BELOW ARE A FEW of the more important terms found in this book, with definitions intended to provide a deeper look into their meaning as understood within the Gaudiya Vaishnava (Krishna consciousness) tradition.
acharya
Literally, “one who teaches by example.” More than an academic instructor, an acharya embodies scriptural teachings in personal habits, relationships, and community affairs. Men and women are equally eligible to become an acharya, since criteria detailed in the Upanishads specify not gender but authenticity of instruction and impeccable personal character. Qualified acharyas are so dear to Krishna that he declares in the Srimad Bhagavatam, “As my ideal representative, the acharya should be accepted as my very self” (11.17.27). This accounts, in part, for the formality visitors sometimes witness when disciples in ISKCON temples receive their guru, which may include bowing down, offering a flower garland, or showing other forms of respect.
atma (often atman)
In its most frequent usage, atma refers to the jiva soul, the individual eternal being who is the source of consciousness animating the material body and mind. Because Sanskrit terms have multiple meanings, depending on context, atma can also refer to the body, the senses, the mind, the Supreme Being, humanity, or the essence of a thing. The Srimad Bhagavatam explains that selfless, loving service to Krishna satisfies all the atmas (1.2.6–7).
avatar
The common definition is an “incarnation,” which is about as informative as describing poetry as “a collection of words.” Most often “incarnation” is meant to imply that the Supreme Being is formless energy and when he wishes to come into the world, he becomes embodied, taking on material form. This anthropomorphic understanding of avatars is misleading. Avatars from the category of the Supreme Being do not take on material bodies. Rather, they appear in their original, eternal, non-material form. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna warns about confusing his eternal form with temporary material form (9.11). The word avatar more accurately translates as a “descent into the world.” One particular category of avatar is not a descent of the Supreme Being. These are the shaktyavesha avatars, jiva souls empowered to implement God’s plan in the world. By the Gaudiya Vaishnava estimation, Jesus Christ is to be honored as such an avatar. Prabhupada’s followers honor Prabhupada as also from this category. For a more detailed outline of avatars, see Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s explanations to Sanatan Goswami in Chaitanya Charitamrita, Madhya Lila, volume 8.
bhakti
From the root bhaj, meaning “to share,” bhakti is the ultimate goal of all yoga practice, as described in the Bhagavad Gita: “Of all yogis, those who always abide in me with great faith, worshiping me in transcendental loving service, are most intimately united with me in yoga and are the highest of all” (6.47). Bhakti culture was strong in India throughout its history but suffered a decline during the centuries when Buddhism rose to prominence, and then later when Shankara’s mayavada doctrine attracted a wide following. Some scholars argue that bhakti culture arose as a response to the brahminical hierarchy that dominated this medieval period. India was suffering from a malaise of social stratification, the argument goes, and a religion of the people—Krishna bhakti—was needed to help balance the social scales. This historic assessment of bhakti, however, overlooks bhakti’s a-historic role as the very nature of all souls.
brahman
Brahman is the energy of which all creation is made, the single binding unity behind everything that exists. In dualistic schools, brahman is identical to the atman. In essence, these schools declare, we individual living beings are ourselves the brahman energy of everything, or simply put, we are God. This perception of the self as nirguna (devoid of form and personhood) has dominated the world’s impression of Indian religion for centuries. Bhaktisiddhanta, his father Bhaktivinode, and his disciple Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada sought to remedy the misunderstanding by emphasizing brahman’s dimension of saguna (with-form and personhood). They did so by surfacing elements of Vedic wisdom that had been sidelined by the monistic teachers.
Brahmin (also spelled Brahmana)
According to the Bhagavad Gita, a Brahmin is someone who exemplifies ideal character and who understands the true nature of brahman (the Supreme Being). “Peacefulness, self-control, austerity, purity, tolerance, honesty, wisdom, knowledge, and religiousness—these are the qualities by which the Brahmins work.” (18.42) There is no evidence in the Sanskrit scriptures to support the caste notion that only someone born into a Brahmin family qualifies as a Brahmin.
darshan
The most frequent use of “darshan” is in reference to “a vision of truth” by seeing the guru or the temple diety, as in “I had darshan of my guru today,” or “I had darshan of the deities this morning.” The other frequent use is sad-darshan, which refers to the six principal schools of Indian philosophy. These are nyaya, the philosophy of logic and reasoning; vaisesika, atomic theory; sankhya, nontheistic dualism; yoga, self-discipline for self-realization; karma-mimamsa, elevation through the performance of duty; and vedanta, the conclusion of the Vedic revelation.
dharma
The root dhr, means “to hold or maintain.” The Sanskrit Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English dictionary defines dharma as that which is established or firm; a steadfast decree, statute, law, practice, custom, duty, right; and also justice, virtue, morality, ethics, religion, religious merit, good works, nature, character, quality, or property. The commonly held meaning is “righteous action,” meaning behavior that maintains the well-being of society.
diksha
The word is derived from the verb diks, meaning “to consecrate.” Diksha refers to a formal commitment between a guru and his or her disciple. The relationship is intended to be lifelong (or longer, should the disciple not achieve full liberation from further births). In some instances, as when a guru falls from proper behavioral standards, there are allowances for a disciple to accept a new guru and to be re-initiated by that person. The initiation occasion is usually formalized by the guru giving a mantra to the disciple along with a Sanskrit name. For ISKCON members, the first initiation is called harinam initiation and includes a fire ceremony. Grains, fruit, and ghee are placed on an open fire, which is considered the mouth of Vishnu, who receives the offerings and in exchange blesses the initiation.
Hindu
The word Hindu is not found in any of the Sanskrit literature. Toward the start of the fifteenth century, the word appeared as the name for India’s indigenous people: non-Muslims who lived by the river Indus. “Hindu” had no religious significance until the late nineteenth century when British census-takers required local inhabitants to state their religion. Prabhupada was emphatic that he had come from India not to convert anyone to “Hinduism” but to establish the eternal identity of all living beings as “parts and parcels” of Krishna, the Supreme Personality of Godhead.
ISKCON
International Society for Krishna Consciousness, incorporated in New York City, 1966. While each of the hundreds of ISKCON temples, farms, and restaurants around the world is individually incorporated, all follow standard ecclesiastic and administrative regulations, originally set down by Prabhupada and implemented by his Governing Body Commission.
Jagannath
In the Vedic era of India’s past, devoted King Indradyumna wished to worship deities of Krishna and his siblings. The king appointed renowned sculptor Vishwakarma to carve the deities from massive blocks of wood. Vishwakarma accepted on condition that no one interrupt him before the task was completed. He began his work behind closed doors. Two weeks later, no longer able to contain his eagerness, King Indradyumna opened the door to Vishwakarma’s workshop. The master craftsman stormed from the room in disgust, leaving the deities unfinished—rough-hewn, with big round eyes and no hands or feet. Dismayed, the king prayed to cosmic architect, Brahma, for guidance. Within his heart, the king heard Brahma’s reply: The images would be accepted as they were, in their unfinished form, by the world.
jnana and karma
For thousands of years prior to Chaitanya, India acknowledged three major paths which promised followers knowledge of ultimate reality: karma-kanda, the path of work as inculcated in the original Vedas; jnana-kanda, the path of knowledge as espoused in the supplementary Upanishads; and upasana-kanda, or bhakti, the path of devotion as promoted in the Itihasas (the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata) and the Puranas (histories). Chaitanya corrected and expanded the previously held view of devotion as different from jnana and karma by defining bhakti as inclusive of them. All knowledge, all work, finds its fulfillment when undertaken in the spirit of devotion, as underscored in the Bhagavad Gita: “Whatever you do, whatever you eat, whatever you offer or give away, and whatever austerities you perform—do that, O son of Kunti, as an offering to me. In this way you will be freed from bondage to work and its auspicious and inauspicious results” (9.27–28).
sadhana
To reawaken love of God, Chaitanya stressed five activities as most important in sadhana, or daily devotional practices: 1) keeping company with Krishna’s devotees, 2) chanting the names of Krishna, 3) hearing narrations of Krishna’s pastimes (as described in texts such as the Srimad Bhagavatam), 4) residing in Vrindavan or some other holy place, and 5) worshiping the deity of Krishna daily. It is significant that Chaitanya’s community placed no restrictions on who could perform these functions and advocated equal places for men and women: “All living beings are by nature eternal loving servants of Krishna, and by chanting his names love for Krishna will be revived.” (Chaitanya Charitamrita, Madhya, 22.107)
Vaishnavism
Most scholarly books on Vaishnavism describe four principal schools (sampradayas). These are the Sri sampradaya (founder: Ramanuja, 1050–1137), the Madhva sampradaya (founder: Madhva, 1197–1276), the Kumara sampradaya (founder: Nimbarka, 1125–1162), and the Rudra sampradaya (founder: Vishnu Swami, 1200–1250; also called the Vallabha sampradaya after a more recent saint Vallabha, 1479–1533). The Chaitanya School, named after its founder (1485–1533), is often associated with the Madhva sampradaya yet has grown to such importance that it is often listed separately. Vaishnava practice is called bhakti or devotional service to Krishna.
Vedic literature
Scholars divide the Sanskrit texts into two general categories. The first, shruti, refers to “that which is heard,” or directly revealed to humanity by the Supreme Being. These scriptures are the primary source of authority for dharma, or righteous life. The shruti texts start with the Veda. Sage Vyasadev is credited with having divided the Veda into four parts: the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas. Little of their content relates to the contemporary world, apart from an underlying principle that all actions should be done as an offering or sacrifice (yajna) to the Divine. These four texts contain hymns to be recited at fire sacrifices; formulas for propitiating various gods; incantations for specific needs; mantras, songs, and spells. Vyasadev is also credited with having written the epic narrative Mahabharata (100,000 verses), called “the fifth Veda,” as it presents a story-based depiction of Vedic social codes and philosophy. In the section titled “Book of Bhishma” we find the dialogue known as Bhagavad Gita, which distills Vedic ideology down to a concise 700 verses.
Other texts considered shruti include the Brahmanas, codes for “the knowers of brahman,” which discuss the details and meanings of sacrificial rituals; the Aranyakas or “wilderness texts,” composed for recluses and meditators; and 108 Upanishads, “coming-closer-to-the-Divine” texts, which summarize Vedic philosophy in short verses.
Schools of Indian philosophy have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Those which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority, such as Vaishnavas (worshippers of Vishnu/Krishna, India’s largest religious community), Shaivites (worshippers of Shiva), and Shaktas (worshippers of Durga or the Goddess) are classified as orthodox. Other traditions, notably Buddhism and Jainism, do not regard the Vedas as authority and are considered heterodox or non-orthodox schools.
Smriti is the second category of Vedic literature. Scholars commonly translate smriti as “tradition.” In a sense, smriti texts consist of the memories that sages have passed on to their disciples. These include ancient works such as the Manu Samhita (“Laws of Manu”), the epic tale Ramayana, and more recent commentaries by renowned teachers of Indian philosophy, such as Ramanuja, Madhvacharya, and Shankara.
Tradition credits Vyasadev with having also compiled the Puranas, which are historic narratives of the universe from creation to destruction, and the Gaudiya Vaishnavas consider these of equal importance as the shruti texts. The Puranas contain genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods and descriptions of cosmology, philosophy, and geography. However, the earliest written versions date from the time of the Gupta Empire (3rd-5th century CE) and some scholars place the Puranas in this later period, identifying them as smriti texts.