor (4Q174); 4QPBless (4Q252); 4QpIsaa (4Q161); 4Q504; 4Q285.
A-9. Cf. 1QS 9:11; 1Qsa 2:11–21; 1QSb; 4QTestim. For a survey of this material see M. L. Strauss, The Davidic Messiah in Luke-Acts (JSNTSup 110; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), ch. 2.
A-10. Josephus, J.W. 2.8.2 §§120–121.
A-11. Ex. 12:17–20; 34:18; Lev. 23:6.
A-12. Ex. 23:14–17; Deut. 16:16; cf. m. Ḥag. 1:1, which provides exceptions.
A-13. Josephus, Ant. 18.5.2 §§116–119.
A-14. See Jeremias, Jerusalem, 233–45; idem, “γραμματεύς,” TDNT, 1:740–42.
A-15. Recent research has challenged traditional views of the Pharisees. See the bibliography and history of interpretation in A. J. Saldarini, “Pharisees,” ABD, 5:303.
A-16. Important references to the Pharisees in Josephus include J.W. 1.5.2 §110; 2.8.14 §§162–65; idem, Ant. 13.5.9 §§171–72; 13.10.6 §§297–98; 17.2.4 §§41–45; 18.1.4 §16.
A-17. Prov. 3:13; 8:34; 14:21; 16:20; 28:20; Sir. 31:8.
A-18. Isa. 3:11; 5:8; Jer. 48:1; 50:27; Zech. 11:17.
A-19. Nolland, Luke, 1:280; Isa. 30:18; Dan. 12:12; Pss. Sol. 17:44; 18:6–7.
A-20. Lysias, Pro Milite 20.
A-21. 1QS 10:18–19.
A-22. Counsels of Wisdom, lines 41–45; from the translation by W. G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature (Oxford: Clarendon, 1960), 101.
A-23. For other texts see Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:637–38; Nolland, Luke, 1:294–96; Seneca, De Beneficiis, 4.26.1.
A-24. 1QS 1:9–10.
A-25. Cf. 1QS 10:19.
A-26. Matt. 13:55–56; Mark 6:3; cf. Matt. 12:46; Mark 3:31.
A-27. Acts 12:17; 15:13; 21:18.
A-28. Cf. Fitzmyer, Luke, 1:723–24 who rejects the “cousin” view, but suggests that “brothers” could refer to a more distant relationship than a physical brother.
A-29. See R. J. Bauckham, Jude and the Relatives of Jesus in the Early Church (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1990).
A-30. Josephus, Ant. 20.9.1 §§ 200–203; ca. A.D. 61.
A-31. Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 1.7.14.
A-32. Ibid., 3.19.1–3.20.8.
A-33. For other Jewish parallels see Str-B 4:1, 527–35.
A-34. Josephus, Ant.8.2.5 §§42–45.
A-35. For examples of such incantations see H. D. Betz, ed., The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1986).
A-36. On the Samaritans, see Jeremias, Jerusalem, 352–58; idem, “ὁδός,” TDNT, 7:88–94; R. J. Coggins, Samaritans and Jews: The Origins of the Samaritans Reconsidered (Oxford: Blackwell, 1975); R. Pummer, The Samaritans (Leiden: Brill, 1987).
A-37. Josephus, Life 269.
A-38. HCNT, 262–63.
A-39. Josephus, Ant. 20.6.1 §118.
A-40. See Luke 10:25–37; 17:16; John 4:4–42.
A-41. Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:920.
A-42. There are many other suggestions related to the meaning. See Marshall, Gospel of Luke, 472–73; Fitzmyer, Luke, 2:920.
A-43. T. Sol. 3:2–5; 4:2; 6:1–3.
A-44. Jub. 10:8; 11:5; 19:28; cf. Hos. 9:7.
A-45. 1QS 1:18, 24; 2:5, 19; Jub. 1:20; T. Dan 5:10; see 2 Cor. 6:15.
A-46. Malina and Rohrbaugh, SSCSG, 136, 191.
A-47. Martial, Epigrams 1.20 (LCL, 43); Juvenal, Satires 5 (LCL, 69–83); Pliny, Letters 2.6 (LCL, 109–13).
A-48. Martial, Epigram 3.60 (LCL, 201).
A-49. See Josephus, J.W. 4.8.3 §§459–75.
A-50. Turner, Hist. Geog. 234, citing Kathleen M. Kenyon, Archaeology of the Holy Land (New York: Praeger, 1960), 42ff.
A-51. Josephus, Ant. 13.5.9 §171–73; 13.10.6 §297–98; 18.1.4 §16; idem, J.W. 2.8.14 §§164–65. For rabbinic views of the Sadducees see Str-B 1:885–86.
A-52. See Josephus, Ant. 12.3.3. §138. But cf. also Ant. 11.4.7 §105.
A-53. Josephus, Ant. 14.9.4 §175.
A-54. On crucifixion see especially Hengel, Crucifixion.
A-55. Seneca, Dialogue 6 (To Marcia On Consolation) 20.3.
A-56. See Hengel, Crucifixion, 29–32.
A-57. On the original excavation findings see N. Haas, “Anthropological Observations on the Skeletal Remains from Giv‘at ha-Mivtar,” IEJ 20 (1970): 38–59. On a reassessment of the evidence see J. Zias and E. Sekeles, “The Crucified Man from Giv‘at ha-Mivtar—A Reappraisal,” IEJ 35 (1985): 22–27; and J. Zias and J. H. Charlesworth, “Crucifixion: Archaeology, Jesus, and the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in Jesus and the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. J. H. Charlesworth (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 273–89.