Note: Entries in this index, carried over verbatim from the print edition of this title, are unlikely to correspond to the pagination of any given e-book reader. However, entries in this index, and other terms, may be easily located by using the search feature of your e-book reader.
Page references followed by fig indicate an illustrated figure.
abductive reasoning: comparing inductive and, 153; description and application of, 153–54; historical sciences employment of, 409
Abrams, Dan, 439–40, 441
The Abrams Report (MSNBC show), 439
Adami, Christopher, 286 affirming the consequent fallacy, 153
Agassiz, Louis, 145 agent causation, 341–44
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 31, 421, 433
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 2–3, 397, 411, 416, 432, 433
American Humanist Manifesto III, 448
amino acids: chemical affinity related to chemical structure of, 233–34; condensation reaction of, 206fig; examining how common or rare are sequences of, 209–13; geological/geochemical evidence on prebiotic atmosphere and, 224–26; peptidyl-transferase reaction and activation of, 306; research on protein synthesis role of, 119–20; RNA-world hypothesis and issue of, 303; sequence hypothesis and sequences of, 12, 100–105, 109, 365–67; specified biological information contained in, 197–200; standard genetic code showing, 102fig; translation of mRNA at ribosome resulting in sequencing of, 128fig; tRNA showing anticodon and, 129fig; two optical isomers of the same, 207fig
AMP (adenosine monophosphate), 130 annus mirabilis (Einstein’s miracle year), 139
Aquinas, St. Thomas, 37
argument from ignorance, 375–79, 380–81
Aristotle, 11, 36, 43, 143
Arkansas Board of Education, Mclean v., 416, 432
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), 23, 116–17fig, 118
Astbury, William, 93, 94
At Home in the Universe (Kauffman), 265
ATP (adenosine triphosphate), 130, 131–32, 202, 261, 306, 309, 344
Avery, Oswald, 66, 67, 68, 104
Avida algorithm, 286–91, 337
Page references followed by fig indicate an illustrated figure.
Axe, Douglas, 209fig–10, 211–12, 213
Ayala, Francisco, 9, 19, 410
Bakh, A. N., 49
Bary, Heinrich Anton de, 45
Bazell, Robert, 439
Beadle, George, 101, 459
Behe, Michael, 5, 412, 480
Bell Laboratories, 87
Bergmann, Max, 94
Berlinski, David, 282
Berzelius, Jöns Jakob, 33
big-bang theory, 24, 157–58, 165–66, 444
biochemical predestination: description of, 230; origins and development of, 232–34. See also self-organization theories
Biochemical Predestination (Kenyon and Steinman), 230, 237
Biochemistry (journal), 210
Biochemistry (Lehninger), 195 bioinformatics: emergence of, 14–15; Human Genome Project (2000) mapping of, 14–15 biological information: Avida algorithm presupposing, 288–90, 337; COI (conservation of information) principle of, 292–94; combination lock demonstration of specified, 349–50, 352–53; Dembski’s theory and information-processing system of, 367–69; description of, 85; “displacement problem” of, 267–70; energy as producing order as opposed to, 255–57; examining the origin of, 17–18; extragenomic or ontogenetic, 473–77; Human Genome Project (2000) mapping of, 14–15, 16; intelligent design cause of specified, 341–44; Kauffman’s self-organization model of, 260–67; limits of self-organizational algorithms to produce, 258–59; probabilistic resources calculating random chance of, 191–93, 215–19, 294; RNA polymerase sequence, 22–23; specified DNA, RNA, and amino acids, 197–200. See also DNA information; information; living organisms
biological science: acceptance of evolutionary theory within, 11–12; designing hypothesis in early, 139–47; on design of living organisms, 20–22; emerging fields of genomics and bioinformatics, 14–15; enzymatic theory of, 47; failure of spontaneous generation theory, 39; protoplasmic theory of, 44–45, 47; rational foundation of, 142–47; recent advances in, 13–14; teleological thinking of, 21–22; theories of heredity in, 60–69. See also DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid); science; scientific theories
Biologic Institute, 138, 369
Biology (Miller and Levine), 446 “blind watchmaker” thesis, 445
Boeing plant (Seattle), 120–21
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 153
Bondi, Sir Herman, 141–42
Boole, George, 87
Borel, Emile, 217
Boyle, Robert, 11, 38, 144, 147
Bradley, Walter, 4, 26
Bragg, Lawrence, 93, 95
Bragg, William Lawrence, 58, 70, 71, 93 branching tree diagram, 424
Brenner, Sydney, 119
Brillouin, Leon, 292
Brooks, James, 225
Brown, Titus, 286
Bungenberg de Jong, H. G., 53
Burgess Shale, 151
Bush, George W., 3
CAD-CAM technology, 120–21, 369
Cairns-Smith, Alexander, 198
Calvin, Melvin, 229
Cambridge University: Bondi and Hoyle at, 141–42; historic influence of, 142–47; support for design hypothesis at, 145–47; Wilkins’s lecture at, 136–38
Capretti, Gian, 324, 325
cassette mutagenesis technique, 208
The Cat in the Hat Comes Back (Dr. Seuss), 271–72
causal adequacy: as cause criteria, 159–60, 161; hypothesis testing based on, 405; intelligent design (ID) theory, 328–44
causal existence criterion, 166–68
causal-existence requirement, 381–83
causal history, 157–58
causality/cause: assessing competing possible causes, 327–28, 409; causal adequacy criteria, 159–60, 161, 328–44, 405; causal existence criterion, 166–68; causes now in operation or presently acting, 160; criteria for determining best cause among group of, 159, 163–66; explanatory filter schematic for determining, 354, 355fig; IBE (inference to the best explanation) approach to, 155–59, 343–44; natural selection and mutation, 204–5, 458, 461, 464, 476, 479; progressively eliminating hypotheses used to determine, 324–26; retrospective causal analysis, 161, 168–69; schematic of logical problem of retrodiction, 162fig; scientific testing of, 169–70; Sober on establishing, 161–63; uniquely plausible cause, 161; vera causa (actual cause), 160, 171
Cavendish Laboratory, 70, 145
cells: genetic mutations in, 204–5, 458, 461, 464, 476, 479; improbability of producing genes and proteins in, 201–3; information processing system of, 344–46. See also DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
cell theory, 61
Center for Comparative Genomics and Bioinformatics (Penn State University), 464
Center for Protein Engineering, 209
Chamberlain, Thomas, 154
chance association, 195
chance elimination: examining, 179–83; justifying, 219–22; moving to intelligent design from, 354–56
chance hypothesis: applied to origin of life, 195–96; Axe’s work confirming skepticism about the, 209–14; chance as negation and, 177; conditional probability and, 220–22; environmental factors related to origin-of-life, 224–26; evaluating the, 194, 222–24; ex post facto pattern recognition and, 188–89; Fisher’s statistical hypothesis testing, 178, 179–82, 183–84, 193; functionally significant patterns and, 106, 107fig, 185–88, 199–200, 208, 251–52; pattern recognition in context of, 189–91, 199–200, 356–59; probabilistic resources and, 191–93, 215–19, 294; reasonable rejection of, 192. See also scientific theories
Chance and Necessity (Monod), 173, 174
chance/probability: of amino acid sequences, 209–13; calculating odds of life arising by, 226–28; conditional probability, 220–22; Darwinian optimization principle and, 281–83; description of, 175–76; dichotomy between necessity and, 230; elimination of, 178–83, 219–22, 354–56; improbability paradox and, 183–88; improbability of producing genes and proteins, 201–3, 209–13; Monod’s examination of, 173–74; as negation, 177; questioning the legitimacy of, 194–95; “rejection region” and, 181fig–82
Chargaff, Erwin, 68, 69, 74, 140, 387
Chemical and Engineering News, 237
“chemical evolution,” 24–25
chemical evolutionary theories: chemical two-step theory, 46–47; foundations of Oparin’s, 48–50; Miller-Urey experiment based on Oparin’s, 54, 56–57; Oparin’s account of first organisms, 52–54; Oparin’s early earth origin-of-life scenario (1936), 51fig–52; simplified schematic of Oparin’s 1936 scenario of, 55fig
“chicken and egg” dilemma, 134, 344–45
chromatin (chromosomes), 62
Chronicle of Higher Education, 2
Chung, W.-Y., 464
Cicero, 11
Clinton, Bill, 15
coacervate structure, 53fig
Cohn, Ferdinand, 45
COI (conservation of information) principle, 292–94
coin-flipping criminal scenario, 191–93
Collins, Francis, 15
Columbus, Christopher, 253
combination lock demonstration, 349–50, 352–53
combinatorial problem: Darwinian mechanism and, 204–13; description of, 204
complex information, 106, 107fig
condensation reaction, 206fig
conditional probability, 220–22
conservation of energy, 41
Contact (science-fiction novel), 383
Copernicus, 139, 145
cosmology: big-bang theory of, 24, 157–58, 165–66, 444; steady-state theory of, 165–66
creationism, 417
Crick, Francis: on difficulty of origin-of-life problem, 321; DNA molecule discovery by, 6, 11, 12, 15, 58–59, 60, 69–84; early partnership between Watson and, 70; equating complex sequences with information, 387; on evolution of living organisms, 20; on genetic code as “frozen accident,” 195; “Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids:” by Watson and, 82; photographs of, 13fig, 83fig; on qualitative characteristics of life, 238; research on DNA coding by, 114–20; sequence hypothesis of, 12, 100–105, 109, 365–67; two helix DNA model developed by Watson and, 76–84, 139, 145, 427; Wilkin’s recount of working with, 136–38
cyanide experiment, 33–34, 40
cyanogen radical (-CN), 47
Dalai Lama, 3
Darwin, Charles: anniversary of birth of, 31; branching tree diagram of, 424; on difficulty of explaining origin of life, 39; influence on Oparin by, 49; on design question, 32; limited experimental science work by, 139; On the Origin of Species by, 7, 9, 11, 12, 31, 35, 139, 160, 169, 348, 404, 410; photograph of, 18fig; scientific precedent set by, 42–43, 151; vera causa (actual cause) approach used by, 160. See also natural selection theory
Darwinian optimization principle, 281–83
Darwin’s Black Box (Behe), 5, 412, 480
Darwin, Solomon, 234–35
Davidson, Eric, 472
Davies, Paul, 387
Dawkins, Richard: “blind watchmaker” thesis of, 445; on computer-like code of genes, 12, 21, 23, 368; genetic algorithms developed by, 281–84, 292; The God Delusion by, 31, 389; on illusion of design, 4; on implications of DNA role in heredity, 238; motivations of, 448; on study of biological design, 18, 410; who designed the designer, objection to the ID argument, 389–94; YouTube mock interview regarding, 391
Day, William, 57
deamination process, 302
Declaration of Independence, 23
“defeater” arguments, 417
demarcation arguments against ID, doesn’t explain by natural law, 418–21; invokes unobservables, 423–35; isn’t testable, 425–31
demarcation problem, 400–401, 419, 430–31
Dembski, William: design detection method used by, 351, 364–67, 370–71; The Design Inference by, 5, 351, 352, 404, 412; “explanatory filter” schematic by, 354, 355fig; on Fisher’s chance elimination, 179–83, 354–56; on the improbability paradox, 183–88; on probabilistic resources, 189–93, 215–19, 294; independence as design detection condition, 356–63; on indicators of intelligent design, 352–54; on logic of information storage and processing, 367–69; on moving from chance elimination to intelligent design, 354–56; on nonprotein-coding DNA, 407; on pattern recognition, 185–89, 356–59; photograph and endearing eccentricities of, 178fig–79
“The Demise of the Demarcation Problem” (Laudan), 432–33
Democritus, 37
deoxyribose sugar structure, 64fig
Derrida, Bernard, 267
design: appearance of biological, 410–11; biological study of living organism, 20–22; detecting, 349–59; genome DNA information storage evidence of, 464–70; natural selection theory on “without designer,” 18–20. See also intelligent design (ID) theory; living organisms
design detection: combination lock demonstration of, 349–50, 352–53; converging complexity and specification for, 370–72; Dembski’s criteria applied to DNA, 364–67; meaningful English phrase or sentence as specification, 363fig; Dembski’s method of, 351; “explanatory filter” schematic for, 354, 355fig; functional patterns used for, 359–63; importance of independence for, 356–63; mathematical expression of Dembski’s theory for, 363; pattern recognition used for, 359; small probability specifications for, 370
design hypothesis: evidence of viewpoint at Cambridge, 145–47; historic abolition of, 147–49; Judeo-Christian beliefs supporting, 143–44; Newton’s belief in the, 139, 145–47. See also intelligent design (ID) theory
design inference: argument from ignorance and, 375–79, 380–81; causal-existence requirement for, 381–83; dependent on present knowledge, 377, 378; genomic information storage system, 464–70; uniformitarianism principle and, 377–78
The Design Inference (Dembski), 5, 351, 352, 364, 404, 412
Design Patterns, 369
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (Hume), 383
dinosaur extinction causal history, 157–58
Discovery Institute, 8, 138, 369
displacement problem: Quastler’s approach to origin of life and, 278–79; self-organization, 267–70
distal-less (Dlx) gene, 471
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): Crick’s “sequence hypothesis,” 12, 100–105, 109, 365–67; Dembski’s design detection criteria applied to, 364–67; early examination as ID evidence, 4–8; examining origin of life role of, 25–31; exons and introns of, 125, 463; Flew’s announcement on intelligent design and, 2; hereditary traits transmitted through, 64–69; improbability of producing genes and proteins by chance and, 201–3; “intelligent cause” theory on origin of, 26–31; measuring amount of information-carrying capacity of, 108–10; natural selection and mutation of, 204–5, 458, 461, 464, 476, 479; nonprotein-coding DNA (junk DNA), 125, 257, 367, 406, 407, 454, 455, 461, 464; origin of life reconceptualized by, 132–35; pattern of hydrogen bonds in structure of, 115–16fig; questions regarding the enigma of, 12–14; replication of, 131–32fig; ribosomes as missing, 119; as storing functionally specified information, 109–10, 251–52; structural formulas of each chemical parts of, 65fig; tetranucleotide hypothesis on, 65–66, 68; Watson and Crick’s discovery of the structure of, 6, 11, 12–13, 15, 58–59, 60, 69–84. See also biological science; cells
“the DNA enigma”: assessing chance as best explanation of, 223–24; biochemical predestination approach to, 230, 232–34; calculating odds of chance alone for, 226–28; chance dilemma of, 173–93; chance hypothesis applied to, 195–96; Dembski’s design detection criteria applied to, 364–67; description of, 8, 14; evolutionary algorithms attempt to solve the, 283–95; intelligent design as causally adequate explanation of, 328–44; introduction to and overview of, 24–31; natural selection as explanation of, 18–20; Oparin’s revised chemical evolutionary theory and, 273–77; “progressively eliminating hypotheses” to investigate, 325–26; questions regarding the, 12–14; RNA-world hypothesis and, 295, 298–321. See also living organisms; origin-of-life problem; self-organization theories
DNA-first model, 277–79, 313, 322
DNA information: alternative sequences of, 86; stored in eukaryotic cell, 96–97; examining the source of, 12–14, 66; “forces of potential” energy and organization of, 249–52; concentration in the genome, 461–67; information theory applications to, 91–92; measuring DNA information-carrying capacity, 108–10; nucleosome spooling and density of, 97–98fig; Polanyi’s arguments on reductionism-vitalism debate and, 240–46; protein molecules and role of, 92–100; “sequence hypothesis” and, 12, 100–105, 109, 365–67; using Shannon’s equations for computing capacity of, 327; significance and implications of, 14–15; storage of, 92. See also biological information; genetic codes; information
DNA models: A-form, 71; antiparallel strands entwined around each other, 79fig; B-form, 71, 73, 75; Chargaff’s rules used to establish, 74–75; chemical structure depicting main chemical bonds, 242fig; Franklin’s monoclinic C2 symmetry pattern, 79; large-scale form of helix showing grooves, 116fig; Maltese cross X-ray image of DNA crystal, 74fig, 137, 427; mistakes of Watson and Crick’s early, 70–71; Pauling’s triple-sugar-phosphate backbone, 71, 72, 75, 76; sugar phosphate backbone, 78fig–79; triple helix versus double helix controversy, 70–71, 75–76; Watson and Crick’s two helix, 76–84, 136–38, 139, 145, 427
Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 275
Donohue, Jerry, 81
Doolittle, Russell, 26
Dose, Klause, 321
Dover trial (2005), 396, 397, 398, 411, 415, 426, 434, 436, 441
Dretske, Fred, 251
de Duve, Christian, 190, 199, 200, 227, 245, 269, 275, 314
Dyson, Freeman, 138, 280
Easter Island, 390–91
E. coli bacterium, 304
Eden, Murray, 211
editosomes, 462
Eger, Martin, 433
Eigen, Manfred, 258, 279
Einstein, Albert, 6, 139
élan vital, 40
energy: conservation of, 41; first law of thermodynamics, 41; order produced through, 255–57; self-organization of living organisms and role of, 254–55
Enlightenment, 37
environmental factors: biochemical predestination and, 230, 232–34; “chemical roulette” and, 226; evidence on prebiotic atmosphere, 224–26
enzymatic theory, 47
enzymes: comparing RNA catalysts to, 310–12; hypercycle system of RNA and, 279–81; RNA-world hypothesis on role of, 298–300, 302–3, 304; self-reproducing metabolic cycle of, 262–63; synthesizing RNA molecules and role of, 119–20. See also ribozymes
Erwin, Douglas, 471
eukaryotic cell, 96–97
Ev algorithm, 283–86, 290
evolutionary algorithms: Avida, 286–91, 337; causal adequacy of intelligent design demonstrated by, 335–37; COI (conservation of information) principle of, 292–94; Ev, 283–86, 290; failures of, 290–94; NFL (no free lunch) theorem of, 291–92
evolutionary theory: biological science acceptance of, 11–12; early development of the, 151–52; ID addresses specific question in, 410–11; intelligent design (ID) theory challenge to, 4; metaphysical or religious implications of, 444–46; neo-Darwinian version of, 57, 204–13, 445; precedent and implications of, 42–44. See also natural selection theory; scientific theories
exons, 463
Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed (film), 120
experimental evidence: confirming casual adequacy of intelligent design, 333–41; cyanide experiment, 33–34, 40; evolutionary algorithms as, 283–94, 335–37; fruit fly experiments, 62–63fig; historical versus, 150; injected mice experiment on heredity, 66, 67fig; Mendel’s heredity, 61–62; Miller-Urey experiment based on Oparin’s theories, 54, 56–57; on the mind as source of information, 340–41; prebiotic simulation, 334–35; ribozyme engineering, 318–19, 338–40. See also science
experimental sciences, 150
explanandum, 326–27
“explanatory filter” schematic, 354, 355fig
extinction: causal history of dinosaur, 157–58; Irish elk, 167
extragenomic information, 473–77
Fersht, Alan, 209
first law of thermodynamics, 41
Fisher, Ronald A., 178, 179–82, 183–84, 193
Flew, Antony, 2, 445
formose reaction, 302–3
Forrest, Barbara, 396, 411, 447, 448
Franklin, Rosalind, 58–59, 70, 71, 73fig, 79, 137
fruit fly experiments, 62–63fig
Fry, Iris, 261
Fuller, Steve, 143
functionally significant patterns: chance hypothesis and, 106, 107fig, 185–88, 199–200; considering how common or rare are, 208; design detection using, 359–63; in DNA sequences, 251–52; meaningful English phrase or sentence as, 362fig. See also pattern recognition
functional specificity, 388
Futuyma, Douglas, 445
Gallie, Walter Bryce, 163
Gamow, George, 114fig
Gates, Bill, 12, 368, 385
gene expression system: description of, 103–4; example of, 102fig; sequence hypothesis confirmed through, 104–5; simplified schematic of, 104fig; transcription stage of, 122–27, 134; translation stage of, 127–31, 134; as two-stage process of information transfer, 122. See also protein synthesis
General Scholium (Principia introduction), 147
genes/genomes: computer-like machine code of, 12, 21, 23, 368–69; concentration of information in DNA, 461–67; context dependence modular elements of, 472–73; distal-less (Dlx), 471; extragenomic or ontogenetic information in, 473–77; hierarchical organization of, 467–70; improbability of producing proteins and, 201–3, 209–13; informational context of, 471–73; new genomics study of, 459–60; Pax–6, 471
genetic code: amino acids that DNA base triplets specify, 102fig; comparing ASCII code to, 116–17fig, 118; description of, 102; See also DNA information
genetic fallacy, 447–48
genomics: emergence of, 14–15; examining new discoveries of, 459–73; Human Genome Project (2000) mapping of, 14–15; study of concentration of information in DNA, 461–67
Gilbert, Walter, 296, 297fig, 300, 302
Gilder, George, 16
glycolysis, 131–32
God: arguments against existence of, 31–32; creationism and belief in, 417; ID and meaningful “search for,” 450–51; ID testability and, 428–29; ID and theistic implications related to, 443–46. See also religion
The God Delusion (Dawkins), 31, 389
God Is Not Great, 31
Goodsell, David, 133
Gould, Stephen Jay, 150, 156, 402, 445
Graham, Loren, 48
Gray, Asa, 169
Griffith, Frederick, 66, 67fig
GTP (guanosine triphosphate), 131
Guest, Howard, 155
Haeckel, Ernst, 41, 42, 46–47, 61
Hamlet (Shakespeare), 281
Heller, H. C., 446
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 40–41
heredity: cell theory of, 61; DNA role in, 64–69; fruit fly experiments on, 62–63fig; injected mice experiment on, 66, 67fig; Mendel’s experiments on, 61–62; Omne vivum ex vivo (all life comes from life), 60; pangenesis theory of, 60; specificity complexity used to describe, 387–88
Hereen, Fred, 242
Himalayas, 419–20
histones, 97
historical science/inference/explanation: assessing the competing possible causes for, 327–28; assessing competing possible causes, 327–28; case for ID exemplifies reasoning of, 408–10; causal existence criterion for, 166–68; causal-existence requirement of, 381–83; characterizing the effect or just explanandum, 326–27; criteria for determining cause, 159, 163–66; IBE (inference to the best explanation) approach to, 155–59, 343–44; intelligent design and causal-existence criterion of, 341–44; progressively eliminating hypotheses used, 324–26; retrospective causal analysis, 168–69; schematic of logical problem of retrodiction, 162fig, 398; scientific testing in, 169–70. See also intelligent design (ID) theory
historical sciences, 150, 168–69, 402
Hobbes, Thomas, 37
Hodge, Jonathan, 152
Hodgson, Peter, 144
holoenzyme, 124–25fig
homology, 403
Homo sapiens, 391
Hooker, Joseph, 43
Hopkins, Sir Fredrick Gowland, 34
Hoskin, Michael, 140, 141
Hoyle, Sir Fred, 142, 213, 257
Human Genome Project (2000), 14–15, 16
Hume, David, 28, 37, 383–84
Huxley, Thomas Henry, 45, 46
hydrogen bonds, 80–82
hydrolysis, 131
hypercycles, 279–81
hypotheses. See scientific theories
IBE (inference to the best explanation) reasoning, 155–59, 343–44
idealism, 37
improbability paradox, 183–88
independently experienced patterns: Dembski’s design detection using, 360–63; description of, 356–59
inductive reasoning, 153
Inference to the Best Explanation (Lipton), 154–55, 158, 327
information: ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), 23, 116–17fig, 118; COI (conservation of information) principle of, 292–94; combination lock demonstration of specified, 350–51, 352–53; definitions of, 16, 86, 90; “displacement problem” of, 267–70; elusive character of, 15; intelligent design as explanation of specified, 106, 107fig, 349–50; limits of self-organizational algorithms to produce, 258–59; as metaphor, 386–88; the mind as source of, 340–41; problem of accessing encoded, 112–13; Shannon’s information theory of, 87–92, 105–10; specified, functional, complex, and compressible, 106, 107fig. See also biological information; DNA information
information-carrying capacity (or Shannon information), 106
information content, 106, 107
information as metaphor, 386–88
information theory: applications to DNA, 91–92; description of, 87–90; equating reduction of uncertainty to transmission of information, 250–51; illustrations of, 105–10; limitations of, 90–92; measuring DNA information-carrying capacity, 108–10; small probability specifications and, 370–71. See also Shannon, Claude
Inherit the Wind (film), 3, 397
initiation factors, 127–28
initiator codon (AUG), 128
injected mice experiment, 66, 67fig
intelligent design and causal adequacy: examining elements of, 328–30, 347–48; experimental evidence confirms causal adequacy of ID, 333–41; ID is the only known cause of specified information, 341–44; no other causally adequate explanations, 330–33
intelligent design (ID) theory: causal adequacy of, 328–44, 347–48, 405; cell’s information processing system suggesting, 344–46; combination lock demonstration of, 349–50, 352–53; controversy surrounding the, 1–2, 31–32, 138–39, 375–76; Discovery Institute research on, 138; Dover trial (2005) on the, 396, 397, 398, 411, 415, 427, 435, 436, 441; evolutionary theory challenged by, 4; examined as possible scientific explanation, 170–71; examining criteria as scientific theory to justify, 421–31; Flew’s announcement on DNA evidence of, 2; Hoyle’s comments on, 142; independence used to detect, 356–63; indicators of, 352–54; “intelligent cause” formulation of, 26–31; as “living science,” 455–56; moving from chance elimination to, 354–56; new research directions on, 477–81; ongoing explanatory power of, 456–59; origins and early arguments for, 4–8; peer-reviewed scientific literature supporting, 411–14; personal and philosophical issues raised by, 448–51; plausibility of, 269–70; professional attacks against supporters of, 398–99; as religion masquerading as science, 396–402, 439–48; religious beliefs used to discredit, 448; religious motivations of advocates of, 447–48; semantic dispute over, 399–402; as testable theory, 404–7; theistic implications of, 443–44. See also design; designing mind; historical science/inference/explanation; origin of life; origin-of-life problem; scientific theories
introns, 125, 463
Irish elk extinction, 167
ISSOL (International Society for the Study of the Origin of Life) [1989], 321
Jacob, François, 119
Jerusalem Post (newspaper), 3
Jones, John E., III, 396, 397, 398, 411, 415, 431, 432, 434, 435, 441
Journal of Experimental Medicine, 68
Journal of Molecular Biology, 210
Joyce, Gerald, 315, 317, 322
Judeo-Christian beliefs: designing mind, 143–44; vision of the world according to, 144. See also religion
Judson, Horace, 95, 115, 119
junk DNA, 125, 257, 367, 406, 407, 454, 455, 461, 464
Kamminga, Harmke, 35, 42, 60, 237
Kant, Immanuel, 140
Kauffman, Stuart: At Home in the Universe by, 265; photograph of, 260fig; self-organization model of, 260–67
Kay, Lily, 386–87
Kendrew, John, 72, 95–96
Kennedy, John F., 343, 453
Kenyon, Dean: exploration of the DNA enigma by, 26, 325; photograph of, 231fig; on the RNA-world hypothesis, 303; San Francisco State detractors of, 398, 423, 426; self-organization theory by, 229–37, 245, 257; self-organization theory later rejected by, 397–98
Kepler, Johannes, 38, 143, 145, 147
Kitcher, Philip, 406, 432, 454–55
Koonin, Eugene, 306
Krebbs, Norman, 28
Küppers, Bernd-Olaf, 13, 244, 281–84
Laboratory for Molecular Biology (LMB), 94
Laplace, Pierre, 38, 39
Large Hadron Collider, 425
Laudan, Larry, 432
Lehninger, Albert L., 195
Lenksi, Richard, 286
Lenoir, Timothy, 21–22
Leucippus, 37
Levene, P. A., 64–65, 66, 94
Levine, Joseph, 446
Lewontin, Richard, 18, 133, 134, 410
Leybig, Franz, 45
Life: The Science of Biology (Purvis, Orians, and Heller), 446
“Life’s Irreducible Structure” (Polanyi), 237
LINEs (Long Interspersed Nuclear Elements), 468
Linnacus, Carl, 145
Lipton, Peter: on IBE (inference to the best explanation) reasoning, 155–59, 343–44; photograph of, 155fig
Living with Darwin (Kitcher), 454
living organisms: classical reductionismvitalism debate on, 237–40; distinction between anorgana (nonliving) and, 41–42; distinguished by specified complexity, 110; élan vital of, 40; environmental impact on development of, 43–44; evolutionary theory implications regarding, 42–44; flawed analogy between human artifacts and, 383–86; qualitative distinction between nonliving and, 238; self-organization and energy in, 254–55; theories on heredity and, 60–69. See also biological information; design; “the DNA enigma”; origin of life
Loew, Oscar, 47
Luria, Salvador, 69
Lyell, Charles, 38, 151, 160
Lynch, Michael, 470
McCarty, Maclyn, 68
Mclean v. Arkansas Board of Education, 416, 432
MacLeod, Colin, 68
Macready, William, 291
Maimonides, Moses, 11, 36
Marks, Robert, 284–85, 292, 341
Marxist doctrine, 49
Massachusetts General Hospital, 119
materialistic worldview: description of, 36–37; protoplasmic theory and, 44–45; two-step chemical process theory as, 46–47; vitalist doctrines of, 41–42
“Mathematical Challenges to Neo-Darwinism” (1966 conference), 204–13
The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Newton), 139, 146, 147
“The Mathematical Theory of Communications” (Shannon), 88
matter-first worldview, 37–38
Maxwell, James Clark, 145 “The Mechanistic Interpretation of Life” (Virchow), 41–42
Medawar, Sir Peter, 204
Medical Research Council Centre (Cambridge), 79, 95, 136, 209–10
MEDLine, 411
Mendel, Gregor, 61–62
methodological equivalence, 422
methodological naturalism, 436–37
Meyer, Elaine, 34
Miescher, Friedrich, 61–62
Miller, Kenneth R., 296–97, 431, 446, 448
Miller, Stanley, 54, 56–57, 224, 226, 302, 334
Miller-Urey experiment, 54, 56fig–57
mind (designing mind), 144
mind-first worldview, 37–38
Mohl, Hugo von, 45
“Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid” (Watson and Crick), 82
Monk (TV show), 324, 326
Monod, Jacques, 100, 116, 133–34, 173–74, 230, 387
Mora, P. T., 223–24
Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 62–63, 66
Morowitz, Harold, 276
Morris, Simon Conway, 151, 152
mRNA (messenger RNA): early research on protein synthesis and, 119–20; failure of self-organization theory to explain, 246–49; gene expression role of, 103; translation and role of, 127–28. See also RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Mt. Rushmore, 353, 359
Muller, Hermann J., 69, 274
Murphy, Nancey, 434
Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian), 1
mutations: as cause of evolutionary change in conjunction with natural selection, 458, 464; in DNA, 461, 476, 479; neo-Darwinian theory on random, 204–5
Mycoplasma bacteria, 122, 201
myoglobin protein, 95fig
The Mystery of Life’s Origin (Thaxton, Bradley, and Olsen), 26, 29
Nägeli, Karl Wilhelm von, 45, 47
NASA’s SETI program, 344, 383, 395, 436
National Academy of Sciences, 31
National Center for Biotechnology Information, 306
National Center for Science Education, 146, 423
National Institutes of Health, 119, 223, 283
naturalistic worldview, 37
natural law, 418–21
natural selection: Avida algorithm of, 286–91, 337; “blind watchmaker” thesis and, 445; Darwinian optimization principle simulation of, 281–83; Darwin’s structure of, 169, 276; as “the DNA enigma” explanation, 18–20; Ev algorithm on, 283–86, 290; examining the reasoning of, 458–59; influence on Oparin, 49; metaphysical or religious implications of, 444–46; mutation role in conjunction with, 204–5, 458, 461, 464, 476, 479; On the Origin of Species (Darwin) on, 7, 9, 11–12, 35–36, 38, 139, 160, 169; Oparin’s revised theory of prebiotic, 272–77; precedent and implications set by, 42–44. See also Darwin, Charles; evolutionary theory; neo-Darwinian theory; scientific theories
nature: Greek philosophers’ approach to, 143; scientific rationality and approach to, 142–47
Nature (journal), 2, 82, 95, 96, 290
nebular hypothesis, 38, 39
negation (chance as), 177
negative generalizations, 379–81
Nelson, Paul, 178, 179, 472–73
neo-Darwinian theory: combinatorial problem associated with, 204–13; design in living organisms denied by, 445; homology support of, 403; “Mathematical Challenges to Neo-Darwinism” (1966 conference) challenging, 204–13; on random mutations of genetic information, 204–5, 458, 461, 464, 476, 479. See also natural selection theory
Neumann, John von, 276
Neurospora (bread mold), 101
New Atheists, 31
Newman, Stuart, 471
New Orleans Secular Humanist Association, 448
Newton, Sir Isaac, 11, 37, 38, 139, 145–47, 419, 456
New York Times (newspaper), 3
NFL (no free lunch) theorem, 291–92
N-glycosidic bond, 243
Nicolis, Grégoire, 254, 255, 258
Niemann, Carl, 94
Nirenburg, Marshall, 119
nonprotein-coding DNA (junk DNA), 125, 257, 367, 406, 407, 454, 455, 461, 464
nucleic acid, 63
nucleosomes, 97
nucleosome spooling, 97–98fig
null hypothesis, 177, 187–88
objections to intelligent design: Abrams’s attacks and, 439–40; arguments from ignorance, 375–79; causal-existence requirement as, 381–83; Hume’s flawed analogy argument, 383–86; ID isn’t science, 421–23; on ID as religion masquerading as science, 396–402, 439–48; information as metaphor, 386–88; Pennock’s arguments, 426–30; related to testability, omnipotence, and supernatural, 426–30; as semantic dispute, 399–402; who designed the designer? question as, 388–94
observability, 423–25
observational testing, 426–28
Ochoa, Severo, 119
Ofria, Charles, 286
Ohm’s law, 238–39
Olsen, Roger, 4, 26
Omne vivum ex vivo (all life comes from life), 60
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (Darwin), 7, 9, 11, 12, 31, 35, 139, 160, 169, 348, 404, 410
ontogenetic information, 473–77
Oparin, Aleksandr, 44, 48fig–57, 59–60, 232, 233, 410, 448
Oparin’s chemical evolutionary theory: account of first organisms, 52–54; chemical reactions foundations of, 48–50, 272; early earth origin-of-life scenario (1936), 51fig–52; Miller-Urey experiment based on, 54, 56–57; revised version including DNA explanation, 273–77; simplified schematic of 1936 scenario of, 55fig
Opticks (Newton), 11, 145
The O’Reilly Factor (TV news show), 3
Orgel, Leslie, 110, 315, 317, 322, 387, 388
Orians, G. H., 446
origin of life: discussion with Sir Herman Bondi on the, 141–42; enzymatic theory of, 47; examining DNA role in the, 25–31; failure of spontaneous generation theory to explain, 39; lack of satisfactory “chemical evolution” theory of, 24–25; Miller-Urey experiment demonstrating, 54, 56fig–57; nebular hypothesis and, 38, 39; Oparin’s chemical evolutionary theory on, 48–57; Oparin’s early earth origin-of-life scenario (1936), 51fig–52; Oparin on solving problem of, 59–60; Oparin’s revised theory of, 272–77; reconceptualized following discovery of DNA, 132–35; two-step chemical process theory of, 46–47; Wöhler’s cyanide experiment implications for, 33–34. See also living organisms
The Origin of Life (Oparin, 1924 edition), 48
The Origin of Life (Oparin, 1938 edition), 48
origin-of-life problem: assessing chance as best explanation of, 223–24; calculating odds of life arising by chance alone, 226–28; chance hypothesis applied to, 195–96; displacement problem of Quastler’s approach to, 278–79; environmental factors related to, 224–26; hypercycles approach to, 279–81; causal adequacy of intelligent design as solution to, 328–44, 405; natural selection and, 7, 9, 11, 12, 18–20; Quastler’s DNA-first model on, 277–79, 313, 322; RNA-world hypothesis on, 295, 298–321; self-organization approach to, 230; specified biological information issue of, 197–200; worldview conflicts at heart of debate over, 37–38. See also “the DNA enigma”; intelligent design (ID) theory
pangenesis theory, 60
Pasteur, Louis, 39
past reconstruction: causal existence criterion for, 166–68; criteria for determining cause, 159, 163–66; IBE (inference to the best explanation) approach to, 155–59, 343–44; retrospective causal analysis, 168–69; schematic of logical problem of retrodiction, 162fig; scientific testing of, 169–70
Pattee, Howard, 274
pattern recognition: CAD-CAM technology and, 120–21, 369; chance hypothesis in context of, 189–91, 199–200; ex post facto, 188–89; independently experienced, 356–63; probability resources and, 189–93, 215, 219, 294; “string of improbable events” and, 269. See also functionally significant patterns
Pauling, Linus, 58, 71
Pauling, Peter, 72
Pax–6 gene, 471
Peirce, Charles Sanders, 153, 154, 156, 325
Pennock, Robert, 286, 290, 396, 403, 426–30, 442, 447
Penn State University, 464
Pera, Marcello, 6
Perutz, Max, 58, 70, 95
Pflüger, Eduard, 47
phenotypic plasticity, 478
plagiarism scenario, 186–87
Plato, 11, 36, 186
Pneumococci bacteria, 66–67
Polanyi, Michael, 237–38, 239–41, 249–50, 251
polynucleotides, 277–78
polypeptides: Darwinian optimization principle and nonfunctional, 282; Kauffman’s model on, 263–64; Oparin’s revised theory explanation on, 273–74
Popper, Sir Karl, 134
prebiotic atmosphere, 224–26
prebiotic natural selection, 272–77
prebiotic simulation experiments, 334–35
predestination theory, 230
predictions: demarcation problem and making, 430–31; intelligent design, testability and, 430–31; scientific method and, 401; testing historical scientific theory and, 405
“prevision,” 450–51
Prigogine, Ilya, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 267, 268
Principia (Newton), 139, 146, 147, 456
The Principles of Geology (Lyell), 151–52, 160
probabilistic resources, 191–93, 215–19, 294
probability. See chance/probability
Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington (journal), 1, 5, 412
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 210
“progressively eliminating hypotheses,” 325–26
prokaryotic cells: DNA of, 97; DNA replication in, 131–32; new research on, 477
proscriptive generalizations, 379–81
protein molecules: critical functions performed by, 92; DNA coding “expressed function” represented in, 203; Gamow’s direct template model and, 114fig–15; improbability and producing genes and, 201–3, 210–13; research on centrality to life of, 93–100; Snap-Lock Beads analogy of amino-acid sequencing and, 99–100; specificity of arrangement in, 98–99; specificity of sequence in, 99–100; specificity in shape of, 96–97; studying changes in DNA sequences on, 102; three-dimensional structure of myoglobin, 95fig; X-rays used to examine, 93–94
“proteinoids,” 234
protein synthesis: CAD-CAM technology to depict, 120–21; Expelled: (film) animation of, 120; research of process of, 119–20; transcription stage of, 122–27, 134; translation stage of, 127–31, 134; as two-stage process of information transfer, 122. See also gene expression system
protoplasmic theory of life, 44–45, 47
Provine, William, 445
Ptolemy, 143 purines, 80, 81fig
Purvis, W. H., 446
pyrimidines, 80, 81fig
Quastler, Henry, 277–79, 313, 376
Quinn, Philip, 432
reasoning: abductive, 153–54, 409; case for ID exemplifies historical scientific, 408–10; IBE (inference to the best explanation), 155–59, 343–44; inductive, 153; Judeo-Christian beliefs influence on, 143–44; “progressively eliminating hypotheses” approach to, 325–26; of specified information of intelligent design, 341–44
Reconstructing the Past (Sober), 161
reductionism-vitalism debate: applied to DNA, 240–46; description of, 237–40
rejection region, 181fig–82
religion: creationism and, 417; disputing intelligent design as, 441–42; examining ID theistic implications and, 443–44; ID and meaningful “search for,” 450–51; intelligent design and implications related to, 444–46; intelligent design as science masquerading as, 396–402, 439–48; motivations related to science and, 447–48. See also God; Judeo-Christian beliefs
retroduction problem schematic, 162fig
retrospective causal analysis, 161, 168–69
Revolutionary War letter scenario, 463, 466
De Revolutionibus orbium coelestrium (Copernicus), 139
ribose, 302–3
ribose sugar structure, 64fig
ribosomes: comparing ribozyme functions to, 309; lack of DNA in, 119; peptide-bond formation within, 304
ribozymes: comparing functions of enzymes to, 310–12; comparing ribosome functions to, 309; RNA translation and role of, 302–3, 304, 309. See also enzymes ribozymes engineering: causal adequacy of ID demonstrated by, 338–40; procedures on RNA polymerases, 318–19
RNA catalysts. See ribozymes
RNA polymerases: holoenzyme of, 124–25fig; Mycoplasma, 122; ribozyme-engineering procedures and, 318–19, 338–40; sequence of, 22–23; transcription activities reflected in structure of, 123fig–24; transcription process and, 122–27
RNA (ribonucleic acid): chance hypothesis applied to DNA and, 195–96; chemical structure and constituents of, 301fig; hypercycle system of enzymes and, 279–81; improbability of producing genes and proteins by chance and, 201–3; minimal requirements for template-directed self-replication, 317fig; new genomics study of, 459–60; self-replication possibilities corresponding to bases of, 315; specified biological information contained in, 197–200; spliceosomes and editosomes of, 462; structural formulas of each chemical parts of, 65fig; transfer RNAs (tRNAs), 103, 128–29fig, 130, 246–48, 305. See also mRNA (messenger RNA)
RNA Tie Club, 115
RNA-world hypothesis: “chicken and egg” dilemma answered by, 134, 344–45; description of the, 295, 298–300; problems related to the, 301fig–21; research on the, 296–98; seven steps of, 299fig
RNA-world hypothesis problems: 1. RNA building block are hard to synthesize/easy to destroy, 301fig–4; 2. ribozymes are poor substitutes for proteins, 304; 3. RNA-based translation and coding system is implausible, 305–12; 4. RNA-world doesn’t explain the origin of genetic information, 312–17fig; 5. ribozyme engineering does not simulate undirected chemical evolution, 318–21 Rockefeller Institute, 66
Rose, George, 94–95
Rosetta Stone, 344, 351
roulette playing scenario. See Slick’s roulette playing scenario
Royal Tyrrell Museum (Canada), 151
Ruse, Michael, 20–21, 416–17fig, 419, 420, 421, 433
Russell, Bertrand, 450
salt crystal structure, 94fig
Santa Fe Institute, 260
Sauer, Robert, 208, 209, 211
Schleiden, Matthias, 60
Schneider, Thomas, 283, 284, 286
Schrödinger, Erwin, 387
Schwann, Theodor, 60
science: abductive reasoning in, 153–54, 409; affirming the consequent fallacy in, 153; conservation of energy, 41; demarcation problem of, 400–401, 419, 430–31; designing mind affirmed in early, 139–47; diversity of relevant resources used in, 138; early definition of information in, 16; first law of thermodynamics of, 41; historical, 150, 168–69, 402; intelligent design as “living,” 455–56; intelligent design as religion masquerading as, 396–402, 438–48; negative or proscriptive generalizations in, 379–81; rational foundation of, 142–47. See also biological science; experimental evidence
Science (journal), 2, 237
Scientific American (journal), 88
scientific methods: demarcation problem and, 400–401; ID advocates use of established, 403–4; of multiple competing hypotheses, 327–28, 409; variety of, 401–2
scientific revolution (1300–1700), 37
scientific theories: big-bang theory, 24, 157–58, 165–66, 444; cell theory, 61; chemical evolutionary, 46–57; different approaches for testing, 401–2; enzymatic theory, 47; examining ID in light of criteria for, 421–31; information theory, 87–92, 105–10, 250–51, 370–71; methodological naturalism, 436–37; neo-Darwinian theory, 204–13, 403, 445; pangenesis, 60; predestination theory, 230; protoplasmic, 44–45, 47; Ruse on criteria for, 416; scientific vs. unscientific, 435; spontaneous generation, 39; steady-state, 165–66; testability of, 425–31; theistic implications of, 443–44; two-step chemical process, 46–47. See also biological science; chance hypothesis; evolutionary theory; intelligent design (ID) theory; natural selection; self-organization theories
The Scientist (journal), 2
Scopes “monkey trial” (1925), 3, 397
Scott, Eugenie, 146–47, 423, 426, 439, 448
Scriven, Michael, 161, 166, 168
Seattle Post-Intelligencer (newspaper), 1
Sekai Nippo (Tokyo newspaper), 3
Self-Organization in Nonequilibrium systems (Prigogine and Nicolis), 254
self-organization theories: applied to DNA, 240–46; description of, 230; “displacement problem” of, 267–70; doubts about the, 234–37; external forces and, 254–55; failure to explain DNA sequencing, 246–49; Kauffman’s model of, 260–67; Kenyon’s repudiation of, 397–98; limits of algorithm to produce biological information, 258–59; ordered patterns and, 255–57. See also biochemical predestination; “the DNA enigma”; scientific theories
sequence hypothesis: confirmed through gene expression, 104–5; description of, 12; DNA sequential arrangement verifying, 109, 365–67; specificity and, 100–105
SETI (search for extraterrestrial intelligence), 344, 383, 395, 436
Shakespeare, William, 453
Shannon, Claude, 87fig–88, 90–92, 370. See also information theory
Shapiro, James, 21
Shapiro, Robert, 264, 280, 302, 303, 316
Shaw, Gordon, 225
Shermer, Michael, 406, 448
Shultze, Max, 45
Simpson, George Gaylord, 445
SINEs (Short Interspersed Nuclear Elements), 468
Skoog, Gerald, 442
Slick’s roulette playing scenario: chance application to, 175–76, 255–56; chance elimination illustrated by, 180, 182–83; improbability paradox illustrated by, 184–85; independently experienced patterns in, 357–58; probabilistic resources applied to, 218–19
small probability specifications, 370–71
Smith, John Maynard, 280
Smithsonian Institution, 1
Snap-Lock Beads analogy, 99–100
Sober, Elliott, 161–63
Southern Methodist University, 24
specificity complexity: phenomenon of heredity described as, 387–88; protein arrangement, 98–99; protein shape, 96–97; sequence hypothesis and, 12, 100–105, 109, 365–67; sequence of protein, 99–100
specified information: combination lock demonstration of, 349–50, 352–53; sequences of DNA, RNA, and amino acids as biological, 197–200; examples of, 106, 107fig; intelligent design as only known cause of, 341–44
Der Spiegel (German newspaper), 3
spliceosomes, 462
spontaneous generation idea, 39
Stalnaker, Robert, 250
steady-state theory, 165–66
Stein, Ben, 120
Steinman, Gary, 230, 233–34
Sternberg, Richard, 2, 3
“string of improbable events,” 269
student plagiarism scenario, 186–87
Summer for the Gods (Larson), 397
supernatural being, 428–29
Sutton, Walter, 62
Tacoma Narrows bridge, 175
Tatum, Edward, 101, 459
teleological thinking, 21–22
testability. See intelligent design testability tetranucleotide hypothesis, 65–66, 68
Thaxton, Charles: analysis of argument used by, 169–70; on argument for intelligent design, 4, 30, 31, 34, 148, 150, 151, 325; on Kenyon’s doubts about self-organization, 237; The Mystery of Life’s Origin by Bradley, Olsen, and, 26, 29; photograph of, 27fig
theistic worldview, 37
Theoretical Physics Institute (Copenhagen), 114
theory of intelligent design. See intelligent design (ID) theory
Time (magazine), 3, 57
Times (India newspaper), 3
Times (London newspaper), 3
Timiriazev, Kliment Arkadievich, 48, 49
Tommyrot, Dr. Terry (YouTube mock interview), 391
Tracy, Spencer, 3
transcription: initiation phase of, 126fig; process of, 122–27, 134
translation: “chicken and egg” dilemma of, 134, 344–45; implausibility of RNA-based, 305–12; main molecular components of, 307fig; process of, 127–31
tRNAs (transfer RNAs), 103, 128–29fig, 130, 246–48, 305
two-step chemical process theory, 46–47
uniquely plausible cause, 161
University of Cambridge, 25, 30
Urey, Harold, 54, 56
USA Today (newspaper), 411
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 146
U.S. House Committee on Government Reform, 2
U.S. Office of Special Counsel, 2
Van de Sande, Bret, 217 vera causa (actual cause), 160, 171
Victoria Harbor (Canada), 353
Virchow, Rudolf, 42
Wald, George, 195
Wall Street Journal (newspaper), 398
Washington Post (newspaper), 3
Watson, James: DNA molecule discovered by, 6, 11, 12, 15, 58–59, 60, 70–84; early life and career of, 69–70; early partnership between Crick and, 70; equating complex sequences with information, 387; “Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids:” by Crick and, 82; photographs of, 13fig, 83fig; two helix DNA model developed by Crick and, 76–84, 139, 145, 427; Wilkin’s recount of working with, 136–38
Weaver, Warren, 90
Weisbuch, Gerard, 267
Weismann, August, 47
Weisskopf, Victor, 204
“Whether ID Is Science” (Jones), 397
Whewell, William, 151
Whitehead, Alfred North, 142, 143
who designed the designer? objection, 388–94
Wigner, Eugene, 141, 276
Wilkins, Maurice, 58, 69, 70, 136–37
Williams, George, 15, 17
Wistar Institute symposium (1966), 204–13
Woese, Carl, 296
Wöhler, Friedrich, 33–34, 36, 40, 50
Wolfe, Stephen, 123
Wolf, Yuri, 306
Wolpert, David, 291
worldview (Weltanschuung): idealism, 37; material reality, 36–37; matter-first vs. mind-first, 37–38; naturalism or materialism, 37, 41–42; theism, 37
Yockey, Hubert, 17, 110, 255, 257, 368–69
Yucatan Peninsula impact crater, 158
Zamecnik, Paul, 119