ENDNOTES

1. The name of the report was officially “The Negro Family: The Case for National Action.” It can be accessed online at www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/webidmeynihan.htm.

2. Stephen Steinberg, Turning Back: The Retreat from Racial Justice in American Thought and Policy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), p. 117.

3. Kenneth J. Neubeck and Noel A. Cazeneve, Welfare Racism: Playing the Race Card Against America’s Poor (New York: Routledge, 2001).

4. Martin Gilens, Why Americans Hate Welfare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).

5. William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978).

6. Steinberg (1995), p. 124.

7. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).

8. Steinberg (1995), pp. 144–151.

9. Sleeper penned Liberal Racism in 1997 as a defense of colorblindness and the elevation of a shared American identity over race-based political organizing. Kahlenberg’s principal contribution to the scholarship of post-racial liberalism was his 1996 book The Remedy: Class, Race, and Affirmative Action, in which he called for a reworking of affirmative action programs from race-based to class-based efforts. Richard Thompson Ford’s 2008 book The Race Card: How Bluffing About Bias Makes Race Relations Worse seeks to separate what the author—a law professor at Stanford—considers legitimate cases of racism from those he deems invalid. Generally, he appears to believe the latter is a much larger category than the former. Elsewhere, he has called explicitly for a shift from race-based policies to address inequity to class-based efforts such as a New Deal–like Works Progress Administration, as with his May 17, 2009, editorial in the Boston Globe titled “The end of civil rights” www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/05/17/the_end_of_civil_rights?mode=PF.

10. William Julius Wilson, More Than Just Race: Being Black and Poor in the Inner City (New York: W.W. Norton, 2009), Kindle Edition, locations 122–27.

11. Wilson (2009), Kindle Edition, locations 142–47.

12. Wilson (2009), Kindle Edition, locations 234–39.

13. George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How Whites Profit from Identity Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998), pp. 6–7.

14. Barack Obama, The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2006), pp. 10–11.

15. Obama (2006), pp. 96–98.

16. Obama (2006), p. 177.

17. Obama, for instance, discussed his grandfather’s ability to procure an FHA home loan and take advantage of the GI Bill during his 2004 speech to the Democratic National Convention. www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A19751-2004Jul27.html.

18. See, for instance, Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2005), 22; Philip F. Rubio, A History of Affirmative Action: 1619–2000 (Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 2000).

19. Mark R. Warren, Crossing Over the Color Line: How White Activists Embrace Racial Justice (New York: Oxford University Press, forthcoming, 2010).

20. Obama (2006): p. 177.

21. Obama (2006), p. 245.

22. Michael K. Brown, Martin Carnoy, Elliott Currie, Troy Duster, David B. Oppenheimer, Marjorie M. Shultz and David Wellman, Whitewashing Race: The Myth of a Color-Blind Society (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003), p. 74.

23. Obama (2006), pp. 246–7.

24. Paul Street, Barack Obama and the Future of American Politics (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2008), p. 49.

25. Interestingly, if you type the words “The Speech” into Google, the first two references are to Obama’s “More Perfect Union” race speech. In YouTube, a clip of the same speech is the first clip to pop up when the same words are entered. Just last year, a collection of essays was published on the subject, titled The Speech: Race and Barack Obama’s “A More Perfect Union” edited by Vanderbilt professor T. Denean Sharpley-Whiting (New York: Bloomsbury, 2009).

26. For a full text of “A More Perfect Union,” go to: www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/03/18/obama-race-speech-read-t_n_92077.html.

27. Fox News Poll/Opinions Dynamics, April 30, 2008. www.foxnews.com/projects/pdf/043008_release_web.pdf.

28. CBS News Poll/The New York Times, “Race Relations and Politics,” April 3, 2008. www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/pdf/Mar08c-Race.pdf.

29. Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).

30. Adam Mansbach, “The Audacity of Post-Racism,” in The Speech, ed. Sharpley-Whiting, p. 69.

31. Sylvia Hurtado and Christine Navia, “Reconciling College Access and the Affirmative Action Debate,” in Affirmative Action’s Testament of Hope, ed. Mildred Garcia (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1997), p. 115.

32. For a full discussion of affirmative action and a point-by-point refutation of conservative attacks on the concept, please see my earlier book Affirmative Action: Racial Preference in Black and White (New York: Routledge, 2005).

33. Mansbach (2009), p. 75.

34. Connie Schultz, “His Grandmother, My Father, Your Uncle …” in The Speech, ed. Sharpley-Whiting, pp. 104–5.

35. Jonathan Kaufman, “Whites Great Hope? Barack Obama and the Dream of a Color-Blind America,” Wall Street Journal, November 10, 2007, A1.

36. One could also make the argument that Obama’s post-racial approach bore very little fruit, even for him personally. Yes, he managed to gain the votes of a few percentage points’ more whites than any Democrat in forty years, but there is no way to know if this was due to his avoidance of race matters so much as the uniquely bad economy against which he was running, and the uptick in the youth vote, which went so dramatically in his favor. Indeed, overall, white voter turnout was down. Nationally, whites cast 700,000 fewer votes in 2008 than they had four years earlier. It was really a dramatic increase in the black and Latino vote that may have made the difference in the end for Obama. Indeed, there were 3 million more black votes in 2008 than in 2004. See Mike Davis, “Obama at Manassas,” New Left Review, March–April 2009, p. 24.

37. “Transcript: President Obama’s 100th-Day Press Briefing,” New York Times, April 29, 2009. www.nytimes.com/2009/04/29/us/politics/29text-obama.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1.

38. Darlene Superville, “Obama Defends Himself Against Black Critics,” The Huffington Post (December 21, 2009). www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/12/21/obama-defends-himself-aga_n_399819.html.

39. George Picard, “Racial Spoils in Obama’s America,” American Thinker (January 6, 2010), www.americanthinker.com/2010/01/racial_spoils_in_obamas_americ.html; Paul Sperry, “Obama’s Stealth Reparations,” FrontPageMag.com (October 28, 2008). It is interesting to note that among the “reparations” examples offered up by Picard in the cited column is the supposed desire on the part of the Obama administration to scrap work requirements in the 1996 welfare reform bill, passed under President Clinton. Because African Americans are disproportionately likely to receive public assistance (because they are disproportionately poor), loosening work requirements for those receiving aid would, according to Picard, be tantamount to a disparate benefit for blacks and thus untoward, perhaps even unconstitutional. But of course, by this logic, which Picard naturally fails to follow to its ultimate conclusion, the passage of the welfare reform bill, and the imposition of work requirements, would also be properly seen as disparate in impact, this time against blacks, and would have been invalid as well. Likewise, conservative calls for estate tax cuts or capital gains tax cuts would be illegitimate racial handouts to whites, since whites are far more likely to pay these taxes, being disproportionately among the wealthiest individuals, therefore subject to paying them. It is doubtful that conservatives like Picard would much appreciate where their own argumentation leads.

40. Media Matters for America, “Glenn Beck: Obama agenda driven by ‘reparations’ and desire to ‘settle old racial scores’,” July 23, 2009. http://mediamatters.org/mmtv/200907230040.

41. This statement, which Bond has made on several occasions, is found in a 2003 speech, excerpts of which are available on the Internet at www.turningpointtechnologies.com/clients/services/pdf.php?id=41.

42. The Gallup Organization, Gallup Poll Social Audit, Black-White Relations in the United States, 2001 Update (July 10, 2001), p. 7–9.

43. Leonard Steinhorn and Barbara Diggs-Brown, By the Color of Our Skin: The Illusion of Integration and the Reality of Race (New York: Dutton, 1999), p. 110.

44. Warren (forthcoming, 2010).

45. Brown et al. (2003), p. 35.

46. Michael Luo, “In Job Hunt, College Degree Can’t Close Racial Gap,” The New York Times (November 30, 2009), www.nytimes.com/2009/12/01/us/01race.html?_r=1

47. United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings, September 2009. 56:9, 25. The racial gaps in this Table (number A-17) appear a bit smaller than what is being claimed here. This is because Hispanics are not broken out separately from the white totals, and about 94 percent of all Hispanics are classified in labor department data and census data as “white” when racial categories are being identified. To extract Latinos from the white totals for a more accurate picture of the white–person of color unemployment ratios, I simply multiplied the number of Latinos who have college degrees and are unemployed, provided in the table, by 0.94. Then I subtracted that number (about 193,000) from the white totals for persons with degrees who were unemployed, since that number would represent Latinos. I did the same calculation for the civilian labor force numbers: multiplying the Latino number by 0.94 and subtracting that amount from the white civilian labor force numbers to arrive at non-Hispanic white numbers for each. From there, I divided the unemployment number for non-Hispanic whites by the non-Hispanic white civilian labor force number, to determine the unemployment rate for non-Hispanic whites. When Latinos are subtracted from the white numbers, the white unemployment rate drops from 4.8 percent to 4.6.

48. “Racial disparities persist in higher-paying jobs,” Associated Press (April 27, 2009), www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30437468/print/1/displaymode/1098.

49. Carmen DeNavas-Walt, Bernadette D. Proctor and Jessica C. Smith, U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P60-235, Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2007 (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 2008).

50. United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings, September 2009. 56:9, p. 46.

51. United States Department of Labor (2009), p. 209.

52. Associated Press, “Racial disparity persists in higher paying jobs,” MSNBC.com (April 27, 2009), www.msnbc.com/id/30437468.

53. “Major Study of Asian Americans Debunks ‘Model Minority’ Myth,” ScienceDaily (November 12, 2008), www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/11/081112101339.htm.

54. Richard Morin, “Misperceptions Cloud Whites’ View of Blacks,” Washington Post (July 11, 2001), A1.

55. Kaiser Family Foundation, Survey of Race, Ethnicity and Medical Care: Public Perceptions and Experiences (Washington, DC: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation), October 1999.

56. United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstracts of the United States, 2002 (Washington, DC, 2002), Table 137: p. 102.

57. Shawna Orzechowski and Peter Sepielli, Net Worth and Asset Ownership of Households: 1998 and 2000. Current Population Reports, P70-88 (United States Census Bureau, Washington, DC, May, 2003), pp. 2, 13–15. Those who dismiss data on wealth gaps between whites and blacks sometimes claim that these gaps—because they represent households—simply reflect the fact that black households are more likely to contain only one adult. As such, they will naturally have less wealth when compared to a white family with two adults in the home. But this claim has little merit. Although single-parent household status certainly affects black income relative to white income (since only one income earner will make less, typically, than two), it has little impact on wealth. While one can make income by working, one can’t simply “make” wealth and assets. Given that these are mostly transferred from prior generations, for a black woman and black man to marry, for instance, would result in no net boost in wealth (or at least very little), as neither would be likely to have inherited any intergenerational bequest. Zero plus zero is zero.

58. Melvin Oliver and Thomas Shapiro, Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality (New York: Routledge, 1996), p. 96.

59. Thomas Shapiro, The Hidden Cost of Being African American: How Wealth Perpetuates Inequality (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 55.

60. Orzechowski and Sepielli (2003), p. 14.

61. Shapiro (2004), p. 38.

62. David H. Swinton, “Racial Inequality and Reparations,” in The Wealth of Races: The Present Value of Benefits from Past Injustices, ed., Richard F. America (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), pp. 153–16.

63. For information on extra-judicial and terroristic white violence against communities of color, see Massey and Denton (1993) and James Clarke, The Lineaments of Wrath: Race, Violent Crime and American Culture (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2001).

64. Brown et al. (2003), p. 30; Monica McDermott, Working-Class White: The Making and Unmaking of Race Relations (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2006), p. 27.

65. Brown et al. (2003), pp. 76–77; Douglas S. Massey, Categorically Unequal: The American Stratification System (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2007), p. 63.

66. Karen Brodkin, How Jews Became White Folks: And What That Says About Race in America (Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998), p. 44.

67. Brown et al. (2003), pp. 76–77.

68. Brown et al. (2003), p. 28.

69. Claude S. Fischer, Michael Hout, Martin Sanchez Jankowski, Samuel R. Lucas, Ann Swidler and Kimm Voss, Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 179.

70. Joe Feagin, “Toward an Integrated Theory of Systemic Racism,” in The Changing Terrain of Race and Ethnicity, eds. Maria Krysan and Amanda E. Lewis (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), pp. 213–14.

71. Shapiro (2004), p. 190.

72. Brown et al. (2003), pp. 77–78.

73. Katznelson (2005), p. 113.

74. Brown et al. (2003), p. 79.

75. Shapiro (2004), pp. 61, 65.

76. Shapiro (2004), pp. 62, 64.

77. Shapiro (2004), pp. 71, 67.

78. Douglas S Massey, Camille Z. Charles, Garvey Lundy and Mary J. Fischer, The Source of the River: The Social Origins of Freshmen at America’s Selective Colleges and Universities (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), pp. 43, 156.

79. General Accounting Office, “Information on Minority Targeted Scholarships,” B251634 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, January 1994).

80. Stephen L. Carter, “Color-Blind and Color-Active,” The Recorder (January 3, 1992).

81. “Stat of the Week,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (Weekly Bulletin), January 21, 2010.

82. Although some suggest that Obama’s elevation to the Presidency (combined with his obvious erudition, intelligence and abilities, recognized even by many of his political adversaries) might cause whites to rethink their stereotypes about African Americans, the available evidence doesn’t bode particularly well for this optimistic view. According to that research, when we are confronted by people whose personas tend to contradict the group-based assumptions we would normally have for them, we tend to make up stories in our own minds, allowing the apparent inconsistency to gel, rather than rethink the stereotype altogether. In other words, in the face of stereotypes, evidence that contradicts that stereotype tends to be compartmentalized in a part of the brain marked “exception to the rule.” But the rule remains the same. See, Gary Blasi, “Advocacy Against the Stereotype: Lessons from Cognitive Social Psychology,” in Gregory S. Parks, Shayne Jones and W. Jonathan Cardi, Critical Race Realism: Intersections of Psychology, Race and Law (New York: New Press, 2008). Thus President Obama, in and of himself, can do little to challenge white folks’ thinking about blacks.

83. McDermott, (2007).

84. Houts Picca and Feagin (2007), pp. 7, 18, 101.

85. Lawrence D. Bobo, “Inequalities That Endure? Racial Ideology, American Politics and the Peculiar Role of the Social Sciences,” in Maria Krysan and Amanda E. Lewis, The Changing Terrain of Race and Ethnicity (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), p. 20.

86. Judith R. Blau, Race in the Schools: Perpetuating White Dominance? (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Press, 2003), p. 53.

87. Joe R. Feagin, The White Racial Frame: Centuries of Racial Framing and Counter-Framing (New York: Routledge, 2009), p. 92.

88. Massey (2007), p. 69.

89. Camille Charles, “The Dynamics of Racial Residential Segregation,” Annual Review of Sociology 29 (2003), pp. 167–207.

90. Steinhorn and Diggs-Brown (1999), p. 101.

91. Steinhorn and Diggs-Brown (1999), p. 41.

92. Dennis Rome, Black Demons: The Media’s Depiction of the African American Male Criminal Stereotype (New York: Praeger, 2004).

93. “Negative Perception of Blacks Rises With More News Watching, Studies Say,” ScienceDaily (July 17, 2008), www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080717134527.htm.

94. B.W. Burston, D. Jones and P. Robertson-Saunders, “Drug Use and African-Americans: Myth Versus Reality,” Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education. 40(2) (1995), pp. 19–39.

95. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Summary of Findings from the 2000 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (Office of Applied Studies, Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD., 2001), Table F.14; SAMHSA, Results from the 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. Also Summary of Findings from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (Office of Applied Studies, Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD, 2003); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2005. Surveillance Summaries (Washington, DC., June 9, 2006).

96. Americans for American Values, “What is Implicit Bias?: Bias by Any Other Name,” http://americansforamericanvalues.org/unconsciousbias.

97. Though some have claimed that implicit bias tests are flawed—in that they can only predict behavior in a lab or other experimental setting and may bear no connection to real-world discriminatory behavior—additional examinations of more than 180 different studies on the instruments have found that IATs actually can predict behavior outside the testing situation, and far more accurately, for instance, than self-report surveys. “Test That Found Widespread Unconscious Racial Bias Validated,” ScienceDaily (June 18, 2009), www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090617142120.htm.

98. Joe R. Feagin, Systemic Racism (New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 26; William A. Cunningham, Marcia K. Johnson, Carol L. Raye, J. Chris Gatenby, John C. Gore and Mahzarin R. Banaji, “Separable Neural Components in the Processing of Black and White Faces,” Psychological Science 15:12 (2004); Elizabeth A. Phelps, Kevin J. O’Connor, William A. Cunningham, E. Sumie Funayama, J. Christopher Gatenby, John C. Gore, and Mahzarin R. Banaji, “Performance on Indirect Measures of Race Evaluation Predicts Amygdala Activation,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12:5 (2000).

99. Theodore Eisenberg and Sheri Lynn Johnson, “Implicit Racial Attitudes of Death Penalty Lawyers,” DePaul Law Review 53 (2004), p. 1539.

100. Feagin (2009), p. 111.

101. Birt L. Duncan, “Differential Social Perception and Attributes of Intergroup Violence: Testing the Lower Limits of Stereotyping of Blacks,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1976).

102. H. Andrew Sager and Janet Wind Schofield, “Racial and Behavioral Cues in Black and White Children’s Perceptions of Ambiguously Aggressive Acts,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1980).

103. Feagin (2009), p. 94

104. Joshua Correll, Bernadette Park, Charles M. Judd and Bernd Wittenbrink, “The Police Officer’s Dilemma: Using Ethnicity to Disambiguate Potentially Threatening Individuals,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83:6 (2002); Keith B. Payne, “Prejudice and Perception: The Role of Automatic and Controlled Processes in Misperceiving a Weapon,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (2001); and Jennifer L. Eberhardt, Phillip Atiba Goff, Valerie J. Purdie and Paul G. Davies, “Seeing Black: Race, Crime and Visual Processing,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87:6 (December, 2004).

105. Justin D. Levinson, “Forgotten Racial Equality: Implicit Bias, Decision-Making and Misremembering,” Duke Law Journal 57 (November, 2007).

106. Franklin D. Gilliam Jr. and Shanto Iyangar, “Prime Suspects: The Influence of Local Television News on the Viewing Public,” American Journal of Political Science 44 (2000).

107. Steinhorn and Diggs-Brown (1999), p. 155.

108. M. Peffley, T. Shields and B. Williams, “The Intersection of Race and Crime in Television News Stories: An Experimental Study,” Political Communication 13 (1996).

109. Linda Hamilton Krieger and Susan T. Fiske, “Behavioral Realism in Employment Discrimination Law: Implicit Bias and Disparate Treatment,” California Law Review 94:997 (2006).

110. Richard Thompson Ford, “The End of Civil Rights,” The Boston Globe (May 17, 2009), www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/05/17/the_end_of_civil_rights?mode=PF.

111. ABC News/Washington Post Poll: Race Relations, “Fewer Call Racism a Major Problem Though Discrimination Remains,” January 19, 2009.

112. This methodology is a fairly conservative one, as it presumes that the baseline utilization of people of color in a given industry and locale is not itself indicative of discrimination, and only presumes discrimination in cases wherein a company performs well below that baseline. In other words, it is possible that discrimination across an entire industry, and in a particular locale, is so common that people of color may be underrepresented among all firms in an area. Yet the Blumrosen study would not have counted such cases as evidence of discrimination, because they were operating from the assumption that the area/industry norm was itself a valid indicator of availability and utilization.

113. Alfred Blumrosen and Ruth Blumrosen, The Reality of Intentional Job Discrimination in Metropolitan America: 1999 (New Jersey: Rutgers University, 1999), www.eeo1.com/1999_NR/Title.pdf.

114. Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan, “Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment in Labor Market Discrimination” (June 20, 2004), http://post.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/mullainathan/papers/emilygreg.pdf.

115. Devah Pager and Bruce Western, Race at Work: Realities of Race and Criminal Record in the NYC Job Market, paper presented at the New York City Commission on Human Rights conference, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture (December 9, 2005).

116. Devah Pager, Marked: Race, Crime and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).

117. “New Data Exposes Dramatic Racial Discrimination in U.S. Advertising Industry,” Earth Times (January 8, 2009). www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/new-data-exposes-dramatic-racial-discrimination-in-us-advertising-industry,673479.shtml.

118. Restaurant Opportunities Center of New York, The Great Service Divide: Occupational Segregation and Inequality in the New York City Restaurant Industry (March 31, 2009).

119. Applied Research Center, Race and Recession: How Inequity Rigged the Economy and How to Change the Rules (Oakland, CA: Applied Research Center, May 2009), p. 21.

120. LeAnn Lodder, Scott McFarland, Diana White, Paul Street and Dennis Kass, Racial Preference and Suburban Employment Opportunities: A Report on “Matched-Pair” Tests of Chicago-Area Retailers (Chicago: Legal Assistance Foundation of Metropolitan Chicago and the Chicago Urban League, 2003); Philip Moss and Chris Tilly, Stories Employers Tell: Race, Skill and Hiring in America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2003).

121. Brown et al. (2003), p. 84–85.

122. Moss and Tilly (2003), 106.

123. Brown et al. (2003), 85.

124. Steve McDonald, Non Lin and Dan Ao, “Networks of Opportunity: Gender, Race and Job Leads,” Social Problems 56:3 (August 2009), p. 385–402.

125. Fischer et al. (1996), p. 182.

126. Deirdre Royster, Race and the Invisible Hand: How White Networks Exclude Black Men from Blue-Collar Jobs (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003).

127. Barbara Bergmann, In Defense of Affirmative Action (New York: Basic Books, 1996), pp. 72–74, 79; Stephanie A. Goodwin, “Situational Power and Interpersonal Dominance Facilitate Bias and Inequality,” Journal of Social Issues (Winter,1998); Moss and Tilly (2003).

128. Patrick L. Mason, “Identity matters: inter- and intra-racial disparity and labor market outcomes,” (MPRA paper, University Library of Munich, May 8, 2009).

129. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva and Karen S. Glover, “ ‘We are All Americans’: The Latin Americanization of Race Relations in the United States,” in The Changing Terrain of Race and Ethnicity, eds. Maria Krysan and Amanda E. Lewis (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), pp. 158–161.

130. A Snapshot of “A Portrait of Chinese Americans,” Key Findings (Washington, DC, and College Park, MD: Organization of Chinese Americans and the Asian American Studies Program, University of Maryland, November, 2008), p. 5.

131. Terrance Reeves and Claudette Bennett, “The Asian and Pacific Islander Population in the United States: March 2002,” P20-540, Current Population Reports, (Washington, DC:U.S. Census Bureau, May, 2003).

132. Rosalind S. Chou and Joe R. Feagin, The Myth of the Model Minority: Asian Americans Facing Racism (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2008), p. 12.

133. Nancy Rivera Brooks, “Study Attacks Belief in Asian American Affluence, Privilege,” San Jose Mercury News (May 19, 1994), 1A.

134. Richard Thompson Ford, “A Primer on Racism,” Slate (September 30, 2009), www.slate.com/toolbar.aspx?action=print&id=2231002.

135. “Housing Discrimination Complaints at an All-Time High,” Press Release, Department of Housing and Urban Development (April 3, 2007), www.hud.gov/news/release.cfm?content=pr07-032.cfm.

136. Massey and Denton (1993), p. 200; Deborah L. McKoy and Jeffrey M. Vincent, “Housing and Education: The Inextricable Link,” in Segregation: The Rising Costs for America, eds. James H. Carr and Nandinee K. Kutty (New York: Routledge, 2008), p. 128.

137. Applied Research Center (2009), pp. 37–39.

138. Kathleen C. Engel and Patricia A. McCoy, “The CRA Implications of Predatory Lending,” Fordham Urban Law Journal 29:4 (2002), pp. 1571–1606.

139. Michael Powell and Janet Roberts, “Minorities Affected Most as NY Foreclosures Rise,” New York Times (May 16, 2009).

140. “Special Report: Banking on Misery—Citigroup, Wall Street and the Fleecing of the South,” Facing South 51 (June 5, 2003).

141. Michael Powell, “Bank Accused of Pushing Mortgage Deals on Blacks,” New York Times (June 6, 2009), www.nytimes.com/2009/06/07/us/07baltimore.html?_r=1.

142. Peter Dreier and John Atlas, “The GOP Scapegoats ACORN,” CBS News, October 25, 2008, www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/10/24/opinion/main4544472.shtml.

143. Massey (2007), p. 76.

144. Fischer et al. (1996), p. 196.

145. Sam Spatter, “Fair Housing Partnership Study: Blacks Still face Mortgage Bias,” Pittsburgh Tribune Review (November 25, 2009), www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/business/s_654803.html.

146. John Yinger, Closed Doors: Opportunities Lost: The Continuing Costs of Housing Discrimination (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), p. 138; Valerie Martinez-Ebers, “Latino Interests in Education, Health and Criminal Justice Policy,” Political Science and Politics (September 2000).

147. Paul Street, Segregated Schools: Educational Apartheid in Post-Civil Rights America (New York: Routledge, 2005), pp. 13–15.

148. Amanda Paulson, “Resegregation of U.S. Schools Deepening,” Christian Science Monitor (January 25, 2008), www.csmonitor.com/2008/0125/p01s01-ussc.html?page=1.

149. Martinez-Ebers (2000); Gary Orfield et al., “Deepening Segregation in American Public Schools: A Special Report from the Harvard Project on School Desegregation,” Equity & Excellence in Education 30 (1997), pp. 5–24.

150. C Kirabo Jackson, “Student Demographics, Teacher Sorting and Teacher Quality: Evidence from the End of School Desegregation,” Journal of Labor Economics 27:2 (2009), p. 213.

151. Blasi (2008), p. 45.

152. Linda Darling-Hammond, “Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education,” Brookings Review (Spring, 1998), p. 31.

153. Stephen J. Ceci, “How Much Does Schooling Influence General Intelligence and Its Cognitive Components? A Reassessment of the Evidence,” Developmental Psychology 27 (1991), pp. 703–722.

154. Jawanza Kunjufu, Black Students, Middle Class Teachers (Chicago: African American Images, 2002), p. 57.

155. Massey and Denton (1993), pp. 153, 86.

156. Massey and Denton (1993), p. 153.

157. Vickie L. Shavers and Brenda S. Shavers, “Racism and Health Inequity Among Americans,” Journal of the National Medical Association 98:3 (March, 2006), p. 388.

158. The Civil Rights Project, “Racial Inequity in Special Education” (UCLA: The Civil Rights Project, June, 2002), www.civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/specialed. IDEA_paper02.php.

159. Shavers and Shavers (2006), p. 389.

160. The Civil Rights Project (2002).

161. Janese Free, “The Relationship Between School Tracking and Race From a Social Psychological Perspective,” paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association, Montreal (August 11, 2006), www.allacademic.com/meta/p105226_index.html; Rebecca Gordon, Education and Race (Oakland, CA: Applied Research Center, 1998), pp. 48–49; Claude S. Fischer et al. (1996), pp. 164–65; Steinhorn and Diggs-Brown (1999), p. 47.

162. Gary Orfield and Susan Eaton, Dismantling Desegregation: The Quiet Reversal of Brown v Board of Education (New York: The New Press, 1996), p. 68.

163. Asian Law Caucus, “Facts and Fantasies About UC Berkeley Admissions: A Critical Evaluation of Regent John Moores’ Report” (Berkeley, CA: Asian Law Caucus, October 24, 2003).

164. Andrew Grant-Thomas, “Accusing Someone of Racism Squashes the Likelihood of Fruitful Dialogue Like a Bug,” Huffington Post (January 7, 2010), www.huffingtonpost.com/andrew-grantthomas-phd/accusing-someone-of-racis_b_414743.html.

165. “Ability Grouping in Elementary School Hampers Minority Students’ Literacy,” ScienceDaily (April 21, 2009), www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/04/090421120904.htm.

166. Free (2006), p. 11.

167. Jeannie Oakes, Keeping Track: How Schools Structure Inequality (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 8–11.

168. Oakes (1985), pp. 101.

169. Linda Darling-Hammond, “From ‘Separate but Equal’ to ‘No Child Left Behind’: The Collision of New Standards and Old Inequalities,” in Many Children Left Behind, eds. Deborah Meier and George Wood (Boston: Beacon Press, 2004), p. 9.

170. Street (2005), p. 78.

171. Darling-Hammond (2004), p. 4.

172. Street (2005), p. 81.

173. Sarah Goff, “When Education Ceases to Be Public: The Privatization of the New Orleans School System, Post–Hurricane Katrina,” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master’s of Science in Urban Studies, University of New Orleans (May, 2009).

174. Darling-Hammond (2004), 10.

175. Russell J. Skiba et al., The Color of Discipline: Sources of Racial and Gender Disproportionality in School Punishment (Indiana Education Policy Center, Research Report SRS1, June 2000), pp. 6, 13.

176. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System: Youth 2003 Online, Comprehensive Results (2004), http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/yrbss.

177. Skiba et al. (2000), p. 4.

178. Russell Skiba, Robert S. Michael, Abra Carroll Nardo and Reece L. Peterson, “The Color of Discipline: Sources of Racial and Gender Disproportionality in School Punishment,” The Urban Review 34:4 (December 2002), p. 333.

179. Mica Pollock, Colormute: Race Talk Dilemmas in an American School (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004).

180. Adam Serwer, “The De-Facto Segregation of Health Care,” American Prospect (August 21, 2009), http://prospect.org/cs/articles?article=the_defacto_segregation_of_health_care; Ryan Blitstein, “Racism’s Hidden Toll,” Miller-McCune (June, 2009) http://miller-mccune.com/health/racisms-hidden-toll-1268?article_page=1.

181. Joseph L. Graves, The Race Myth: Why We Pretend Race Exists in America (New York: Dutton, 2004), p. 133.

182. “Racism as the Root Cause of Infant Mortality,” Racism Review (July 6, 2008), www.racismreview.com/blog/2008/07/06/racism-as-the-root-cause-of-infant-mortality/. This data is provided by Barbara Ferrer, Executive Director of the Boston Public Heath Commission, in a fascinating PowerPoint presentation that can be viewed/downloaded at the above link.

183. Serwer (2009).

184. “Racism as the Root Cause of Infant Mortality” (2008).

185. “Racism as the Root Cause of Infant Mortality” (2008).

186. Ryan Blitstein, “Racism’s Hidden Toll,” Miller-McCune (June 2009), http://miller-mccune.com/health/racisms-hidden-toll-1268?article_page=1.

187. “Racism as the Root Cause of Infant Mortality” (2008). It should also be noted here that African Americans typically have lower rates of cigarette use than whites, lower rates of heavy alcohol use, and rates of narcotic use that are roughly equivalent to those of whites. Thus, when it comes to behaviors that often correlate with compromised health, blacks are no more likely and sometimes less likely to indulge in those behaviors than whites are.

188. “Unnatural Causes” (2008), p. 2.

189. “Study Suggests Racial Discrimination Harms Health,” ScienceDaily (September 9, 2005), www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/09/050909074111.htm.

190. A. Geronimus, “Understanding and eliminating racial inequalities in women’s health in the United States: The role of the weathering conceptual framework,” Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 56 (2001), pp. 133–136.; David R. Williams, “Race, stress and mental health,” in Minority Health in America: Findings and Policy Implications from the Commonwealth Fund Minority Health Survey, eds. C. Houge, M.A. Hargraves and K.S. Collins (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), pp. 209–242.

191. B. McEwen and E. Stellar, “Stress and the individual: Mechanisms leading to disease,” Archives of Internal Medicine 153, (1993), pp. 2093–2101.

192. Carl V. Hill, Harold W. Neighbors and Helene D. Gayle, “The Relationship Between Racial Discrimination and Health for Black Americans: Measurement Challenges and the Realities of Coping,” African American Research Perspectives 10:1 (2004), pp. 89–98.

193. J. Rich-Edwards, N. Krieger, J. Majzoub, S. Zierler, E. Lieberman and M. Gillman, “Maternal experiences of racism and violence as predictors of preterm birth: Rationale and study design,” Paediatric Perinatal Epidemiology 15 (supplement 2) (2001), pp. 124–135.

194. Arline T. Geronimus, Margaret Hicken, Danya Keene and John Bound, “‘Weathering and Age Patterns of Allostatic Load Scores Among Blacks and Whites in the United States,” American Journal of Public Health 96:5 (May, 2006), pp. 826–833.

195. Kathy Sanders-Phillips, Beverlyn Settles-Reaves, Doren Walker and Janeese Brownlow, “Social Inequality and Racial Discrimination: Risk Factors for Health Disparities in Children of Color,” Pediatrics 124 (supplement November 2009), pp. 176–186, http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/124/Supplement_3/S176.

196. Blitstein (2009).

197. “Unnatural Causes: Is Inequality Making Us Sick?” California Newsreel documentary (“When The Bough Breaks” part one, transcript 2008), p. 6.

198. Luo (2009).

199. “Racism’s Cognitive Toll: Subtle Discrimination Is More Taxing on the Brain,” ScienceDaily (September 24, 2007), www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/09/070919093316.htm.

200. Nancy Krieger and Stephen Sidney MD, “Racial Discrimination and Blood Pressure: The CARDIA Study of Young Black and White Adults,” American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996), pp. 1370–1378.

201. Blitstein (2009).

202. Brown et al. (2003), pp. 15, 46.

203. Elizabeth Cohen, “Does your doctor judge you based on your color?” CNN Health.com (July 26, 2009), www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/07/23/doctors.attitude.race.weight/index.html?iref=mpstoryview.

204. “Racism is Harmful to Your Mental Health,” Healthy Place.com (accessed October 5, 2009), www.healthyplace.com/anxiety-panic/main/racism-is-harmful-to-your-mental-health/menu-id-69.

205. “Racial and Ethnic Disparities Detected in Patient Experiences,” ScienceDaily (October 30, 2008), www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081028184826.htm.

206. “Emergency treatment may be only skin deep,” ScienceDaily (August 22, 2007), www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070820112820.htm.

207. Brown et al. (2003), p. 48.

208. “Physicians’ Implicit and Explicit Attitudes About Race by MD Race, Ethnicity and Gender,” Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 20:3 (August, 2009).

209. Shavers and Shavers (2006), pp. 388, 390.

210. Shavers and Shavers (2006), p. 392.

211. L.N. Borrell, D.R. Jacobs Jr., D.R. Williams, M.J. Pletcher, T.K. Houston and C.I. Kiefe, “Self-reported racial discrimination and substance abuse in the Coronory Artery Risk Development in Adults Study,” American Journal of Epidemiology 166 (2007), pp. 1068–1079; Y. Choi, T.W. Harachi, M.R. Gillmore and R.F. Catalano, “Are multicultural adolescents at greater risk? Comparisons of rates, patterns, and correlates of substance use and violence between monoracial and multiracial adolescents,” The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 76 (2006), pp. 86–97; H. Landrine and E.A. Klonoff, “Racial discrimination and cigarette smoking among blacks: Findings from two studies,” Ethnicity and Disease 10 (2008), pp. 195–202.

212. Brown et al. (2003), p. 89.

213. United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, “Poverty in the United States, 2000,” Current Population Survey (March, 2000).

214. Linda Burnham, “Welfare Reform, Family Hardship, and Women of Color,” in Lost Ground: Welfare Reform, Poverty and Beyond, eds. Randy Albelda and Ann Withorn (Boston: South End Press, 2002), p. 50.

215. Dalton Conley, Being Black, Living in the Red: Race, Wealth and Social Policy in America (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999), pp. 61, 70–71.

216. Lucy Williams, Decades of Distortion: The Right’s 30-Year Assault on Welfare (Somerville, MA: Political Research Associates, 1997), p. 14.

217. Fred L. Block, Richard A. Cloward, Barbara Ehrenreich and Frances Fox Piven, The Mean Season: The Attack on the Welfare State (New York: Pantheon, 1987), pp. 55–56.

218. Conley (1999), pp. 68, 72.

219. Carol Goodenow and Kathleen E. Grady, “The Relationship of School Belonging and Friends’ Values to Academic Motivation Among Urban Adolescent Students,” Journal of Experimental Education 62 (1993), pp. 60–71; Brenda Major and Toni Schmader, “Coping With Stigma Through Psychological Disengagement,” in Prejudice: The Target’s Perspective, eds. Janet K. Swim and Charles Stangor (New York: Academic Press, 1998), pp. 219–41; Kristin E. Voelkel, “Identification With School,” American Journal of Education 105 (1997), pp. 294–318.

220. Philip J. Cook and Jens Ludwig, “Weighing the Burden of ‘Acting White’: Are There Race Differences in Attitudes Towards Education?” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 16:2 (Spring, 1997), pp. 256–78.

221. Massey et al. (2002), p. 9.

222. Sarah Carr, “Coalition Says Study Rebuts Education Myths: Responses Demonstrate Commitment of Minority Students, Educators Say,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel Online (November 19, 2002), www.jsonline.com/news/metro/nov02/97244; Catherine Gewertz, “No Racial Gap Seen in Students’ School Outlook,” Education Week (November 20, 2002).

223. Blau (2003), pp. 57–59, 84–85, 92–93.

224. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstracts of the United States, 2007 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2007), Table 530, p. 349.

225. Conley (1999), p. 127.

226. Williams (1997), p. 2

227. Nancy Dowd, In Defense of Single Parent Families (New York: NYU Press, 1997), p. 100.

228. Katznelson (2005), pp. 14–15.

229. Algernon Austin, “Three lessons about black poverty,” Economic Policy Institute (September 18, 2009), www.epi.org/authors/bio/austin_algernon.

230. Shapiro (2004), p. 49.

231. Ronald F. Ferguson, “Addressing Racial Disparity in High Achieving Suburban Schools,” NCREL Policy Issues 13 (North Central Regional Educational Lab, December, 2002), www.ncrel.org/policy/pubs/html/pivol13/dec2002b.htm.

232. Lawrence D. Bobo and James R. Kluegel, “Opposition to Race Targeting: Self-Interest, Stratification, Ideology or Racial Attitudes?” American Sociological Review 58:4 (1993), pp. 443–64; Gilens (1999).

233. Martin Gilens, “ ‘Race Coding’ and White Opposition to Welfare,” American Political Science Review (1996), pp. 593–595.

234. Alberto Alesina, Edward Glaeser and Bruce Sacerdote, Why Doesn’t the US Have a European-Style Welfare State? (Harvard Institute of Economic Research, Discussion Paper No. 1933, November 2001), http://post.economics.harvard.edu/hier/2001papers/2001list.html.

235. Blasi (2008), p. 59

236. Ismail K. White, “When Race Matters and When It Doesn’t: Racial Group Differences in Response to Racial Cues,” American Political Science Review 101:2 (May 2007), p. 340.

237. Marc J. Hetherington and Jonathan D. Weiler, “Health Care, Race and Political Polarization,” Washington Post (September 21, 2009), http://voices.washingtonpost.com/shortstack/2009/09/health_care_race_and_political.html.

238. Tom Jacobs, “I’d Like the Same Plan Better If It Was Bill Clinton’s,” Miller-McCune News Blog (November 13, 2009), http://miller-mccune.com/news/id-like-the-same-plan-better-if-it-was-bill-clintons-1608; Eric D. Knowles, Brian S. Lowery and Rebecca L. Schaumberg, “Racial prejudice predicts opposition to Obama and his health care reform plan,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (2009), www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WJB-4XKXXWC-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=90796b2b5343623c734c53c9ad53ba65.

239. Ismail K. White (2007), p. 348.

240. Even more bizarre than the reparations claim, Beck has warned his audience that racial shakedowns are just around the corner if the President’s health care proposal passes, because the Office of Minority Health might allow for “litigation against Doritos,” since people of color may “eat more Doritos.” That the Office of Minority Health has been around since 1986 and has never sought to sue or encourage litigation against the makers of tortilla chips matters not to Beck, apparently. Media Matters for America, “Beck: ‘Office of Minority Health’ could allow for ‘litigation against Doritos’ since ‘minorities’ may ‘eat more Doritos’ ” (July 24, 2009), http://mediamatters.org/print/clips/200907240012.

241. Serwer (2009).

242. Media Matters for America, “Limbaugh: America is ‘so multicultured and fractured’ that it ‘may be two or three different countries’” (September 11, 2009), http://mediamatters.org/print/clips/200909110020.

243. Media Matters for America, “Limbaugh attacks ‘the left’ for ‘celebrating diversity’ and ending the ‘distinct American culture’” (September 14, 2009), http://mediamatters.org/print/clips/200909140019.

244. Joe Conason, “Crackpots calling the kettle black,” Salon.com (June 5, 2009), www. salon.com/opinion/conason/2009/06/05/sotomayor/print.html.

245. Daily Kos TV (May 29, 2009), www.dailykostv.com/w/001800.

246. Media Matters for America (July 23, 2009), http://mediamatters.org/print/clips/200907230019.

247. Media Matters for America (July 24, 2009), http://mediamatters.org/print/clips/200907240015.

248. Adam Winkler, “Obama was Right About the Gates Arrest,” Huffington Post (July 25, 2009), www.huffingtonpost.com/adam-winkler/obama-was-right-about-the_b_244888.html.

249. “Fox Host Glenn Beck: Obama is a ‘Racist’ ” (video), Huffington Post (July 28, 2009), www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/07/28/fox-host-glenn-beck-obama_n_246310.html?view=print.

250. Media Matters for America, “Limbaugh: ‘In Obama’s America, the white kids now get beat up with the black kids cheering’ ” (September 15, 2009), http://mediamatters.org/mmtv/200909150017.

251. “Limbaugh: Adolf Hitler, Like Barack Obama, Ruled by Dictate” (audio), Huffington Post (August 6, 2009), www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/08/06/limbaugh-adolf-hitler-lik_n_253412.html.

252. Media Matters for America, “Rush Limbaugh’s obsession with Nazi comparisons,” (August 7, 2009), http://mediamatters.org/print/blog/200908070035.

253. Eric Boehlert, “Glenn Beck and the rise of Fox News’ militia media” (April 7, 2009), http://mediamatters.org/columns/200904070009.

254. Media Matters for America, “Limbaugh: ‘Obama’s entire economic program is reparations’ ” (July 22, 2009), http://mediamatters.org/mmtv/200907220040.

255. Media Matters for America, “Limbaugh: Obama is ‘more African in his roots than he is American’ and is ‘behaving like an African colonial despot’ ” (June 26, 2009), http://mediamatters.org/mmtv/200906260019.

256. “Indonesian Muslim turned welfare thug,” “Racist in Chief,” www.marktalk.com/blog/?p=7204.

257. “Free Republic Pulls/Restores/Pulls Thread Bashing Malia Obama; FR Responds,” DailyKos (July 10, 2009), www.dailykos.com/story/2009/7/10/752031/-*UPDATE-III*-Free-Republic-Pulls-Restores-Pulls-Thread-Bashing-Malia-Obama;-FR-Responds.

258. John Avlon, “New GOP ‘Racist’ Headache,” The Daily Beast (July 6, 2009), www. thedailybeast.com/blogs-and-stories/2009-07-06/new-gop-racist-headache/p/. Interestingly, when some of Shay’s other Republican friends complained about the racist post and her reply to it, which had been to say “You tell ’em Eric! LOL,” she defriended the ones who complained rather than the racist who made the original posting.

259. Ben Hoover, “GOP activist says escaped gorilla was ‘ancestor’ of Michelle Obama,” WIS News 10 (Columbia, SC), June 12, 2009. www.wistv.com/Global/story.asp?s=10526195&clienttype=printable

260. John Amato, “Dr. David McKalip—Mr. Tea-Party—forwards racist Obama pic,” Crooks and Liars (July 24, 2009), http://crooksandliars.com/node/29912.

261. Oliver Willis, “Racism on Display in Anti-Health Care Rallies” (August 4, 2009), www.oliverwillis.com/2009/08/04/racism-on-display-in-anti-health-care-rallies.

262. www.flickr.com/photos/jr1882/3793137116.

263. “Teabagger wit: Lyin’ African,” Democratic Underground (September 14, 2009), www.democraticunderground.com/discuss/duboard.php?az=view_all&address=389×6543413.

264. “Te McCaskill Town Hall Incident: told from every angle,” www.citizentube.com/2009/08/mccaskill-town-hall-incident-told-from.html.

265. “Obama Chides Holder for Comments on Race,” Huffington Post (March 7, 2009), www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/03/07/obama-chides-holder-for-c_n_172771.html.

266. Michael Russnow, “Obama Backtracks Calling Police Action Stupid: Was It Moderation or Is Obama Becoming the First Wimp?” Huffington Post (July 25, 2009), www.huffingtonpost.com/michael-russnow/obama-backtracks-calling_b_244794.html.

267. Steve Holland, “Obama disagrees with Jimmy carter on race issue,” Reuters (September 16, 2009), www.reuters.com/articlePrint?articleId=USTRE58F5NX20090916.

268. Jim Sleeper, Liberal Racism (New York: Viking Press, 1994), p. 177.

269. John A. Powell, “Obama’s Universal Approach Leaves Many Excluded,” Huffington Post (December 11, 2009), www.huffingtonpost.com/john-a-powell/obamas-universal-approach_b_389147.html.

270. Warren (forthcoming, 2010).

271. Jody Armour, “Stereotypes and Prejudice: Helping Legal Decisionmakers Break the Prejudice Habit,” California Law Review 83 (1995), p. 733.

272. Armour (1995). The full transcript of Darrow’s closing argument to the jury in the Henry Sweet trial can be read at www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/frials/sweet/darrowsummation.html#I%20Say%20You%20Are.

273. Armour (1995), p. 733.

274. Blasi (2008), p. 45.

275. Samuel R. Sommers and Omoniyi O. Adekanmbi, “Race and Juries: An Experimental Psychology Perspective,” in Critical Race Realism (2008), p. 81.

276. Sommers and Adekanmbi (2008), p. 85.

277. Armour (1995).

278. Drew Westen, “How Race Turns Up the Volume on Incivility: A Scientifically Informed Post-Mortem to a Controversy,” Huffington Post (September 23, 2009), www.huffingtonpost.com/drew-westen/how-race-turns-up-the-vol_b295874.html.

279. Patricia G. Devine, “Stereotypes and Prejudice: Their Automatic and Controlled Components,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56 (1989), pp. 5–6.

280. Patricia G. Devine, Ashby E. Plant, David M. Amodio, Eddie Harmon-Jones and Stephanie L. Vance, “The regulation of explicit and implicit race bias: The role of motivations to respond without prejudice,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82:5 (2002), pp. 835—48.

281. Philip Mazzocco, The Dangers of Not Speaking About Race: A Summary of Research Affirming the Merits of a Color-Conscious Approach to Racial Communication and Equity (Columbus, OH: The Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity, Ohio State University, May 2006), p. 7.

282. Debra Van Ausdale and Joe R. Feagin, The First R: How Children Learn Race and Racism (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002).

283. Po Bronson and Ashley Merryman, NurtureShock (New York: Twelve Books, 2009), pp. 54–55.

284. Bronson and Merryman (2009).

285. For information on antiracist resistance, and especially white allyship in the antiracist struggle, see, Herbert Aptheker, Anti-Racism in U.S. History: The First Two Hundred Years (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1993).

286. C.B. Fisher, S.A. Wallace and R.E. Fenton, “Discrimination distress during adolescence,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 20:6 (2000), pp. 679–695.

287. Clark McKown and Michael Strambler, “Developmental Antecedents and Social and Academic Consequences of Stereotype-Consciousness in Middle Childhood,” Child Development 80:6 (November, 2009), pp. 1643–1659, http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122683307/abstract.

288. “Fear of Messing Up May Undermine Interracial Contact,” ScienceDaily (April 2, 2008), www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/04/080401161614.htm.

289. Evan P. Apfelbaum, Samuel R. Sommers and Michael I. Norton, “Seeing race and seeming racist? Evaluating strategic colorblindness in social interaction,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95:4 (2008), p. 918.

290. Sommers and Adekanmbi (2008), 88.

291. William E. Sedlacek, “Why we should use noncognitive variables with graduate and professional students,” The Advisor: The Journal of the National Association of Advisors for the Health Professions. 24:2 (2004), pp. 32–39; Terence J. Tracey and William E. Sedlacek, “A comparison of white and black student academic success using noncognitive variables: A LISREL analysis,” Research in Higher Education 27:4 (December, 1987), pp. 333–348.

292. Carol Corbett Burris, Kevin G. Welner and Jennifer Weiser Bezoza, “Universal Access to Quality Education: Research and Recommendations for the Elimination of Curricular Stratification,” Poverty and Race 19:1 (Poverty and Race Research Council, January/February 2010), p. 3.

293. Claude M. Steele, “A Treat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance,” American Psychologist 52 (1997), p. 613–629.

294. Philip Uri Treisman, “A Practitioner’s View From Texas,” in Promise and Dilemma: Perspectives on Racial Diversity in Higher Education, ed. Eugene Y. Lowe, Jr. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 129–132; “A Teacher Had a Question: Lessons Learned from FIPSE Projects II—September 1993,” http://vccslitonline.cc.va.us/MRCTE/treisman.htm.

295. “Middle School Math Classes are Key to Closing Racial Achievement Gap,” ScienceDaily (April 22, 2009), www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/04/090420121433.htm.

296. David E. Drew, Aptitude Revisited: Rethinking Math and Science Education for America’s Next Century (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).

297. Steele (1997).

298. Geoffrey L. Cohen, Julio Garcia, Valerie Purdie-Vaughns, Nancy Apfel and Patricia Brzustoski, “Recursive Processes in Self-Affirmation: Intervening to Close the Minority Achievement Gap,” Science 324 (April 17, 2009), p. 400–403.

299. Geoffrey L. Cohen, Julio Garcia, Nancy Apfel and Allison Master, “Reducing the Racial Achievement Gap: A Social-Psychological Intervention,” Science 313 (September 1, 2006), p. 1307–1310.

300. Susan Greene, “Stark Stats Motivate Black Kids,” Denver Post (December 30, 2007,) www.denverpost.com/search/ci_7839013.

301. Theresa Perry, “Freedom for Literacy and Literacy for Freedom: The African American Philosophy of Education,” in Young, Gifted and Black: Promoting High Achievement Among African American Students, eds. Theresa Perry, Claude Steele and Asa Hilliard III (Boston: Beacon Press, 2003), pp. 11–51.