Vācaspati Miśra (ca. 850 C.E.) is considered by many scholars to be one of the most important contributors to Advaita in its post-Śamkara phase. He is the author of a famous commentary on a portion of Śamkara’s Brahmasūtrabhāsya and of several other works, among them works on other Indian philosophical systems such as the Nyāya and Sāmkhya. Vācaspati, following Ma ana, argues for the position that ignorance resides in many different selves, with the locus of avidyā being not Brahman but the empirical self (jīva). Brahman or Ātman is the object (vi aya) of ignorance, but the individual is its locus. He also argues for a “limitation” theory (avaccheda-vāda) to account for the appearance of the individual jīva.
Although the Vivara a school later attracted many more important thinkers to it, the Bhāmatī school has enjoyed a considerable influence in Indian thought. For a full statement on the contributions of this school S. S. Hasurkar’s Vācaspati Miśra on Advaita Vedānta (Darbhanga: Mithila Institute, 1958) is recommended.
The following selections from the Bhāmatī on the topic of superimposition are from S. S. Suryanarayana Sastri and C. Kunhan Raja’s translation published by the Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, Madras, India, 1933 (pp. 4–59), and on the topic of the unchangeableness of Brahman from the unpublished translation of P. K. Sundaram, University of Madras.
... [S]alvation which consists in the cessation of transmigration is the profit here desired to be set forth. Transmigration has for its cause the non-experience of the true nature of the self, and is to be got rid of by knowledge of the true nature of the self. If that (transmigration) which is beginningless persists alongside the beginningless knowledge of the true nature of the self, how can there be the riddance of the former, there being no opposition (between the two)? And how can there be non-experience of the true nature of the self? Other than the experience of “I,” there is indeed no knowledge of the true nature of the self. Nor can this self, which is other than the body, the organ etc., and which is established by the very patent experience of “I” common to all men, be negatived even by a thousand Upanisads, that being opposed to experience. A thousand Scriptures, verily, cannot convert a pot into a cloth. Therefore, because of opposition to experience, we see fit to hold that the Upanisads have but a figurative sense. Raising a doubt, with these ideas in mind (the commentator) answers it (thus):
... The self of the nature of intelligence is the subject (vi ayin), the non-intelligent intellect, organs, body and objects, are the objects of cognition (vi ayas). For, these bind the intelligent self, that is to say, make it determinable through their own form. As an example of absolute difference, which is the ground of the impossibility of reciprocal superimposition, (there is mentioned) “like darkness and light.” Never indeed, can one understand such utterly different things as light and darkness each to be of the nature of the other. This is stated thus: “when it is established that one cannot intelligibly be of the nature of the other.” The one being the other means the one having the nature of the other, that is to say, the identity of the one with the other; this is unintelligible.
Be this so. Let there be no reciprocal identity between different substrates (i.e., the self and the not-self); there may occur yet the reciprocal superimposition of their attributes, such as inertness and intelligence, eternality and non-eternality etc. Even where substrates are distinguished, there is indeed seen to occur superimposition of their attributes, e.g., in the crystal though apprehended as different from the flower, yet because of its absolute transparency, there arises the illusion of redness, in the experience “red crystal,” generated by the reflection of the hibiscus flower. To this it is said: “for their attributes too.” The existence of the attributes of one substrate in the other, i.e., their mutual transfer; this is unintelligible. This is the idea: it is indeed a substance with color, which, on account of its absolute transparency takes on the reflection of another substance with color, though apprehended as different from itself; the intelligent self, however, is the colorless subject and cannot take on the reflection of the object. As they (the Bhā as) say: “Of sound, smell, taste etc., in what way can there be reflection?” Hence it follows by elimination that mutual transfer of the constantly associated attributes of the object and the subject is possible only on the basis of the reciprocal connection of these two. If these two substrates being apprehended as absolutely distinct are unrelated, their attributes are even more clearly unrelated, they being further removed from each other by the interposition of their respective substrates. This is stated thus: “the more,” etc. “Through an error in respect of that” means through an error in respect of the object. The word “illusion” signifies concealment. This is what is said: superimposition is pervaded by non-apprehension of difference; the opposite thereof, i.e., the apprehension of difference, is present here, which, getting rid of that non-apprehension of difference, gets rid also of the superimposition pervaded thereby. “Though they can properly be only illusion, yet”: this is the construction.
This is the underlying idea.—(All) this might be so, if the true nature of the self were manifest in the experience of the “I.” This, however, is not so. It is thus: the true nature of the self is declared in Scripture, traditional codes (sm ti), epics (itihāsas), and mythologies (purānas) as undefined by any limiting conditions, as of the one consistency of endless bliss and intelligence, as indifferent, as one and without a second. Nor can those (statements) which have the purport of teaching the self as of this nature, through their introductory, intermediate and concluding passages, and through purportful repetition, be made figurative even by Indra. For, from repetition results the eminence of the object, as in “Lo, beautiful, lo, beautiful!”, not its littleness; nor even figurativeness (that being) remote indeed. The experience of the “I,” exhibiting as it does the self as finite and as confounded by a multitude of griefs and sorrows, how can it have the true nature of the self for its sphere? Or how can it be undeluded (experience)? Nor can it be said that since Scripture is opposed to perception, which is the elder means of valid knowledge (pramā a), the former alone as dependent on the latter should be declared invalid or figurative; for, since that (Scripture) is not of human origin and is free from even the suspicion of any defect, and since its validity is self-revealed by the very fact of its conveying knowledge, it is independent (of any other means of knowledge) in respect of its effect, i.e., valid knowledge. If it be said that though independent in respect of the knowledge (it generates), yet since it is dependent on perception in respect of its origin, and since there is opposition to that (perception), there will be the non-validity of Scriptural teaching, consisting in its non-production,—no (we reply); for, there is no opposition to its origination (by perception). Scriptural knowledge does not indeed annul the empirical validity of perception, whereby it would itself cease to be, because of the non-existence of its cause; rather (does it annul) the absolute (validity of perception). Nor is its cause the absolutely true (perception), since true knowledge is seen to arise from means of knowledge which are empirically though not absolutely valid. Thus, the qualities of short and long, though foreign to letters (belonging as they do to sound: dhvani), being superimposed thereon, are causes of true apprehension; those who in the world understand by nāga and naga different objects such as elephant and tree are not, verily, deluded people.
Having thus stated the nature of superimposition and its fruit, viz., empirical usage, he states its cause in the words “through nondiscrimination of each from the other,” i.e., through non-apprehension of (their) distinctness. Now, why should it not be that there is no difference at all? And thus, (if there were none), there would be no superimposition. To this he says: “of the attribute and the substrate which are absolutely distinct.” Distinctness from the absolute standpoint means non-identity in the case of substrates, and non-confusion in the case of attributes.
Be this so. The delusion as to identity conditioned by nonapprehension of the difference between two real entities is intelligible, like the delusion of the identity with silver in the case of nacre, because of non-apprehension of their difference. Here, however, there is no real entity like the body, other than the intelligent self, which is the absolute reality. Whence then the non-apprehension of the distinctness of the intelligent self? Whence the delusion of identity? To this he replies: “by coupling the true with the untrue.” The construction is: after superimposing because of non-apprehension of distinctness (through coupling the true etc.). The true is the intelligent self; the untrue are the intellect, the organs, the body etc.; coupling these two substrates; coupling means yoking. Because there cannot be any real coupling of the phenomenal with the absolutely real, there is used the cvi suffix (mithunī- instead of mithunam-), which signifies what is not that becoming that as it were. This is what is said: the imposition of what does not appear being impossible, what is required is the cognition of what is imposed, not its real existence.
Be this so. When there is cognition of what is superimposed, there is the superimposition of what was formerly seen, while that cognition itself is conditioned by superimposition; thus, (the defect of) reciprocal dependence seems difficult to avoid. To this he says: “natural.” This empirical usage is natural, beginningless. Through the beginninglessness of the usage, there is declared the beginninglessness of its cause—superimposition. Hence, of the intellect, organs, body etc., appearing in every prior illusory cognition, there is use in every subsequent instance of superimposition. This (process) being beginningless, like (the succession of) the seed and the sprout, there is no reciprocal dependence; this is the meaning.
Be this so. Certainly, it is only the prior appearance that counts in imposition, not the absolute reality of what appears. But even appearance is unintelligible in the case of the body, the organs etc., which are wholly unreal, and are comparable to the lotus-pond in the sky. The reality even of the intelligent self is but manifestation, and nothing other than that, like the inherence of the class-Being (sattāsāmānyasamavāya) or practical efficiency (artha-kriyā-kāritā), as (the admission of) these would lead to duality. Further, with the postulation of another Being and another practical efficiency (to determine the reality) of this Being and this practically efficient, we shall have an infinite regress. Hence, manifestation alone has to be admitted as constituting reality. Thus, the body etc., since they are manifest, are not unreal, being like the intelligent self; or else, if unreal, they cannot be manifest; how then can there be the coupling of the true with the untrue? In the absence of this (coupling) whose difference is it that is not apprehended? and from what? That (non-apprehension of difference) failing, whence the superimposition? With this in mind, the objector says: “What is this thing called superimposition?” The (pronoun) “what” has the sense of an objection. The respondent meets the objection by simply giving the definition of superimposition well-known to the world: “The reply is—the appearance elsewhere, with a nature like to that of recollection, of what was seen before.” Avabhāsa is that appearance which is terminated or depreciated. Termination or depreciation is sublation by another cognition; by this, it (avabhāsa) is said to be an illusory cognition.
This is the further commentary on that (definition): “what was seen before” etc. Pūrva-d ā-’vabhāsa means the appearance of what was seen before. The illusory appearance cannot come about without the coupling of the imposed element with that on which it is imposed; hence what is untrue and superimposed is understood by the words “what was seen before.” The word “seen” is used to indicate that it (the superimposed element) counts only as phenomenal not as absolutely real. Even thus, what is now seen is not capable of being imposed; hence the use of the word “before.” What was seen before, though real in its own nature, is yet, as superimposed, indeterminable and hence unreal. The locus of imposition, which is real, is stated in: “elsewhere.” Elsewhere, in nacre etc., which are absolutely real. Thus is declared the coupling of the true with the untrue.
This is what is said: it is not that manifestation alone constitutes reality, in which case, bodies, organs, etc., by the very fact of manifestation, would be real. It is not as if ropes etc., do not appear as snakes etc., or crystals etc., as endowed with red color and so on; nor, as thus appearing, do they really become those objects or endowed with those attributes. If that were so, one would conclude in the case of a mirage that it is the Mandākinī which has come down close by, with her garlands of constantly agitated waves high and low, and proceeding (thereto) should be able to quench one’s thirst by drinking of that water. Hence, of what is superimposed, even though manifest, absolute reality cannot be admitted, even though this (conclusion) be not desired.
Nor is it admissible to ask thus: “in the mirage, the water is unreal, but in its own nature (as mirage) it is absolutely real; whereas, the body, organs etc., are unreal even in their own nature, and as such cannot be the sphere of any experience; how then can they be superimposed?” For, if what is unreal cannot be the object of any experience, how then do the mirage etc., which are unreal, become the sphere of experience as water etc.? Though real in their own nature, they (the mirage etc.) cannot become real as water, etc., as well.
It may be said: there is nothing called non-existence (abhāva) as distinct from existence (bhāva). An existent considered as of the nature of another existent becomes non-existence; but in its own nature it is but existence. As is said: “Non-existence is but another existent considered in relation to something else.” Hence, this, which may be explained as another mode of existence, may well be in the sphere of experience. The world, which is absolutely unreal, devoid of any capacity, devoid of any (true) essence, how can it be an object of experience? How, again, can it be superimposed on the intelligent self? Nor is it admissible that, though the objects (of experience) are wholly devoid of any capacity (to appear), the respective cognitions, through the capacity residing in them as cognitions, of themselves give rise to the appearance of the unreal, as a product of a unique nature, and that this capacity (of the cognitions) to make the unreal appear is Nescience. What is this faculty of cognition whereby it makes the unreal appear? What is it that it is capable of? If it is the unreal, is it effected or only made known by it? It cannot be effected, since that is unintelligible in the case of the unreal. Nor is it what is made known, since there is no other cognition known (other than that which makes manifest); further, (what is thus manifested being unreal and requiring its relation to the new cognition to be explained), infinite regress would result. If now, it be said that it is the very essence of cognition to manifest the unreal, what is this relation between the real and the unreal? If it be said that the relation of cognition, which is real, to that which is unreal is that the former is made determinate under the control of what is unreal, lo! how very fortunate is this poor cognition that attains to determination even through the unreal. Nor does cognition do anything thereto, since being the support (of any such thing) is inappropriate in the case of what is unreal. If it be said that the cognition is not controlled by the unreal, but that it is of the very nature of cognition not to appear apart from the unreal, lo! unfortunate indeed is this partiality for the unreal, whereby cognition is invariably linked to the unreal, though neither originating therefrom nor of the same nature as that. Hence, body, organs, etc., which are wholly unreal and have no (true) essence, cannot become objects of experience.
To this we reply: if what has no (true) essence be not within the sphere of experience, are these rays real as water, in such wise that they may come within the sphere of experience? (The pūrvapaksin says): They have no (true) essence (in the nature of water), since the rays are not of the nature of water. The essence of things is of two kinds, real or unreal, the former in respect of themselves, the latter in respect of things other than themselves. As is said: “The essence of things is grasped by some at some time or other either as real or as unreal in respect of (those things) themselves or in respect of others.” (We reply): Is the cognition of water in the rays in the sphere of the true? Then, being valid, it would not be delusive; nor would it be sublated. (The pūrvapaksin rejoins): certainly, it would not be sublated, if it apprehended the rays, which truly are not of the nature of water, as not of the nature of water. When apprehended as of the nature of water, however, how can it be non-delusive or non-sublated? Lo! then (we reply) of the rays whose nature is non-waterness, their nature as waterness is not real, since they, being non-different from non-waterness, cannot intelligibly be of the nature of waterness; nor is it unreal; for, it is recognized by you, in the words “Non-existence is existence in another form, not anything else, since no (such thing) is proved,” that the unreality of one thing is but another thing. Nor is the imposed form another thing; if it were, it should be either the rays or the water in the Ganges. On the first alternative, the cognition would be of the form “rays,” not of the form “water”; on the latter (alternative), it would be of the form “water in the Ganges,” not “(water) here.” (Further) if the particular place be not recollected, it should be (of the form) “water” (merely), not “here.” Nor is it admissible that this is something wholly unreal, a mere falsehood devoid of all existence, since that cannot intelligibly be within the sphere of experience; this has been said earlier. Hence, the water superimposed on the rays has to be recognized to be indeterminable, being neither real nor unreal nor yet real and unreal, this (last) being self-contradictory. Thus, in this way, the superimposed water is like absolutely real water, and for that reason is like what was formerly seen; but really that is not water, nor what was formerly seen; but it is untrue, indeterminable. In the same way, even the universe of bodies, organs etc. is indeterminable; though novel, yet they are superimposed on something other, i.e., the intelligent self, in the same way as what was presented in prior erroneous cognitions. This is intelligible, since the definition of superimposition applies. The sublation of the universe of bodies, organs etc. will be explained later. As for the intelligent self, it is in the sphere of Scripture, traditional codes, epics and purānas; as ascertained by reasoning based on and not in conflict with these, it is of the nature of purity, intelligence and freedom, and is determinable as certainly real. Unsublated self-luminosity is its reality; that is of the very nature of the intelligent self, not something other (than this), such as inherence of the class-Being, or practical efficiency. Thus, everything is clear.
... The delusion that one thing is of the nature of another is established in experience; but there is not seen the delusion of difference in the case of what is one and non-different; whence the delusion of difference for the jīvas who are not different from the intelligent self? To this he says: “the moon, though one, appears as if having a second.”
In the words “Again, how,” etc., the superimposition on the intelligent self is again objected to. This is the meaning: is this intelligent self manifest or not? If it be not manifest, how can there be the super-imposition of objects and their attributes thereon? There is not, verily, the superimposition of silver or its attributes on a non-manifest substance in front (of us). If this self is manifest, it does not stand to reason that it is inert, and manifested in dependence on another, like a pot etc. (The self that is manifest should be either self-manifest or manifested by another; it is not the latter; nor can it be the former.) Verily, the same thing cannot be both agent and object, because of contradiction. The object is, indeed, that which can bear the fruit of activity inherent in another; the knowing activity is not inherent in another (than the self); how, then, can that (self) be the object thereof? Nor can the same be both self-and other-(dependent), because of contradiction. But if inherence (of the knowing activity) in another self be admitted, the known self would become a not-self (not being the subject of that activity). Further, for that (another knowing self would be required, and) for that (another), so that there is infinite regress.
(He who holds that consciousness is self-manifest, but not the self, may say:) be this so. The self, though inert, though manifest in the cognitions of all things, is agent alone, not object, being, like Caitra, not characterized by bearing the fruit of activity inherent in another. In Caitra’s reaching a city through activity inherent in himself, though the product inheres in both Caitra and the city, the objectness belongs to the city alone, since to that belongs the property of bearing the fruit of activity inherent in another, and not to Caitra, though he too bears the fruit of activity, as the act of going is inherent in Caitra (alone).
This is not (sound), because of opposition to Scripture. Scripture, indeed, says: “Truth, knowledge, infinitude is Brahman.”
This is intelligible too. It is thus: that fruit, which is the manifestation of the object, that in which the object and the self manifest themselves, is that inert or self-manifest? If that were inert, both the object and the self would be inert; which, then, would be manifest in which, there being no distinction (among the three)? Thus would result nonmanifestation for the whole universe. (Nor can the reciprocal dependence of these three be of any avail); and thus the proverb: “As the blind holding on to the blind falls at every step.” Nor may it be said that cognition, being itself hidden, (yet) makes known both the object and the self, like the sense of sight etc. (which, themselves unperceived, yet cause perception); for, to make known is to produce cognition, and the cognition that is produced, being inert, would not surmount the above-mentioned defect (of the blind leading the blind). Thus, the subsequent cognition too being inert, there would be infinite regress. Therefore, consciousness should be acknowledged to be manifested without dependence on another.
Even thus, what is gained (by you) for the object and the self, which (you hold) are both inert by nature? This is the gain, (you may say), that the consciousness of them is not inert. (But it does not follow that the object and the self, the causes of consciousness, are not inert); in that case, because the son is a scholar, should the father be a scholar too? It is of the very nature of the self-luminous consciousness to be related to the object and the self: if this be said, alas! then, it is equally the nature of the scholarly son to be related to his father. (You may define the relation thus): the manifestation of consciousness is along with the manifestation of the object and the self, never without the manifestation of the object and the self; this is its nature. If this be said, is consciousness, then, different from the manifestation of consciousness (on the one hand), and the manifestation of the object and the self (on the other)? If that were so, then, consciousness would no longer be self-manifest, nor would consciousness be the manifestation of the object and the self. Then, (you may say), the two manifestations, of consciousness and of the object and self, are not different from consciousness; these two are but consciousness. If this be said, then, what is said in “consciousness (goes) along with the object and the self,” that (alone) is what is said in “(the manifestation of) consciousness (goes) along with the manifestation of the object and the self” (so that there is no advance in your position). (Hence), what is desired to be stated by you (that the self, itself inert, is the locus of the self-manifest consciousness) does not result.
Nor is there concomitance with the object in the case of that consciousness which has objects past and future for its sphere (though such concomitance has been assumed in the argument so far). Since there is generated the cognition of rejection, acceptance or indifference relating to that as content, there is concomitance with the object: if this be said, no (we reply); because the cognition of rejection etc., like the consciousness of the object itself, cannot intelligibly have that (past or future object) as content. Because of giving rise to rejection etc., the cognition of rejection etc. too have the object as content; and because of giving rise to the cognition of rejection etc., which have the object as content, the consciousness of the object too has that (object) as content: if this be said, since the conjunction of the body with the self that puts forth effort is the cause of the setting up and cessation of bodily activity in respect of an object, is that (conjunction) too (we ask) a manifestation of the object? Because of its inertness, (you may say), the conjunction of the body and the self is not a manifestation of the object. Now, though this (consciousness) is self-manifest (unlike the aforesaid conjunction), its luminosity, like that of a glow-worm, is only in respect of itself; in respect of objects, however, it is inert; this has been explained (by the analogy of the scholarly son’s father).
Nor are objects of the very nature of light (i.e., of consciousness, as the Vijñānavādins say); they are experienced as finite, as long or gross, while light manifests itself as internal, neither gross nor subtle, neither short nor long. Therefore, we see fit to hold that the object, which is other than the self-manifest, is certainly indeterminable, like the second moon experienced along with the moon. And no natural differentiation is experienced in this light as such (so that there is no obstacle to its identity with the self, which is one). Nor can differences among objects, which are indeterminable, introduce differences into light, which is determinate, as that would prove too much. It will also be shown later that reciprocal difference does not come in the line of valid knowledge. Therefore, this very light, which is selfluminous, one, immutable, eternal, without parts, is the inner self, i.e., the self that knows the determinate self to be other than the body, organs etc., which are indeterminable.
That self, not being other-dependent for its manifestation, and being without parts, cannot be an object (of cognition). How, then, can there be the superimposition thereon of the attributes of objects, i.e., of bodies, organs etc.? The word “how” (in the commentary) is in the sense of an objection. This superimposition does not stand to reason; this is the objection. Why does it not stand to reason? To this he says: “For, every one superimposes an object upon another object that is present before one.” This is what is said: that, whose manifestation is other-dependent and which has parts, appears other than what it is, being apprehended in its general nature, but not apprehended in its specific nature, because of defect in the organs (of cognition). The inner self, however, not being other-dependent for its manifestation, does not require for the knowledge of itself any organs, by defects in which it would itself become defective. Nor has it any parts, in which case, it could be apprehended in some part, but not in others. It cannot, verily, happen that the same (thing) is at the same time and by itself both apprehended and not apprehended; hence on the view of the self-luminosity (of the self) there can be no superimposition. (And) even if it be never manifest, there can be no superimposition, since it is not before us, i.e., is not immediately experienced. Silver is not, verily, superimposed in the form “this is silver,” when nacre is not present before us. Hence it follows that there can be no superimposition both when there is complete apprehension and when there is total non-apprehension.
Be this so. If the intelligent self were not an object, then indeed, there could be no superimposition thereon; but it is the object of the concept “I.” Why then can there be no superimposition? To this he says: “which is ever outside the concept of ‘Thou’.” For, if the intelligent self were the object, the subject (vi ayin) would be other than that. And thus, he who is the subject is himself the intelligent self; the object, however, should be admitted to be other than that, and in the sphere of the concept of “Thou.” Hence, “being outside the concept of ‘Thou’” is (stated) for the purpose of remedying the possibility of non-selfhood (for the self) and of infinite regress; hence it is that not being an object has to be predicated of the self; and thus, there is no superimposition: this is the meaning.
He answers this: “The reply is—now, this is not invariably a nonobject.” Why (not)? “Because it is the object of the concept ‘I’.” This is the meaning: true, the inner self being self-manifest is not an object and is without parts; but yet, having attained to the state of the jīva, though not really defined by the particular defining conditions posited by indeterminable beginningless Nescience, such as the intellect, the mind, bodies subtle and gross, and the organs, he appears as if defined; though not different, he appears as if different; though not an agent, he appears as agent; though not an enjoyer, he appears as enjoyer; and though not an object, he appears as the object of the concept “I”; just as the ether because of differences defined by adjuncts such as pot, ewer, basin etc., appears as different and possessing diverse attributes. Of the self that is but of the one essence of intelligence, there is not, verily, anything unapprehended, when the element of intelligence is apprehended. Bliss, eternality, pervasiveness etc. are not, indeed, different from its nature as intelligence, such that they are not apprehended along with the apprehension of that element. While being certainly apprehended, yet, because of posited difference, they appear as if not discriminated, and hence not apprehended. Nor is the difference of the self from the intellect etc. real, so that that (difference) too is apprehended, when the intelligent self is apprehended; for, the intellect etc., being indeterminable, their difference (from the self) too is indeterminable (and unreal). Thus, it is for the intelligent self itself, which is self-manifest and undefined, that there is the condition of the jīva, through non-apprehension of the difference from the defined intellect etc., and the (consequent) superimposition of these. Of this, which partakes of the nature of the “not-this (non-object: the intelligent self)” and the “this (the inert object),” being the object of the concept “I” is intelligible. It is thus: the intelligent self appears, in the concept “I,” as agent and enjoyer. And for that (self) which is indifferent there cannot occur the capacity either to act or to enjoy. And for that aggregate of the effect (the body) and the organs, i.e., the intellect etc., to which belong the capacities to act and enjoy, there is no intelligence. Hence, it is the intelligent self that, linked to the aggregate of the effect (the body) and the organs, gains the capacity to act and enjoy; though self-manifest, yet by intermixture with objects like the intellect etc., it somehow becomes the object of the concept “I,” the substrate of “I-ness,” and is (variously) designated jīva, creature (jantu), or knower of the field (k etrajña). The jīva indeed is not different from the intelligent self. For, thus runs Scripture: “in its own nature, as that jīva” etc. Thus, the jīva though self-manifest, because of being non-different from the intelligent self, is yet made by the concept “I” fit for empirical usage as agent and enjoyer; hence it is said to be the basis of the concept “I.” Nor is it admissible (to say) that there is reciprocal dependence in that (the jīva) becomes an object if there is superimposition, and there is superimposition if (he) becomes an object; for, the (process) is beginningless, like the (dependence of) seed and sprout, and there is no inconsistency in every subsequent superimposition having for its object that which has been made the content of each earlier superimposition and its impressions; this has been said in the text of the commentary: “this natural empirical usage.” Hence it has been well-said: “now, this is not invariably a nonobject.” The jīva though not an object, as (non-different from) the intelligent self and as self-manifest, is yet an object in his conditioned form: this is the idea.
... This is what is said: it is of the very nature of the repetition of the ascertainment of truth that it removes illusory cognition, though beginningless and having deep-rooted and dense impressions. It is, indeed, of the nature of the intellect to be partial to truth. As even outsiders say: “Of the essential nature of things unaffected by error, there is no sublation; for, the intellect, even though making no effort, has a partiality for it.” More particularly (there is the question): “Whence can there be sublation of the wholly internal (intimate) knowledge of the truth, which is of the nature of the intelligent self, by Nescience, which is indeterminable?”
In the statement “coupling the true with the untrue, there is, through non-discrimination of each from the other, the empirical usage ‘I am this,’ ‘this is mine,’” empirical usage in the nature of verbal designation is expressly mentioned. Ordinary empirical usage, indicated by the word “iti” is shown in the words: “It is in the wake of the aforementioned mutual superimposition of the self and the not-self, designated Nescience” etc.; this is self-explanatory ....
An objection is raised: “How, again, is it that perception and other means of valid knowledge have reference to one characterized by Nescience?” Valid knowledge or vidyā is, verily, determination of the truth; how can the means of valid knowledge which are instruments thereto have for their locus what is characterized by Nescience? Means of valid knowledge cannot find a locus in what is characterized by Nescience, since their effect, viz., knowledge, is opposed to Nescience: this is the idea. Or let perception etc. be as you say empirically (valid); but sacred teachings, whose purport is to teach what is beneficial to man, being opposed to Nescience, cannot have reference to what is characterized by Nescience; hence he says: “and sacred teachings.” He answers: “The reply is.” “When one devoid of the conceit of ‘I’ and ‘mine’ in the body, senses etc.,” devoid of the superimposition of the nature and attributes of the self, “cannot intelligibly be a knower, the functioning of the means of valid knowledge is unintelligible.” This is the meaning: to be a knower is to be an agent in respect of knowledge; and that is independence (in respect of the cognitive act). Independence consists in inciting all causal conditions other than the knower, without being incited by them. By him, therefore, is to be incited the pramā a, the means of valid knowledge. Nor can an instrument be incited without activity on one’s part. Nor can the immutable, eternal, intelligent self, which is incapable of transformation, be active of itself. Hence, being active by the superimposition of the nature of the intellect etc., which are active, it can control the means of valid knowledge; therefore, the means of valid knowledge have reference to, i.e., are located in the person characterized by Nescience.
... Valid knowledge is a variety of the modification of the internal organ, directed towards the object known, and is of the nature of the intelligence residing in the agent. And how could a modification of the inert internal organ be of the nature of intelligence, if the intelligent self were not superimposed thereon? How, again, could this have the intelligent self as agent, if the functioning internal organ were not superimposed on the intelligent self? Hence, from reciprocal superimposition, there results the fruit called valid knowledge, which resides in the intelligent self as agent; when that results, there results knowership. With this same valid knowledge as content, there ensues the activity of the means of valid knowledge. By the use of the word “knowership,” valid knowledge is also implied. If the fruit, valid knowledge, were non-existent, the means of valid knowledge would not be active; and thus the means of valid knowledge would cease to be such: this is the meaning. He concludes: “Therefore, perception and other means of valid knowledge have reference only to what is characterized by Nescience”....
Having thus expounded through objection and answer the reciprocal superimposition of the self and the not-self, and strengthened it by the discourse on the means and objects of valid knowledge, he reminds us of its already declared nature, in order to expound elaborately its being the cause of evil: “We have already said that what is called superimposition is the cognition as something of what is not that.” This is a summary way of stating what was said earlier, that it is “the appearance elsewhere, with a nature like to that of recollection, of what was seen before.” Here, “I,” which is the superimposition of the nature of the substrate alone, cannot be the cause of evil without generating the “mine,” the superimposition of attributes; hence the superimposition of attributes, the notion of “mine,” is alone the direct cause of the entire evil of the migratory cycle; this is elaborately explained in: “It is thus: when the son, wife” etc. Superimposing identity with the body on the self, and superimposing thereon the bodily attribute of the ownership of son, wife etc., in the same way as leanness etc., one says “I am myself unsound or sound.” The sense of ownership being complete, when there is a fullness of wealth, the owner (in this case) becomes complete, perfect; similarly, from the lack of wealth, ownership too becoming incomplete, the owner becomes incomplete, imperfect. The external attributes, like unsoundness which attach to the body through the channel of ownership, these one superimposes on the self: this is the meaning. When this is the case in respect of bodily attributes, like ownership, dependent on external adjuncts, what need be said about bodily attributes, like leanness etc., which do not depend on external adjuncts? In this view, he says: “Similarly, the attributes of the body” etc. He superimposes on the self the attributes of deafness etc., which are the attributes of the senses, which are more intimate than the body, and on which the nature of the self has been superimposed, (he also superimposes on the self) desire, resolve, etc., which are attributes of the internal organ, which is even more intimate, and on which the nature of the self has been superimposed: this is the construction.
Having in this exposition stated the superimposition of attributes, he states its basis, the superimposition of the substrate: “In this way, after superimposing the denotation of the concept ‘I’” etc. That in which the psychosis, the concept “I,” occurs, i.e., the internal organ, that is the denotation of the concept “I” (aha pratyayin); that is superimposed on the inner self, which, on account of its intelligence and indifference, is the witness of the processes of the internal organ. Thus are explained agency and enjoyership. Intelligence is explained: “by the reverse of that,” by the reverse of the internal organ etc.,—the internal organ etc. are inert, the reverse of that is intelligence; by that; the instrumental case is used to imply “in this wise”—“one superimposes that inner self, the witness of all, on the internal organ etc.” This is what is said hereby: the inner self defined by the internal organ etc., the intelligent being compounded of the “this” and the “not-this,” is the jīva, the agent, the enjoyer, the support of the two kinds of Nescience—the result and the cause—the substrate of “I-ness,” the transmigrator, the vessel of the entire host of woes, the material cause of reciprocal superimposition; the material cause of that again is superimposition; hence, this being beginningless, like the seed and the sprout, there is not (the defect of) reciprocal dependence.
II, 1, 22. Adhika tu bhedanirdeśāt (But Brahman) is something more (than the individual soul) on account of the indication of difference.
Bhāmatī on this: True; Just as the Supreme Self, being omniscient, sees the individual souls who are really non-different from Itself, (and) makes manifest (the fact) that for these (souls) there is really no attachment to the experience of pleasure, pain etc., but that, for these (souls), there is the (false) notion that they have that (experience of pleasure, pain etc.), due to the power of nescience (avidyā), similarly It sees also as: “I am unaffected in their (soul’s) experience of pleasure, pain etc.; there is no harm to me even when there is the entry into bondage for them (i.e. the souls).”
II, 1, 26. If Brahman be the material cause of the world, there will result either (the change of) the entire (Brahman) or the violation of the texts (declaring Brahman) to be without parts.
II, 1, 27. But (it is not so) on account of Vedic testimony (since Brahman’s causality) has its ground in scripture. (An objection is stated) there is no modification of Brahman whereby it will become an object of change either wholly or in part. But the nature of being the basis for the empirical usage of modification etc., for Brahman in the form of the evolved and the non-evolved, is apprehended through the diversity of form characterized by name and form, indeterminable either as real or unreal, (all) projected by nescience. Surely, the illusory form does not affect Reality. Indeed, the imagination of duality of the moon, in a person suffering from a diseased vision, does not bring about duality in the moon (which in reality is only one). Nor is there the unintelligibility or absurdity (of duality) in the moon by dint of the unintelligibility in that (i.e., imaginary duality). Therefore, though the imagination of illusory modification is unintelligible, it does not carry (this) unintelligibility (or absurdity of being plural) into Brahman, which is absolutely real.
Hence, (the objection concludes) since the objection is absent, this adhikara a (section) need not be commenced. (In answer to this objection), he (the commentator) says: Non-dual Intelligence-self is the cause of the world. Though the modification has been refuted as unreal by hundreds of śruti texts, which express the absolute nonduality (of Brahman), even though, as the reality of modification seems to be introduced by another objection by the illustration of milk, curds etc. (used by Śamkara himself in his answer to the first objection), by way of refuting this second objection, by maintaining that this (opposite) view cannot be held by any means, by both the Sūtras (which follow) viz., śrutestu śabdamūlatvāt (i.e., but [it is not so] on account of Vedic testimony since [Brahman’s causality] has its ground in Scripture) and ātmani caiva vicitrāś ca hi (i.e., for thus it is even within the Self and wondrous), the definition of absolute non-duality which is the meaning of Scripture is examined (by the said sūtras) through strengthening the view of transfiguration or illusory manifestation, vivarta. This is the meaning. “Brahman is unmodified,” means that (Brahman is) really unmodified.