Chapter 07

Historically, many well-known ancient philosophers and writers have paid great attention to this meaning and offered many famous statements that have exerted great influence on our thinking. Zuo Qiu-Ming (c. 422 BC), a well-known writer, offered an exceptional statement to explain why harmony (和 hé) is so important for our life by citing some natural phenomena in his book, Brief Historical Stories for States (國語 guó yǔ). He wrote:

Harmony, which combines different things and makes them balanced, indeed creates things, while identification, which simply adds or heaps things, gets what is the same as the original one in terms of quality. Therefore, kings of the past combined earth with metal, wood, water and fire to generate hundreds of things, and mixed sour, bitter, sweet, pungent and salty flavors to make delicious food, and combined different notes to make a masterpiece of music…If sound has the same tone, it is not attractive to the ears. If colors are the same, one cannot create a beautiful painting.5

In Chapter 42 of his book, Morals Classic (道德經 dào dé jīng), published at the end of the Spring and Autumn period, Lao Zi (also known as Li Er or Li Dan, c. 471 BC) first applied the principle of harmony (和 hé) to explain the relationship between yin and yang. He writes: “The Dao begot the one, the one begot two, two begot three and three begot the myriad things. The myriad things bear yin and embrace yang. Yin and yang mingle and endorse each other for achieving harmony.”6

In his book, Analects of Confucius (論語 lùn yǔ), published in the early Warring States period,7 and in the Book of Rites (禮記 lǐ jì), written and published by a later follower of his, Confucius (also known as Kong Zi or Kong Qiu, 551–479 BC) concluded that “harmony (和 hé) is a basic principle for everything in nature,”8 and “in the application of rites, harmony is most important.”9 Because the doctrines of Daoism and Confucianism have had a tremendous influence on Chinese philosophy and culture, the concept of harmony, which blends different things and makes them balanced, has become an indispensable concept that is practiced in Chinese daily life.

Of course, harmonization (和法 hé fǎ) stems from the concept of harmony (和 hé) and is one of the most common treatment approaches one comes across when reading ancient medical literature and practicing medicine every day. It includes harmonizing or adjusting the relationship between the nutritive qi and the defensive qi, between the liver and spleen, harmonizing shao yang and so on. Historically, the character “和 hé” was first recorded in Fifty-two Diseases and Their Formulas (五十二病方 wǔ shí èr bìng fāng), which was published later in the Warring States period10 and before The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic (黃帝內經 huáng dì nèi jīng).11 In this book, the character “和 hé” appears 22 times, among which 20 times it means “mix with” in preparing medicine, one time it means “suitable” and one time it means “divide” in administering medicine.

Around 190 BC, scholars and practitioners first used the character “和 hé” to describe pathologies and treatment approaches, the contexts of which call for the character to be translated as “appropriate” and “balance.” These applications were found on the bamboo slips dug out from tombs from the early Western Han Dynasty (206 BC to 24 AD). The slips state:

Later, there were wider applications of the character “和 hé” in The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic (黃帝內經 huáng dì nèi jīng) and Difficult Questions (難經 nàn jīng), two classics that Zhang Ji mentioned in his preface as the reference books for his writing Discussion of Cold Damage. In Difficult Questions, the character “和 hé” appears nine times, which is used to describe the physiology and pathology of organs, orifices and pulses. However, the usage of this character flourishes in The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic, since this character appears as many as 121 times in the book and is widely used to describe the following seven aspects: balance in nature, preserving health, physiology, pathology, treatment (in which twice it is related to reaction after treatment, five times it is related to normalization after treatment) and the rest of the time it is related to the detailed approaches for the preparation and administration of medicine (see Table 7.1 for further details). The meaning of the character “和 hé” has been largely expanded—it is not only limited to “mix with,” “suitable” and “divided” in Fifty-two Formulas (五十二病方 wǔ shí èr bìng fāng) but also applies its original meaning, “harmony,” in Chinese medicine and introduces other meanings like “exchange (intercourse),” “adjust,” “balance,” “moderate,” “modest,” “adapt,” and “response.”

Since Zhang Ji mentions in the preface of his book that he consulted The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic when writing Discussion of Cold Damage, two questions might be raised:

•How did The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic influence his usage if Zhang Ji indeed used this character?

According my calculations, there are a total of 40 times in 31 lines that Zhang Ji uses this character in Discussion of Cold Damage. The usage of this character can be classified into the following seven categories:

1.It refers to physiology and can be translated into “harmony” or “harmonious” as in “the nutritive qi is in harmony” and “the nutritive qi is harmonious” in line 53, and “if there is harmony in the stomach” in line 265.

2.It is used to describe pathology such as “the defensive qi is not in harmony with the nutritive qi” in line 53 or “the defensive qi is not harmonious” in line 54. Other lines that demonstrate such application of this character are lines 29, 152, 157, 265 and 304.

3.It is used to describe clinical manifestations and means abnormality, and the translation can vary depending on the clinical manifestations to which it relates. For example, “the pulses are harmonious” appears twice in line 105. Other lines that demonstrate such application of this character are lines 252 and 304.

In another of his books, Understanding the Truth for Discussion of Cold Damage (傷寒明理論 sháng hán míng lǐ lùn) published in 1156, he further elaborates on why harmonization is suitable for shao yang disease:

When pathological factors locate on the exterior, one should cook a formula to promote sweating; when pathological factors locate in the interior of the body, one should purge them by provoking diarrhea; when pathological factors do not locate solely either on the exterior or in the interior, but rather in the half exterior and the half interior, in this case, promotion of sweating is not appropriate, and promotion of vomiting and purging are not good either. It is suitable to apply harmonization. Minor Bupleurum Decoction (xiǎo chái hú tāng) is an agent to harmonize both the exterior and the interior.14

Six hundred years later, Ke Qin (also known as Ke Yun-Bo, c. 1669) echoed Cheng’s idea and further pointed out that “this formula [Minor Bupleurum Decoction (xiǎo chái hú tāng)] is a remedy to harmonize the pivot of shao yang, and it is a principal formula to harmonize the exterior and interior.”15 Because Both Cheng Wu-Ji and Ke Qin were famous scholars who commented on Discussion of Cold Damage, their interpretations for the relationship among shao yang, harmonization and Minor Bupleurum Decoction (xiǎo chái hú tāng) had a tremendous influence on studying and practicing the theories from Discussion of Cold Damage and have been well received by subsequent scholars and practitioners.

In his book, Medical Comprehension (醫學心悟 yī xué xīn wù) published in 1732, Cheng Guo-Pen (also known as Cheng Zhong-Ling, 1662–1735), who first put harmonization among Eight Treatment Principles in Chinese medicine, i.e. promotion of sweating, promotion of vomiting, purging, harmonization, warming, clearing, dissipating and tonifying, echoed Zhang’s idea that one should only address one approach when discussing harmonization. He wrote:

There is harmonization that is implemented by clearing; there is harmonization that is realized by warming; there is harmonization that is achieved by dissipating; there is harmonization that is implemented by tonifying; there is harmonization that is realized by drying; there is harmonization that is achieved by moistening; there is harmonization that is gained by relieving the exterior; there is harmonization that is gained by purging.17

In fact, Dai Tian-Zhang (also known as Dai Lin-Jiao, c. 1660), a famous scholar and physician who specialized in warm-pathogen disease, noticed that it is not proper to just address one approach when discussing harmonization and first put two approaches that opposed each other for understanding harmonization. In his book, Clear Differentiation for Warm-Pathogen and Pestilential Diseases (溫疫明辨 wēn yǐ míng biàn) published in 1675, he pointed out that “combining cold and warm agents is called harmonization; blending agents of tonifying and reducing is called harmonization; relieving the exterior and interior simultaneously is called harmonization; reducing hyperactivity is called harmonization.”18 He Bing-Yuan (also known as He Lian-Chen, 1861–1919), Dai’s follower and a famous scholar who specialized in warm-pathogen disease, summarized this idea in his book, Revised and Expanded Discussion of Warm-Pathogen Disease (重訂廣瘟熱論 chóng dìng guáng wēn rè lùn) first published in 1960, as the following:

All methods that deal with the exterior and interior simultaneously, combining cold and warm herbs, mixing bitter and cold agents, the combination of tonifying and reducing, elimination of residual or recurrent pathogens, and adjustment of qi and blood, are called harmonization. What is called harmonization is to treat both sides.19

In her article, “On ‘Harmonization’ in Discussion of Cold Damage” published in 2002, Nie Hui-Min, a famous professor who specializes in Discussion of Cold Damage at Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, clearly classifies harmonization into two categories; a narrow sense and a broad sense:

Harmonization in a broad sense refers to the treatment principle that has functions to adjust the hyperactivity, eliminate cold and heat pathogens, and tonify the deficiency for expelling pathological factors and curing diseases… Harmonization in a narrow sense specially refers to treatment approaches, and it is one of the eight basic treatment approaches. It attends the treatment goal through harmonization such as harmonization of pivot, harmonization of the nutritive qi and defensive qi, harmonization of the spleen and stomach, harmonization of ascending and descending, and harmonization of the interior and the exterior.20

Since 2003, some scholars have even expanded the concept of harmonization to include adjustment of qi and blood, balance of yin and yang, harmonization of the liver and spleen, and harmonization of the liver and stomach. Obviously, these interpretations for harmonization have expanded to the point that it seems the concept of harmonization encompasses every treatment approach without limitation and causes some confusion between harmonization in Discussion of Cold Damage and other treatment approaches in Chinese medicine since 2003.

To answer this question, the second important concept in this chapter must be introduced, which is “樞 shū (pivot).” According to Chapter 5 of Morals Classic (道德經 dào dé jīng), “the space between heaven and earth is like a bellows.”24 Of course, to become a functional bellows, qi must move in and out and/or up and down. Based on the basic natural principle in Chinese philosophy and culture, which states “as above, as below,” the human body would also function as a bellows in which qi should move in and out and/or up and down. In order to make qi move in and out and/or up and down, there must be something opening and closing that lets qi perform these movements. Therefore, the theory of the “樞 shū (pivot)” for shao yang has been introduced in Chinese medicine.

Historically, many scholars have talked about the door hinge function for shao yang that makes qi go in and out and have ignored its function to make qi move up and down. For example, Zhang Jie-Bin (known as Zhang Jing-Yue, 1563–1640), a famous scholar who made commentary for The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic, wrote that “the reason to call shao yang a pivot is that it means qi can move in and out between the exterior and interior like a door hinge.”29 This explanation can be proved by the feature of the gall bladder. The gall bladder is classified as an “extraordinary fu organ” by The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic. There is general agreement that the reason to classify it as an extraordinary fu organ is because it can store and discharge essence and qi, though the original text in this classic did not prove it.30 Given this interpretation, the gall bladder can let qi in and out like a door hinge. However, it fails to demonstrate dynamic movement of qi. In fact, some scholars have ignored the explanation made by Wang Bing (also known as Qi Xuan-Zi, 710–804 AD), another well-known scholar who made commentary for The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic. In his book, Basic Questions of The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic (黃帝內經素問 huáng dì nèi jīng sù wèn) first published in 762 AD, he presented a good definition for the character “樞 shū,” in terms of qi moving in a dynamic way, when he explained this statement related to shao yang in Chapter 6 of Basic Questions of The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic. He wrote that “what is called ‘樞 shū (pivot)’ means that [shao yang] governs turning of qi elegantly.”31 In fact, the character “樞 shū” bears meaning of center or important part, which was used by Zhuang Zi (also known as Zhuang Zhou and Zhuang Zi-Xiu, 369–286 BC),32 a famous writer and philosopher of the early Warring States period. Therefore, it is better to understand the concept of the character “樞 shū” dynamically and translate it, especially when it refers to shao yang as a pivot rather than a door hinge, which means the action of turning in various directions on a point.

Some scholars or readers might argue that since the character “樞 shū” is not recorded in Discussion of Cold Damage at all, how do you know that Zhang Ji did pay attention to qi moving in and out and/or up and down and applied the theory of pivot for shao yang disease in Discussion of Cold Damage? In order to answer this question, several lines related to shao yang disease in Discussion of Cold Damage have to be carefully studied. The first line one must examine is line 96, which is the first line to systematically discuss clinical manifestations of shao yang disease and its treatment, Minor Bupleurum Decoctions (xiǎo chái hú tāng), in detail, though it is recorded in the chapter on tai yang disease. In this line, Zhang Ji writes:

After suffering from zhong feng syndrome in Cold Damage for five or six days, there is alternating chills and fever, discomfort and fullness in the chest and hypochondriac region, taciturnity with no desire to eat, sick and discomforting feeling in the stomach and easy vomiting, and with the following possible symptoms and signs: vexation in the chest and absence of nausea, or thirst, or abdominal pain, or distention and hardening below the hypochondriac region, or palpitation in the epigastrium and abnormal urination, or absence of thirst and slight fever in the body, or cough. Minor Bupleurum Decoction (xiǎo chái hú tāng) should be prescribed.

The moving qi between the kidneys is original vital qi for life and it is the root for the twelve channels. Therefore, this qi is called source qi. The three burners is another missionary who can distribute source qi over the body.34

However, where and how the source qi is distributed has been largely ignored by many scholars. In fact, in Spiritual Pivot (靈樞經 líng shū jīng) and Basic Questions (素問 sù wèn) of The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic, the scholars who wrote this classic first disclosed the secret relationships among the kidney, urinary bladder, three burners, interstices among the skin, muscles, tendons and bones, and hair on the skin, and they laid out the road map for the distribution of the source qi carried by the three burners, one component of shao yang. They pointed out that “the kidney corresponds with the three burners and urinary bladder. And the three burners and urinary bladder correspond with the interstices and the hairs on the skin,”35 and “clear yang qi can reach the interstices among the skin, muscles, tendons, and bones…and nourish limbs.”36

Based on his study and clinical experience, Zhang Ji found that not only qi but also blood is distributed by the three burners, and the interstices among the skin, muscles, tendons and bones are a gate where pathological factors invade. In Chapter 1 of Essentials and Formula Discussions from the Golden Cabinet (金匱要略方論 jīn gùi yào lüè fāng lùn), a companion book for Discussion of Cold Damage, Zhang Ji states:

Zhang Jia-Li and colleagues have offered an insightful explanation for the relationship between the 腠 còu (interstice), skin, three burners and other zang-fu organs:

“腠理 còu lǐ” is a kind of structure in the body that is predominated by the three burners and has relation to the skin and zang-fu organs. It is the place where source qi and true qi meet, and qi and blood are distributed.38

When there is deficiency of both qi and blood, the 腠理 còu lǐ are open and then pathological factors invade, leading to the fighting between anti-pathogenic qi and pathological factors, resulting in accumulation of pathological factors under the hypochondriac region.

Also, he noticed that pathological factors can even progress to the chong and uterus, affecting menstruation (see lines 143–145 for further details) through this structure, and recommended Minor Bupleurum Decoction (xiǎo chái hú tāng) to get rid of these pathological factors via recovering the pivot function of shao yang. Based on the discussion above, we can draw a figure (Figure 7.2) to illustrate the skin, interstices (腠 còu), three burners, kidney, and the chong and uterus.

Figure 7.2 is based on the description from The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic and Zhang Ji’s works, including Discussion of Cold Damage and Essentials and Formula Discussions from the Golden Cabinet, as well as the elaboration from later commentators, such as Zhang Jia-Li and colleagues. It has been illuminated that the three burners indeed serve as a pivot for qi, blood and body fluid moving between the body surface and inside of the body. Understanding Figure 7.2, one could be able to explain why women could be easily attacked by cold during menstruation and how pathological factors can affect menstruation and/or urination when catching a cold. Besides viewing the three burners as serving as a pivot for qi, blood and body fluid moving between the body surface and inside of the body, there are two other ways to understand the meaning of the pivot function for shao yang, i.e. understanding the pivot function for shao yang based on the yang qi condition and its circulation, and understanding it as a symbolic image for the movement of orifices in the upper part of the body.

According to Chapters 7, 66 and 74 of Basic Questions of The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic and comments from Wang Bing,39 yang can be further classified into tai yang that is called “three yangs” as it bears the strongest yang qi, yang ming that is called “two yangs” as it bears relatively strong yang qi, and shao yang that is called “one yang” as it bears the least yang qi among three yang. Yin can also be further classified into tai yin, shao yin and jue yin. Tai yin is called “three yins” as it contains the strongest yin qi, shao yin is called “two yins” as it contains relatively strong yin qi, and jue yin is called “one yin” as it contains the least yin qi. Because these yangs and yins are believed to wax and wane and connect to each other in the body, the flow of qi in these three yang and three yin can be represented as shown in Figure 7.3.

Ke’s insightful interpretation for the disorders of the mouth, throat and eyes is supported by the text of line 263, which is called the outline for shao yang disease. If one reads the lines in the chapter on shao yang disease carefully, the ear can be considered as the symbol of the pivot for shao yang as deafness in the ears is called zhong feng syndrome in shao yang disease by Zhang Ji in line 264. If one opens his or her mind based on Ke’s thoughts, any orifice including the eyes, ears, mouth, throat and nose can be viewed as the symbol of the pivot for shao yang. I have applied these thoughts in my clinic to treat sinusitis and allergy and gained good results. Based on the discussion above, Zhang Ji attached great importance to following three groups of symptoms and signs for identifying dysfunction of the pivot in shao yang: alternating chills and fever; symptoms and signs related to the three burners; and manifestation in upper orifices, especially eyes, throat, mouth and ears.

Bupleuri Radix (chái hú) has a neutral nature. According to the theory of nature (氣 qì) and flavor (味 wèi), nature occurs first and then flavors are produced by qi in universe. Qi, the nature of herbs, is first established when the seeds of herbs start to grow. They can be cold, cool, hot and warm or neutral in nature at the beginning. As they grow, they develop different flavors but their nature remains unchanged. For example, both Nelumbinis Folium (hé yè) and Nelumbinis Semen (lián zǐ) are neutral in nature. Nelumbinis Folium (hé yè) is bitter in flavor, which makes it the herb to deal with dampness. Nelumbinis Semen (lián zǐ), the fruit of Nelumbinis Folium (hé yè), is sweet in flavor, which changes its function from treating dampness to tonifying qi of the spleen. According to yin yang theory, warm nature and hot nature belong to yang, which is likely to reach to the exterior of the body as the exterior is yang, while cool nature and cold nature belong to yin, which is likely to stay inside the body. Of course, the neutral nature would stay in the middle or center part of the body. Therefore, qi, the nature of herbs, determines where herbs reach primarily in the body and the flavor and other properties it develops determine where it might go later. The neutral flavor of a herb means it is not cold and cool and is not hot and warm. It is this nature that might makes herbs reach neither the exterior nor the interior but the middle point or center in the body, which is the pivot in the body.

Interestingly, Scutellariae Radix (huáng qín) and Pinelliae Rhizoma (bàn xià), two deputy herbs that assist Bupleuri Radix (chái hú) in the formula, are neutral in nature according to Materia Medica by Shen Nong (神農本草經 shén nóng běn cǎo jīng).42 It is probably their nature that make these two agents specially selected to assist Bupleuri Radix (chái hú) to deal with the dysfunction of the pivot for shao yang. Scutellariae Radix (huáng qín) is considered bitter in this classic, and this raises a question: Why does Scutellariae Radix (huáng qín) not have the same ability as Bupleuri Radix (chái hú) for the pivot function of shao yang? The answer is that Scutellariae Radix (huáng qín) is heavier and more bitter than Bupleuri Radix (chái hú) and it does not have any ability to reach the body surface by itself. This is why almost all symptoms and signs mentioned in Materia Medica by Shen Nong that Scutellariae Radix (huáng qín) treats, such as jaundice due to heat, dysentery, diarrhea, water retention, amenorrhea due to blood stasis and carbuncle, belong to interior disorders. As for Pinelliae Rhizoma (bàn xià), it is acrid and can be used to treat Cold Damage, fever, chills, hardening sensation in the epigastrium, qi rebellion, swelling in the throat, dizziness, distention in the chest, cough, borborygmus and sweating according to this classic.

There are two reasons for Zhang Ji to add these four herbs on top of Bupleuri Radix (chái hú), Pinelliae Rhizoma (bàn xià) and Scutellariae Radix (huáng qín): the first is to tonify qi in the spleen, tai yin that bears three yins, and let qi from tai yin support shao yang by using Ginseng Radix (rén shēn), Jujubae Fructus (dà zăo) and Glycyrrhizae Radix Preparata (zhì gān cǎo). The second reason is to adjust the disharmony between the stomach and shao yang by adding Zingiberis Rhizoma Recens (shēng jiāng) for treating poor appetite and vomiting caused by rebellion of qi in the stomach.

1Cheng Wu-Ji. Annotating and Explaining Discussion of Cold Damage (zhù jiě shāng hán lùn). Beijing: People’s Health Publishing House, 1978: 151

2Li Le-Yi. Five Hundred Cases for Changes to Chinese Characters (revised edition) (hàn zì yán biàn wǔ bǎi lì). Beijing: Publishing House of Beijing Language University, 2002: 129

3Xu Shen. Explanation for Chinese Characters (shuō wén jiě zì). Beijing: Chinese Publishing House, 1963: 314

4Paul Procter et al. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. London: Pitman Press, 1978: 517

5Wang Ji-Min et al. Translation and Comments for Brief Historical Stories of States (guó yǔ yì zhù). Guangzhou: Hundreds Flower Island Literature and Arts Publishing House, 1992: 329

6Sha Shao-Hai and Xu Hong. Complete Explanation for Lao Zi (lǎo zǐ quán yì). Guiyang: Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 1989: 87

7The Warring States period started in 476 BC and ended in 221 BC.

8Yang Tian-Yu. Comments and Explanation for Book of Rites (lǐ jí yì zhù). Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Literature Publishing House, 2004: 691

9Xu Zhi-Gang. Complete Explanation for the Analects of Confucius (lùn yǔ tōng shì). Beijing: People Literatures Publishing House, 1997: 6

10Zhang Zheng-Yao and Xin Bo. “Textual research for the publishing time of ‘Fifty-two Diseases and Their Formulas Written on Silk’.” Journal of History for Cultural Relics, 2007 (6): 9

11Ma Ji-Xing and Li Xue-Qin. Fifty-two Diseases and Their Formulas in Books Written on Silk from Tombs in Han Dynasty at Ma Wang Dui (má wáng duī hàn mù bó shū, wǔ shí èr bìng fāng). In The Panel to Recover Books Written on Silk from Tombs in Han Dynasty at Ma Wang Dui. Beijing: Publishing House of Cultural Relics, 1979: 179 (These are the earliest formulas discovered in China thus far.)

12Gao Da-Lun. Study on Qi Cultivation: Book on Bamboo Slips Dug from Tombs in Han Dynasty at Zhang Jia Mountain (zhāng jiā shān hàn jiǎn yǐn shū yán jiū). Chengdu: Bashu Publishing House, 1995: 170

13Cheng Wu-Ji, op. cit., p.151

14Ibid., p.51

15Ke Qin. Supplementary on Surviving with Discussion of Cold Damage (shāng hán lái sū jí, shāng hán fù yì). Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Publishing House, 1978: 44

16Zhao Li-Xun et al. Annotation and Commentary for Complete Medical Works by Jing-Yue (jiào zhù jǐng yuè quán shū). Beijing: People’s Health Publishing House, 1991: 1242

17Cheng Guo-Pen. Medical Comprehension (yī xué xīn wù). Changchun: Liaoning Science and Technology Publishing House, 1997: 7

18Dai Tian-Zhang. Clear Differentiation for Warm-Pathogen and Pestilential Diseases (wēn yì míng biàn). Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Publishing House, 1959: 67

19He Bing-Yuan. Revised and Expanded Discussion of Warm-Pathogen Disease (chóng dìng guáng wēn rè lùn). Beijing: People’s Health Publishing House, 1961: 145

20Nie Hui-Min. “On ‘Harmonization’ in Discussion of Cold Damage.” Journal of Chinese Medicine, 2002 (17): 199

21Frigid Extremities Powder contains Bupleuri Radix (chái hú), Paeoniae Radix Alba (bái sháo), Aurantii Fructus Immaturus (zhǐ shí) and Glycyrrhizae Radix Preparata (zhì gān cǎo). See line 318 for further details.

22Rambling Powder contains Bupleuri Radix (chái hú), Paeoniae Radix Alba (bái sháo), Angelicae Sinensis Radix (dāng guī), Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma (bái zhú), Poria (fú líng), Zingiberis Rhizoma Recens (shēng jiāng), Menthae Haplocalycis Herba (bò hé) and Glycyrrhizae Radix Preparata (zhì gān cǎo).

23Ma Yi-Chao, Jiang Jian-Guo and Lu Xiao-Ming. “Discussion of several issues related to formulas of Bupleurum decoctions, their syndromes and harmonization.” Journal of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 2003 (1): 21

24Sha Shao-Hai and Xu Zi-Hong. Complete Translation for Lao Zi (lǎo zǐ quán yì). Guiyang: Guizhou People’s Publishing House, 1989: 9

25Wang Bing. Basic Questions of The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic (huáng dì nèi jīng sù wèn). Beijing: People’s Health Publishing House, 1963: 50

26Anonymous. Spiritual Pivot (líng shū jīng). Beijing: People’s Health Publishing House, 1963: 16

27Xu Shen. Explanation for Chinese Characters (shuō wén jiě zì). Beijing: Chinese Publishing House, 1963: 120

28Gao Da-Lun. Annotation and Explanation on Pulse Book on Bamboo Slips Dug from Tombs in Han Dynasty at Zhang Jia Mountain (zhāng jiā shān hàn jiǎn mài shū jiào shì). Chengdu: Bashu Publishing House, 1992: 94

29Zhang Jie-Bin. Classified Classic (lèi jīng). Beijing: People’s Health Publishing House, 1982: 287

30According to original text from Chapter 11 of Basic Questions of The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic, “the brain, marrow, bone, vessels, uterus and gall bladder are generated by qi on the earth. They function like earth and store without discharge.” See Wang Bing, op. cit., p.77

31Wang Bing, op. cit., p.50

32Editorial Department of Business Publishing House. Origin of Chinese Characters (cí yuán). Beijing: Business Publishing House, 1980: 1622

33Wang Bing, op. cit., p.58

34Nanjing College of Traditional Chinese Medicine et al. Annotation and Explanation for Difficult Questions (nàn jīng jiào shì). Beijing: People’s Health Publishing House, 1979: 144

35Anonymous, op. cit., p.92

36Wang Bing, op. cit., p.32

37Zhang Ji. Essentials and Formula Discussions from the Golden Cabinet (jīn gùi yào lüè fāng lùn). Textually researched and annotated by Wen Di. Beijing: Chinese Publishing House, 1993: 2

38Zhang Jia-Li. Selected Reading for Essentials and Formula Discussions from the Golden Cabinet (jīn gùi yào lüè xuán dú). Beijing: Chinese Medicine Publishing House, 1999: 18

39Wang Bing, op. cit., pp.53–56, 365, 528–529

40Ke Qin. Discussion of Special Topic in Surviving with Cold Damage (shāng hán lái sū jí, shāng hán lùn yì). Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Publishing House, 1978: 33–34

41Anonymous. Materia Medica by Shen Nong (shén nóng běn cǎo jīng). Beijing: Scientific and Technological Literature Publishing House, 1996: 15

42Ibid., pp.64, 92

43Wang Bing, op. cit., p.17

Table 7.1 Summary of usage for the character “和 hé” in The Yellow Emperor’s Inner Classic
Usage	Balance in nature	Preserving health	Physiology	Pathology	Treatment			Preparation of medicine	Administration of medicine
Presentation frequency	13	7	41	10	48			1	1
					Reaction to treatment	Condition back to normal after treatment	Treatment approaches
					2	5	41