Hebrews

Author: Unknown; possibly Apollos or Barnabas

Audience: Primarily Jewish Christians

Date: About ad 63

Theme: The author demonstrates the absolute supremacy and sufficiency of Jesus Christ as revealer and mediator of God’s grace.

Introduction

Author

The writer of this letter does not identify himself, but he was obviously well known to the original recipients. Though for some 1,200 years (from c. ad 400 to 1600) the book was commonly called “The Epistle of Paul to the Hebrews,” there was no agreement in the earliest centuries regarding its authorship. Since the Reformation it has been widely recognized that Paul could not have been the writer. There is no disharmony between the teaching of Hebrews and that of Paul’s letters, but the specific emphases and writing styles are markedly different.

Contrary to Paul’s usual practice, the author of Hebrews nowhere names himself in the letter. The readers, however, certainly knew who he was, as evidenced by his personal comments (13:18,22,24). We know that the author was a man from 11:32 (see note there). Moreover, the statement “This salvation, which was first announced by the Lord, was confirmed to us by those who heard him” (2:3), indicates that the author had neither been with Jesus during his earthly ministry nor received special revelation directly from the risen Lord, as Paul had (Gal 1:11–12).

The earliest suggestion of authorship is found in Tertullian’s De Pudicitia, 20 (c. 200), in which he quotes from “an epistle to the Hebrews under the name of Barnabas.” From the letter itself it is clear that the writer must have had authority in the apostolic church and was an intellectual Jewish Christian, well versed in the OT. Barnabas meets these requirements. He was a Jew of the priestly tribe of Levi (Ac 4:36) who became a close friend of Paul after the latter’s conversion. Under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, the church at Antioch commissioned Barnabas and Paul for the work of evangelism and sent them off on the first missionary journey (Ac 13:1–4).

The other leading candidate for authorship is Apollos, whose name was first suggested by Martin Luther and who is favored by many interpreters today. Apollos, an Alexandrian by birth, was also a Jewish Christian with notable intellectual and oratorical abilities. Luke tells us that “he was a learned man, with a thorough knowledge of the Scriptures” (Ac 18:24). We also know that Apollos was associated with Paul in the early years of the church in Corinth (1Co 1:12; 3:4–6,22). Other suggestions for authorship made in the earliest centuries of church history were Luke and Clement of Rome.

Two things are evident: The author was a master of the Greek language of his day, and he was thoroughly acquainted with the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT), which he regularly quotes.

Recipients

The letter was addressed primarily to Jewish converts who were familiar with the OT and who were being tempted to turn away from Christ and revert to Jewish practices of sacrifice and worship (or possibly to Judaize the gospel; cf. Gal 2:14). The destination of the letter is probably either Jerusalem or Rome, the latter being the most likely. The letter is first attested by Clement of Rome (c. ad 96), and the statement “Those from Italy send you their greetings” (13:24) sounds like Romans living elsewhere sending their greetings home.

Date

Hebrews was probably written before the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple in ad 70 because: (1) If it had been written after this date, the author almost certainly would have mentioned the temple’s destruction and the end of the Jewish sacrificial system; (2) the author consistently uses the Greek present tense when speaking of the temple and the priestly activities connected with it (5:1–3; 7:23,27; 8:3–5; 9:6–9,13,25; 10:1,3–4,8,11; 13:10–11). However, he describes the wilderness tabernacle, not the Jerusalem temple; and (3) Heb 10:34 may refer to the expulsion of the Jews, including Jewish Christians, from Rome in ad 49 (Ac 18:2), many of whom returned in 54 or later after the imperial edict lapsed. But, if 12:4 means that no one among the audience of Hebrews has yet been martyred for their faith, and if the recipients are believers in Rome, then the date for the letter must be before 64 when Nero unleashed the first state-sponsored pogrom against Christians there.

Theme

The theme of Hebrews is the absolute supremacy and sufficiency of Jesus Christ as revealer and mediator of God’s grace through the new covenant. The prologue (1:1–4) presents Christ as God’s full and final revelation, far surpassing the revelation given in the OT. The prophecies and promises of the OT are fulfilled in the new covenant, of which Christ is the mediator. From the OT itself, Christ is shown to be superior to the ancient prophets, to angels, to Moses (the mediator of the former covenant) and to Aaron and his priestly descendants. Hebrews could be called “the book of better things” since the two Greek words for “better” and “superior” occur 15 times in the letter (1:4 [twice]; 6:9; 7:19,22; 8:6 [3 times]; 9:23; 10:34; 11:4,16,35,40; 12:24; see chart). A striking feature of this presentation of the gospel is the unique manner in which the author employs expositions of eight specific passages of the OT Scriptures:

(1) 2:5–9: Exposition of Ps 8:4–6

(2) 3:7—4:13: Exposition of Ps 95:7–11

(3) 4:14—7:28: Exposition of Ps 110:4

(4) 8:1—10:18: Exposition of Jer 31:31–34

(5) 10:1–10: Exposition of Ps 40:6–8

(6) 10:32—12:3: Exposition of Hab 2:3–4

(7) 12:4–13: Exposition of Pr 3:11–12

(8) 12:18–24: Exposition of Ex 19:10–23

Practical applications of this theme of Christ’s supremacy are given throughout the book. The readers are told that there can be no turning back to or continuation of the Jewish Levitical (priestly) and sacrificial system, which has been superseded by the unique priesthood and sacrifice of Christ. God’s people must now look only to him, whose atoning death, resurrection and ascension have opened the way into the true, heavenly sanctuary of God’s presence. To “ignore so great a salvation” (2:3) or to give up the pursuit of holiness (12:10,14) is to face the anger of the “living God” (10:31). Five times the author weaves into his presentation of the gospel stern warnings (see note on 2:1–4 and article). He also repeatedly reminds his readers of the divine judgment that came on the rebellious generation of Israelites in the wilderness (see 3:16–19 and note).

Literary Form

Hebrews is commonly referred to as a letter, though it does not have the typical form of a letter. It ends like a letter (13:22–25) but begins more like an essay or sermon (1:1–4). The author does not identify himself or those addressed, which letter writers normally did. And he offers no manner of greeting, such as is usually found at the beginning of ancient letters. Rather, he begins with a magnificent statement about Jesus Christ. He calls his work a “word of exhortation” (13:22), the designation elsewhere given to a sermon in a synagogue service (Ac 13:15). Like a sermon, Hebrews is full of encouragement, exhortations and stern warnings. It is likely that the author used sermonic materials and sent them out in a modified letter form.

The theme of Hebrews is the absolute supremacy and sufficiency of Jesus Christ as revealer and mediator of God’s grace through the new covenant. The prophecies and promises of the OT are fulfilled in the new covenant, of which Christ is the mediator.

Outline

I. Prologue: The Superiority of God’s New Revelation (1:1–4)

II. The Superiority of Christ to the Angels (1:5—2:18)

A. Scriptural Proof of His Superiority (1:5–14)

B. Exhortation Not to Ignore the Revelation of God in His Son (2:1–4)

C. Jesus Was Made Lower Than the Angels for a Little While (2:5–9)

D. Having Been Made Like Us, Jesus Was Enabled to Save Us (2:10–18)

III. The Superiority of Christ to Moses (3:1—4:13)

A. Demonstration of Christ’s Superiority (3:1–6)

B. Exhortation to Enter Sabbath-Rest (3:7—4:13)

IV. The Superiority of Christ to the Aaronic Priests (4:14—7:28)

A. Jesus Is the Great High Priest (4:14–16)

B. Qualifications of a Priest (5:1–10)

C. Exhortation to Press on Toward Maturity (5:11—6:12)

D. The Certainty of God’s Promise (6:13–20)

E. Christ’s Superior Priestly Order (ch. 7)

V. The Superiority of Christ’s Sacrificial Work as Our High Priest (8:1—10:39)

A. A New Sanctuary and a New Covenant (ch. 8)

B. The Old Sanctuary (9:1–10)

C. The Better Sacrifice (9:11—10:18)

D. A Call to Follow Jesus Faithfully and With Perseverance (10:19–39)

VI. The Superiority of Christ to the Heroes of Faith Under the Old Covenant (chs. 11–12)

A. Faith and Its Many Outstanding Examples (ch. 11)

B. Jesus, the Supreme Example (12:1–3)

C. Encouragement to Persevere in the Face of Hardship (12:4–13)

D. Exhortation to Holy Living (12:14–17)

E. Crowning Motivation and Warning (12:18–29)

VII. Conclusion (ch. 13)

A. Rules for Christian Living (13:1–17)

B. Request for Prayer (13:18–19)

C. Benediction (13:20–21)

D. Personal Remarks (13:22–23)

E. Greetings and Final Benediction (13:24–25)