The Cold War Begins
How did the start of the Cold War spur the Space Race?
As the United States and the Soviet Union began to experience tension on the ground, they also began to compete to be first in space.
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As World War II, the deadliest war in history, came to an end, a new world took shape. The United States and Soviet Union were now the two most powerful nations on Earth, and both countries raced to assert themselves while the threat of a different kind of war loomed.
After the surrender of Germany and Japan, distrust between the United States and Soviet Union grew quickly. Despite objections by their former allies, the Soviets installed communist governments across Eastern Europe. These puppet regimes gave Stalin partners in the competition against the American-friendly democracies of Western Europe.
By the summer of 1948, the wartime alliance between the West and the Soviets was all but over. The formation of West Germany and its capital of Bonn infuriated the Soviets. In response, Stalin declared a blockade of the West German city of West Berlin, which had been partitioned from East Berlin at the end of World War II.
The Soviets shut off all road and rail access to the city. To avoid starvation in West Berlin, the United States and Great Britain launched a massive effort to deliver food and supplies the only way they could—by airplane.
A cargo plane lands in West Berlin, 1948
credit: U.S. Air Force
For 318 days, day and night, the Berlin Airlift delivered millions of tons of food, fuel, and supplies to the defiant city. More than 270,000 flights landed. It was an embarrassing political disaster for the Soviet Union, with most of the world siding against Stalin and his attempt to capture West Berlin by starvation.1
Unwilling to start a war while his country was being rebuilt, Stalin ended the Berlin blockade on May 12, 1949. The West had won because the Soviets were outmatched by America’s military and technological abilities. Stalin was desperate to even the odds and prove that there was more than one nation capable of leading the world.
The separation of East and West Berlin
Just months after the end of the blockade, the Soviets shocked the world by detonating their first nuclear weapon. America, surprised by the incredible progress of what many had considered a backward nation, announced its intention to develop more powerful nuclear weapons. The Soviets did the same.
As the 1940s ended, two nations with very different ideas of economics, government, and world affairs now had the most powerful weapon on Earth. The nuclear arms race had begun, and the perfect delivery method for nuclear weapons was already being tested.
“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent.” On March 5, 1946, former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874–1965) gave his famous Iron Curtain speech, criticizing Soviet actions in Eastern Europe. It was one of the defining moments of the early Cold War. Listen to Churchill’s speech at this website. Is his speech hopeful or despairing? How might this speech have contributed to the Cold War?
Churchill Iron Curtain
THE ICBM
Now that both nuclear powers had the bomb, they wanted the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), a rocket capable of delivering a nuclear warhead anywhere on Earth. At the U.S. Army Ordinance Proving Ground in White Sands, New Mexico, von Braun again found himself working in a country more interested in weapons than spaceflight.
Test launches of the captured V-2 rockets were successful. The rockets could fly as far as the edge of space. Von Braun, looking toward the future, hoped the rockets would eventually carry passengers.
In the USSR, Sergei Korolev was in a position much like von Braun’s. After successfully flying a V-2, the Soviet military wanted its own ICBM to compete with the United States. Korolev had already begun plans for huge rockets capable of carrying a person into space, but the Soviet army was more interested in weapons than space exploration. As a result, Korolev made sure that his powerful missile was capable of putting something—or someone—in space, while persuading those in charge that it could deliver a nuclear warhead to anywhere within the United States.
As the nuclear adversaries worked on their missile programs, the world settled into the new realities of a Cold War that everyone hoped would not turn hot. Confrontation between the nations continued. The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 pitted the American-backed, democratic South Korea against the Soviet-backed, communist North Korea.
Some military commanders wanted to authorize the use of nuclear weapons, but the decision was never made. Although the United States and the USSR never fought each other directly, the Korean war was a struggle between the two nations that foreshadowed the direction the Cold War would take.
Despite a booming economy and the birth of rock-and-roll music, the 1950s in America were marked with paranoia and suspicion. Several Soviet spies were arrested early in the decade for stealing nuclear secrets. These arrests made people fear that communism was not just an outside threat.
“Are you now, or have you ever been, a member of the Communist Party?” During the early 1950s, this question was a symbol of the nation’s fear and paranoia of the spread of communism. But with little evidence to back up his claims, Senator McCarthy was forced to end his hearings in embarrassment. The term “McCarthyism” now describes accusations of treason without proof or evidence. You can listen to an audio recording during which McCarthy is accused of having “no sense of decency.” Why do you think McCarthy wasn’t stopped earlier?
McCarthy history audio
U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908–1957) led hearings that accused members of the military and government of being secret communists, intent on destroying America from the inside. The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated Hollywood actors, writers, and producers for suspected communist connections. Despite their innocence, many of the accused were blacklisted and unable to work in entertainment.
News of interesting experiments in the New Mexico desert provided some relief from the seemingly daily warnings about communism and nuclear war that marked the 1950s. The rockets from World War II were becoming more powerful, reaching greater heights, and flying longer distances as they explored the edge of space. Wernher von Braun saw the public’s growing interest in rocketry and spaceflight as an opportunity.
POPULARIZING SPACE
In 1950, von Braun and his team were moved to the U.S. Army Redstone Arsenal near Huntsville, Alabama, to continue work on ballistic missiles. While there, he wrote articles for American magazines describing his vision of the future. It included spinning outposts in space, bases on the moon and Mars, and even space tourism. How could anyone resist?
People fell in love with von Braun’s visions of peaceful space exploration. It was a welcome break from the threat of nuclear war.
In the Soviet Union, however, there were no television shows or magazine covers for Sergei Korolev. Although he followed von Braun’s progress closely, Korolev’s very existence was kept secret, even from government and military officials.
Despite his anonymity, he was as much an advocate for using rockets to explore space as von Braun, but the policy of absolute secrecy kept him from appealing to the citizens of the Soviet Union and the world. Korolev felt that von Braun was working on a space program, while he was stuck working on a missile program. To convince Moscow that a space program was worth the effort, he’d need help from both inside and outside the Soviet Union.
Unfortunately, both Albert II and his predecessor, Albert I, did not survive their flights. Their deaths made it clear that there was much to learn before a person could safely ride a rocket. In 1959, the monkeys Baker and Able became the first American mammals to fly to space and arrive back on Earth safe and sound. You can read about their journey in a news article and watch a video of their experience at these websites.
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ANIMALS IN SPACE
As the Cold War powers struggled over their roles in the post-war world, both rocket programs moved forward as interest in spaceflight grew around the world. Von Braun’s visions of cities in space seemed like science fiction, though he was confident they would become reality. But there were many questions. What kind of effect would spaceflight have on a living person? What was space really like? For people to find answers, living things needed to go into space.
On June 14, 1949, the Americans sent the rhesus monkey Albert II into space. Albert II became the first primate to cross the Kármán line, the 60-mile altitude boundary considered to be the beginning of space. Unfortunately, Albert II did not survive the landing. However, his flight gave scientists hope that a human passenger could survive a trip to space.
As the United States launched several more monkeys into space, the Soviets conducted their own experiments with canine passengers. On July 22, 1951, Dezik and Tsygan became the first dogs in space, flying a suborbital path similar to Albert II’s that brought them safely back to Earth.
Both nations learned a lot about the environment of space and its effect on living creatures, giving hope to von Braun and Korolev that their dreams of exploring the solar system might become reality.
In early 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969) was sworn in as president of the United States. A former Army general who commanded American forces in World War II, Eisenhower was seen by Americans as the person needed to stand up to communism and Joseph Stalin.
Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971), the new Communist Party leader, condemned the Man of Steel’s purges and the personality cult that he’d built around himself and his followers. Khrushchev’s blunt criticism of his predecessor shocked the Communist Party and the world.
Both von Braun and Korolev hoped the new world leaders would take up the cause of space exploration. Despite von Braun’s appeal to the public, there was still little funding for missiles beyond their intended military use. It would take an international effort to focus both governments on exploring space.
THE BEGINNING OF THE SPACE RACE
In 1955, President Eisenhower announced that the United States would participate in the upcoming International Geophysical Year in 1957–1958 by launching the world’s first manmade satellite into orbit around Earth. It would be a peaceful demonstration of American’s advanced rocketry and would show that the technology could be used for something other than war.
Von Braun was ecstatic. After years of little funding, space exploration was finally being taken seriously in the United States. His newest missile, called Redstone, could certainly put a small satellite in orbit for the International Geophysical Year.
Intended as a worldwide effort to study many branches of earth science, the International Geophysical Year drew researchers from 67 countries eager to cooperate.
In the Soviet Union, Korolev used the news of the Americans’ intentions to convince the leadership in Moscow that a space program was necessary if the Soviets wanted to keep pace with the Americans. He argued that beating the Americans into space would be a huge victory for the country.
Not to be outdone, Nikita Khrushchev announced that the Soviet Union would also launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. Fortunately, Korolev’s most recent design, the R-7 missile, could do just that. The first leg of the Space Race was set, with von Braun and Korolev ready to take their marks.
However, despite successful launches of the Redstone, von Braun’s dream was put on hold in favor of the U.S. Navy’s Project Vanguard. Based on a sounding rocket, Vanguard was not designed to carry a warhead and was only for scientific use.
Von Braun pleaded with the government to reconsider. Project Vanguard had serious problems, he argued, and was far behind schedule. He warned that if Vanguard faced any more trouble, the United States would miss its chance to put the first artificial satellite in orbit.
Von Braun faced other challenges. Some in the government felt that the first satellite put in orbit should be placed there by a rocket made only by Americans, not Germans. To make their loyalty clear, von Braun and his engineers became U.S. citizens in 1955.
Von Braun was unable to change the minds of the government officials in charge. Unfortunately for the United States, von Braun proved to be right.
A SOVIET MOON
On October 4, 1957, Korolev’s R-7 left the launch pad on a pillar of flame. Unlike all the other rocket flights before it, this one did not return to Earth. When it reached its designated speed and altitude, it released into space a small, silver sphere just 22 inches across. As this sphere circled the globe, it broadcast a simple radio signal that could be heard around the world.
The launch of Sputnik caught the Americans off-guard. For the second time, the Soviet Union surprised the West with its engineering and scientific capabilities.
Headlines around the world declared the stunning achievement a historic moment for humanity and a triumph for the Soviets. To the public eye, the balance of power between the two nations had tipped in favor of the Soviet Union. If they could put a satellite in space, they could put a nuclear bomb anywhere in the world.
With Sputnik flying overhead, all kinds of possibilities emerged. Could the Soviets spy on the United States from above, far out of reach of airplanes or missiles? Could they use it to drop an atomic bomb?
On November 3, 1957, the Soviets did the seemingly impossible again. Sputnik 2 carried a small dog named Laika into orbit. This was an even greater accomplishment than the satellite the Soviets had lofted up just a month before. Not only could they put satellites into space, they also had the capability to keep an animal alive for at least a short time as it circled the earth.
Newspapers around the world speculated that it was just a matter of time before a person would ride into space on top of a Soviet rocket.
When Sputnik was launched, it caused a sensation around the world. You can watch a CBS news clip from October 6, 1957, at this website. How do you think people reacted to hearing about Sputnik? Why do you think people were worried that the satellite was emitting a code?
CBS Sputnik news
Korolev was ecstatic about the successful flights. He’d achieved his lifelong goal of reaching orbit, and he’d beaten the Americans. But while congratulations from Khrushchev and other officials poured in, his name was not mentioned in any official press. His work and name remained secret. The Chief Designer got back to work as the rest of the world waited to see what the Americans would do.
For the Americans, Explorer 1 was a small victory, but for von Braun, it was a personal triumph.
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KAPUTNIK!
Eager to calm the public’s fear, President Eisenhower pressured the Navy to launch Vanguard as quickly as possible. Despite continuing problems, Vanguard was prepared for launch. On December 6, the nation tuned in by radio, television, and in person to witness America’s first shot at a satellite. It was time for the Americans to show the world that they were just as capable as the Soviets when it came to missiles and rockets.
When the countdown reached zero, the Vanguard rocket rose slowly a few inches from its launch pad and exploded in a massive fireball. Headlines such as “Kaputnik!” and “Flopnik!” ridiculed the disastrous attempt. It was a huge public embarrassment for President Eisenhower and for the nation as a whole.
Just how far behind was the United States? In the wake of the Vanguard failure, von Braun’s Redstone rocket became America’s best chance to put a satellite into space.
After several weeks of hurried preparation and tests, von Braun and his team had their rocket on the launch pad. With the nation tuned in to watch on January 31, 1958, a Redstone rocket successfully carried Explorer 1 into the history books as the United States’ first artificial satellite.
While the Soviets kept the identity of the Chief Designer and the details of his R-7 rocket a secret, the world now knew that the Soviets had a very powerful missile. It could easily reach the United States and perhaps put a person into orbit.
The Space Race had begun.
VOCAB LAB 
Write down what you think each word means. What root words can you find to help you? What does the context of the word tell you?
adversary, altitude, blacklist, paranoia, primate, satellite, Sputnik, and suborbital.
Compare your definitions with those of your friends or classmates. Did you all come up with the same meanings? Turn to the text and glossary if you need help.
•Why was it important to President Eisenhower and others that the space program be started on a rocket that wasn’t meant to be a weapon?
•Are there any moral arguments about sending animals into space?
PROPAGANDA!
Stalin and the Communist Party were experts at using different forms of propaganda. Newspapers, radio, and eventually television were all used to promote the progress and exceptionalism of the Soviet State and celebrate its accomplishments while ignoring criticism and failures. Even the fine arts were subjected to censorship to ensure that a positive vision of the Soviet State was portrayed. If people failed to sufficiently praise the Communist Party or its leader, they could end up in prison—or worse.
Check out these examples of Soviet propaganda.
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•Research Soviet propaganda in any form you choose—audio, video, print, or other.
•How does it compare to the world today?
•Can you think of examples of propaganda in your own country?
•Is propaganda harmful or helpful? Try arguing each side, or debate with a classmate, family member, or friend.
To investigate more, create your own Soviet propaganda. Make a poster, an audio recording, or video promoting the Soviet space program. Research examples and be creative!
PBS propaganda poster Soviet