Page numbers listed correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
Note: Page numbers followed by n or nn refer to one or more endnotes.
Abbe, Ernst, 132, 133
Abrahamson, James A., 250, 251
accelerators, 28–29
accretion, 384
ACES (Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space), 339
ACES (Atomic Clock with Enhanced Stability), 339
achromatic lens, 130, 132
Active Denial/Silent Guardian System, 201, 470–71n
Adams, Evangeline, 55
adaptive optics, 154–56, 300, 457n
Adaptive Optics for Astronomical Telescopes (Hardy), 156
Advanced KH-11 satellites, 205–6, 343
Advanced LIGO, 461n
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 181, 216, 222, 270, 490–91n
AEHF (Advanced Extremely High Frequency), 354
aerospace industry
consolidation after end of Cold War, 11, 411n
contracts with NASA, 21
military-space-industrial complex, 161
missile defense–related campaign contributions, 12, 411–12n
prosperity after September 11, 2001, 11
aerospace workforce, 21, 22, 27
AFCRL Infrared Sky Survey, 221–22
Africa
circumnavigation by ancient sailors, 72–73, 78, 434n
early migrations of humans from, 64, 430n
travels of the Portuguese, 81
agonic line, 94
Airborne Laser Laboratory, 156
Air Force Space Command
in Colorado Springs, 16, 341
contracts with aerospace corporations, 21
control of GPS system, 158, 337
space systems in Gulf War, 331
space war and cyberwar, 235–36, 274, 324–25
Alaska, and harbor creation by H-bombs, 285, 499n
albedo, 196–97, 207
Aldebaran, 73
Aldrin, Buzz, 353
Alexander, Edward Porter, 123, 124, 127, 447–48n
Alexander the Great, 78
All Quiet on the Western Front, 387
al-Ma’arri, 434n
Almagest (Ptolemy), 50
Alnilam, 67
aluminum, 194, 195, 469n, 528n
Alvan Clark & Sons, 130, 450n
see also Clark, Alvan
Amalfi, Italy, 76
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 112, 247
American Astronomical Society, 7, 149, 155, 378, 463n
American Civil Liberties Union National Security Project, 13, 413n
American empire, 34–36
American Philosophical Society, 112
American Science and Engineering (AS&E), 225–27
American Security Council, 304, 505n
American Security Project, 13
American Sign Language, 446–47n
America Retectio, 436n
Ampère, André-Marie, 220
Anaximander, 70
ancient astronomy
constellations and zodiac, 41
development of, 38–39
eclipses, 44–49
monuments and stoneworks, 41–42
records and predictions of events, 42–45
time measurement units, 39–41
see also astrology
Andromeda galaxy, 234
Andropov, Yuri, 258
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972), 12, 250, 287, 293, 502n
antibiotic resistance, 14
Antikythera Mechanism, 44–45, 422–23n
antiwar movements, 8, 10, 410n
Apache helicopters, 332
apochromatic lens, 132
Apollo 1 disaster, 291
Apollo 8 mission, 289
Apollo 11 mission, 353, 369
Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, 357, 521n
Arago, François, 142–43, 456n
Archimedes, 45, 46, 47, 423n
Area 51, 197
Arecibo Observatory, 181–82
Arianespace, 363
Aristarchus, 440n
Aristotle, 101, 169
Arkhipov, Vasili, 497n
Armageddon (movie), 255
armillary spheres, 44, 80, 101, 436n
Armstrong, Neil, 353
Arte de Navegar, 80
Art of War (Sun Tzu), 238
ASATs (antisatellite weapons), 257–59, 283, 291, 294, 356, 485n
Ashurnasirpal II, 33–34, 420n
Assyrian empire, 33–34
asteroids
deflection of, 253–55, 256, 484n
formation, 384, 385
impacts on Earth, 234, 253, 483n
mining of, 385–86
near-Earth objects (NEOs), 253–54, 255, 256
potentially hazardous asteroids (PHAs), 190, 253
radar tracking of, 184, 190
rare earth metals in, 385
astrolabes, 38, 74, 80, 82, 84, 339
astrology
about, 49–51, 424–25nn
almanacs and periodicals, 57, 426n
Henry the Navigator’s horoscope, 79
in India, 54
“lunar cycle effect,” 56
in Nazi Germany, 57–63, 427–28nn, 429nn
opposition to, 51–52, 58–59, 425n
reliance on in wartime, 52, 425n, 429n
stock market and, 55–56
in the United States, 53–54
Vedic astrology, 54
see also ancient astronomy
astronomical photography, early history, 143–44, 456n
astronomical unit (AU), 440n
Astrophysical Journal, 149, 217
astrophysicists
antiwar sentiments, 9
collaboration and recent discoveries, 398–400, 404
employment opportunities, 22–23
as lateral thinkers, 150
telescope design and, 101–2, 133
tools and technology used, 149
astrophysics
alliance forged with military, 36–37, 150–52, 386
analysis of light and images, 149–50, 151–52, 176, 196, 198–99
and Cold-War science priorities, 29
electromagnetic spectrum and, 176
photography and, 140, 141–44
spectroscopy and, 140, 144–48
spending for vs. military spending, 403–4, 533nn
Atacama Desert, 200
Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), 183, 200, 201, 231
atmosphere
transmission of electromagnetic radiation, 199–200, 214, 225
twinkling of stars and, 152–54, 300
water hole, 200–201, 470n
atomic bombs, 151, 190, 263, 303, 457n, 474n
atomic clocks, 333, 339
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 216, 285, 402, 497n, 532n
Atoms for Peace, 287, 498–99n
AT&T (American Telephone and Telegraph Company), 128, 177–78, 501n
Augustine (saint), 51
Australia
early presence of modern humans, 64, 430n
exploration and colonization, 92
James Cook and, 92
as penal colony, 92
space program, 32
Square Kilometre Array, 183
Azores, 80, 94, 439n
Babel-17 (Delaney), 260
Babylonians, 40, 41, 42
Bacon, Francis, 52
Bacon, Roger, 106–7, 162
BAE Systems, 412n
Bahcall, John, 7
balance of terror, 285, 497–98n
Ball Aerospace and Technologies, 16
BAMBI (Ballistic Missile Boost Intercepts), 271, 278
Barnard’s Star, 344
Barr and Stroud Ltd, 136, 137
Battle of Copenhagen, 115–16
Bausch and Lomb Optical Company, 139, 140, 450n
Bay of Pigs, Cuba, 284
Bechtel, 11
Behaim, Martin, 87, 436n
Beidou system, 337
Bell, Alexander Graham, 128
Bell Labs (Bell Telephone Laboratories), 178–79, 288, 501n
Berkowski, Johann Julius Friedrich, 144
Berlin blockade, 266, 303
Berlin Wall, fall of, 11, 29, 358, 374
B-52 bombers, 332
Big Dipper, 67, 432n
Bikini Atoll nuclear bomb tests, 402–3
Bilmes, Linda, 416n
bin Laden, Osama, 12, 206, 349
binoculars, 109, 125, 128, 132, 139, 451n
Biot, Jean-Baptiste, 456n
birds, as clue for wayfinders, 65, 430–31n
Blackwater USA, 11, 25
Blanton, Thomas, 497n
blending camouflage, 172
blinding, 174–75
Blue Origin, 300
Boeing
campaign contributions, 412n
in Colorado Springs, 16
prosperity after September 11, 2001, 11, 12
Russian rocket joint ventures, 363, 371
weapons manufactured by, 18, 20
Bolden, Charles, 376
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 115, 122, 130, 447n
Bond, William Cranch, 144
Book of Calculation (Fibonacci), 77
Book of Useful Information on the Principles and Rules of Navigation, 67
Borghese, Scipione, 104
Bourdieu, Pierre, 92
Bourne, William, 107
Bowen, Alan, 47–48
Brahe, Tycho, 49
Brahma, 40
Brazil, 81, 310, 431n, 444n, 518n
Brilliant Pebbles, 250, 271
British Mariner’s Guide (Maskelyne), 94
Broadmoor Hotel and Resort, 16, 17, 24, 26
Broder, John M., 250
bronze, 44, 69, 422n, 432n
Browne, Malcolm, 334–35, 336
Brown, Louis, 185, 187, 190, 464n, 465n, 467n
Brunhübner, Fritz, 62–63
B-2 stealth bombers, 198, 303, 470n
Buchheim, Robert W., 248, 481–82n
Buckland, Michael, 454n
Bulganin, Nikolai, 277
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 310–11
Bull Run, First Battle of, 124, 448n, 449n
Bunsen, Robert, 147
Burbidge, Margaret and Geoffrey, 402
Burns, Dean, 306
Burrows, William E., 80, 206, 270, 357, 362, 366, 468n
Bush, George H. W., 293, 358
Bush, George W.
Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry, 411n
on the nature of power, 508–9n
Operation Iraqi Freedom, 16, 19, 24
reasons for Iraq War, 336, 515n
on space cooperation with China, 376
space policy, 503–4n
and Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars), 12
Butler, Samuel, 108
Butrica, Andrew, 185
Cabral, Pedro Álvares, 81, 431n
californium-254, 402
Cameron, Julia Margaret, 142
camouflage, 125, 172–74, 175, 462n
Canada
education and life expectancy, 519n
and International Space Station, 352, 353, 365, 520n
military spending, 353, 519n
partnerships with US space program, 353
radar astronomy, 191
space program, 352–54, 520n
space spending, 354, 519–20n
Canadarm and Canadarm2, 353, 368, 520n
Canadian Space Agency, 353, 519–20n
Canary Islands, 78, 80, 85, 94
Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge, 80
Cano, Juan Sebastián del, 88
Canopus (Suhail), 67, 73–74, 434n
Cape Bojador, 81, 83
Cape St. Vincent, Portugal, 89
Cape Verde islands, 88
capitalism and innovation, 4, 5–6
Caracol at Chichén Itzá, 42
Carl Zeiss AG, 132
Carl Zeiss Foundation, 132–33, 138–39, 451nn, 454n
Carrington Event, 160
Carrington, Richard, 160
Carthage, 70, 73
Cartwright, James E., 531n
Cassini, Giovanni, 103
cathode-ray vacuum tubes, 186
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 114, 228, 265, 268, 278, 500n
CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research), 326
Certaine Errors in Navigation (Wright), 439n
Ceuta (Morocco), 80
chaff, 194–96, 469n
Chain Home radar network in Britain, 187–88, 467n
Chaisson, Eric J., 227–28, 230–31
Chance Brothers (Birmingham, England), 131, 136, 452n
Chandra, Vikram, 54, 92
Chandra X-ray Observatory (NASA), 199, 226
Chaplin, Charlie, 462n
Chaplin, Joyce E., 90–91
Chappe brothers, 120
Chappe, Claude, 120–21, 122
Chappe telegraph, 120–23, 124, 446–47nn
charge-coupled devices (CCDs), 202–6, 343
charts, maritime
in fifteenth century, 82, 84, 87, 89, 436–37n
in fourteenth century, 77–78
planar charts, 84, 436–37n
in seventeenth century, 84
in sixteenth century, 90
use by Portuguese, 82, 89
see also maps and mapmaking; navigation
ChemCam, 242, 389–90
Chernobyl nuclear disaster, 255, 357
China
ancient astronomy, 41, 42–43, 49, 421–22nn
Beidou system, 337
contact with NASA prohibited, 376
counterspace capabilities, 236, 373, 478–79n
early presence of modern humans, 64, 430n
education and life expectancy, 519n
exclusion from ISS, 366, 373–74, 376–77
Han dynasty view of heaven, 41, 421n
kinetic-kill space vehicle, 32–33, 356
military modernization, 373
military spending, 353, 519n
most favored nation status, 375
quantum satellite (Micius), 236, 351
rare earth elements, 383–84
research and development spending, 30
as satellite-launching power, 375–76
science and technology degrees awarded, 22
Shenzhou spacecraft, 376, 377
and space power, 318–19, 372–73
space program, 5, 26, 32, 236, 318, 350–51
space-science missions, 351, 518–19n
space stations, 318, 375, 376
Strategic Support Force, 373
surveillance in Xinjiang Province, 310, 356, 379
Tiananmen Square protests, 374
trade and diplomacy in fifteenth century, 78–79, 435n
US balance-of-trade deficit with, 372–73
as US competitor, 372–76
in world economy, 373, 419n, 525n
Xia Dynasty, 43
Churchill, Winston, 190, 243, 265
Cicero, 422n
C3I (command, control, communication, and intelligence), 158
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 288
Civil War (American)
First Battle of Bull Run, 124, 448n, 449n
Fort Sumter, 124
Gettysburg, 126–27, 449nn
optical telegraph, 123–28, 447n
Signal Corps (US Army Signal Corps) in, 123, 124, 125, 447n, 448–49nn
“When Johnny Comes Marching Home Again,” 123
Clark, Alvan, 131, 133, 450n
see also Alvan Clark & Sons
Clarke, Arthur C., 192, 279, 330, 494n
Clausewitz, Carl von, 238, 240, 479n
Clementine lunar probe, 26
Clement IV (pope), 106
clepsydras, 40
climate change, 14, 388–89, 414n
Clinton, George, 113
clocks, development of, 40
CNN, 7, 19, 341
Cockburn, Andrew, 411n, 485n
coherence, 242
Cold War
aerospace industry consolidation after, 11, 411n
buildup of US military strength, 267
end of, 358, 368
particle physics benefit from, 29
Strategic Defense Initiative and, 250, 252
Collier’s magazine series on space, 366, 523–24n
collision cross-section, 401–2
Colorado Springs, Colorado, 16, 17
Columbia University’s Center on Capitalism and Society, 4
Columbus, Bartholomew, 86
Columbus, Christopher
books, charts, and navigation aids used, 48, 86–87
eclipse used as threat, 48–49
first voyage across Atlantic, 85–86
fourth voyage across Atlantic, 48–49
pelican sightings, 65, 431n
propositions to sponsors for funding, 85, 86
voyages to Iceland and Ghana, 85, 437n
comets
organic material from, 207
Tempel 1, 207–8
water in, 384, 386
Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry, 318, 411n
Commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management and Organization, 11–12, 21, 323, 393, 395, 493n
Committee of Public Safety (France), 121
communications satellites
Arthur C. Clarke and, 394n
Canadian satellite, 353
collision of, 3, 4
Defense Satellite Communication System, 501n
during Eisenhower era, 278–79, 501n
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat), 340, 501n
use in Gulf War, 340–41, 517n
compass card (wind rose), 77, 78
compass (magnetic), development, 75–78
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT, 1996), 313–14, 508n
Comte, Auguste, 147–48
concave lenses, 110, 129, 442n
Concerning the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology (Kepler), 49
Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, 341–42
Congress, United States
Cox Committee, 374–76
Democratic Congresses support of wars in twentieth century, 10–11, 410n
Republican Congress support of Iraq War, 11
use of military force authorized by, 10–11, 410n
conjunction in February 1953 BC, 43
conscription of nonmilitary organizations, 322, 329–30
Convento de Cristo, Portugal, 80
convex lenses, 110, 129
Cook, James, 91, 92, 97, 130, 441n
“Cooperation in Space” agreement of 1972, 357, 521n
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 49, 440n
Copernicus satellite system (EU), 160, 329
copper, 69–70, 432–33n
Cordesman, Anthony H., 347–48
Corker, Bob, 530n
Cornwall, England, 70, 71, 439n
Corona missions, 158–59, 278, 458n
CORONA (KH-1) satellites, 204–5, 228, 500n
Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 289
Cosgrove, Denis, 89
Cosimo II de’ Medici, 53, 442–43n
Cosmic Discovery (Harwit), 151
cosmic microwave background, 171, 199, 399
cosmic rays, 6, 214, 218
counterspace, 236, 237, 322, 373, 393–94, 478–79nn, 531n
Counterspace Operations: Air Force Doctrine Document, 322
Courier communication satellite, 278
Course on Positive Philosophy (Comte), 147–48
Covault, Craig, 471n
Cox Committee, 374–75
Cromwell, Seymour, 55
cruise missiles, 18, 332, 346
Cuban Missile Crisis, 273, 497n
cuckoos, 65
Cumings, Bruce, 314
Curiosity rover, 242, 371, 389
Curran, Joan, 195
Curtis, Heber D., 131, 134, 453n
cyberspace, paired with space, 235, 236, 308, 319, 321
cyberwar, 235
da Costa, Emilia Viotti, 83
da Gama, Vasco, 81
Daguerre, Louis-Jacques-Mandé, 141, 142, 143, 456n
daguerreotypes, 141, 142–44, 148, 456n
Darius the Great, 119
Darwin, Charles, 97
d’Aurillac, Gerbert, 101, 441n
da Vinci, Leonardo, 240
Davis, Jefferson, 124
dazzle camouflage, 172, 173–74, 259
dead reckoning, 77, 82, 86
Dean, Patrick, 292
“death rays,” 243–45
Dee, John, 106–7
Deep Impact mission, 207–8
Deep Impact (movie), 255
deep space, collaboration in, 398
de-escalation in space, focus on, 397, 531–32n
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), 21, 154, 338–39, 345
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), 158, 341–42, 501–2n
Defense Satellite Communication System, 501n
defense share, 452–53n
Defense Support Program satellites, 158, 341
Democritus, 169
Descartes, René, 444n
detection
defined, 183–84
exoplanets, 175, 399
gamma rays, 199, 213–18
Hubble Space Telescope, detection story, 227–33
infrared light, 169–70, 199, 219–25
Jodrell Bank, detection story, 209–13
survival and conquest and, 171–72
X-rays, 180, 213, 225–27
deterrence
diplomacy and, 312–15
and first use as option, 308, 309
through military strength, 305–6, 311–12, 316
by NATO, 305–6, 309–10
nuclear arsenals and, 237, 308, 309, 311–12
space weaponry and, 260, 299–300, 312
Dias, Bartolomeu, 81
differentiation, 384–85
Dingell, John, 418–19n
diplomacy
deterrence and, 312–15
Outer Space Treaty and, 274, 313, 382, 503n
space diplomacy, 260–61, 312–13, 531n
directed-energy weapons, 240–41, 242
see also lasers
Dismantling the Empire (Johnson), 35
Dobrynin, Anatoly F., 292
Doel, Ronald E., 223
Dollond, John, 111, 130, 131
Dollond, Peter, 111, 130
Dolman, Everett C., 280–81, 330, 489n
Doomsday Clock, 310–11
Dos Passos, John, 161
double concave lenses, 129
double convex lenses, 129
Dowd, Maureen, 36
Draper, John William, 144
Dr. Strangelove (movie), 300
Duffner, Robert W., 152–53
Dyna-Soar spaceplane, 279
Earth-observation satellites, see remote-sensing satellites
Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company, 144
Eastman Kodak, 203, 205
Ebertin, Elsbeth, 57–58, 61
Echo communication satellite, 278
eclipses
and ancient astronomy, 44–49, 423–24n
cycle of lunar eclipses, 56
daguerreotype of solar eclipse, 144
effects on history, 45–49
evidence of Earth’s slowing rotation, 46
Eddington, Arthur, 400–401
Edison, Thomas Alva, 220
education in science and engineering
decline in US share of degrees, 22, 31
reaction to Sputnik launch, 270, 490n
Egypt
ancient astronomy, 39, 40, 42
early ships, 68, 432n
Nabta Playa, 42
pyramids at Giza, 42
solar calendar with 365 days, 40, 422–23n
Einstein, Albert, 182, 215, 218
Eisenhower, Dwight D.
Atoms for Peace, 287, 498–99n
on military-industrial complex, 26, 161, 404
military space budget, 282
military space efforts, 273–74, 278–79
moratorium on nuclear testing, 307
presidential exit speech, 26, 161
Project Plowshare, 287, 499n
proposed ban on weapons in space, 281
quest for both peace and preparedness, 275–78, 493–94n
satellite proposals, 267, 271, 488n, 491n
science advisor appointed, 269, 491n
Supreme Allied Commander in Europe, 269, 275
Vela Hotel satellites and, 216
electric telegraphs, 118, 123
electromagnetic pulse, 290
electromagnetic spectrum, 100–101, 168–69, 170–71, 199–200, 209, 213–14
Elements of Geometry (Euclid), 44, 107
elements, origin of, 400–403
Ellsberg, Daniel, 248
empire building
American empire, 34–36
by Portuguese, 81, 83–84, 87–88
and science, in eighteenth century, 90–91, 95, 439n
in seventeenth century, 90
by Spain, 87–88
Enceladus, 196–97
Energiya, 359, 363
Energomash, 363
England, warfare in seventeenth century, 108–9, 443–44n
Enlargement of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 502n
Enola Gay, 457n
entanglement (photons), 313, 351
ephemerides, 82, 94
Eratosthenes, 87, 434n, 437n
Euclid, 44, 107
Eudoxus of Cnidus, 71, 72, 73
European Defence Agency, 327
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), 328
European Launcher Development Organisation, 326
European Space Agency
ACES (Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space), 339
collaboration with China, 377
collaboration with Russia, 364
Columbus laboratory linked to ISS, 368
nonmilitary mandate, 326–27, 329–30
recent successes, 32
science spending, 520n, 533n
space weather prediction, 160–61
weather satellites, 341
European Space Research Organisation, 326
European Union
code of space conduct, 397
Common Security and Defence Policy, 327
military spending, 327, 512n
nonmilitary interest in space, 22, 326–27
reliance on soft power, 326
space spending, 329
“Space Strategy for Europe,” 328–29
stability as vital goal, 325–26
terrorist attacks, 327
on threats to global security, 14
ExoMars, 364
exoplanets, detection of, 175, 399
Experiments and Observations on Electricity (Franklin), 123
Explorer 1 satellite, 269
Explorer XI satellite, 213–14
exports of military space systems, 300, 505n
eye (human), abilities and limitations of, 100–101
Fair Housing Act of 1968, 288
FAST (Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope), 182
“Fat Man” (Nagasaki), 303, 307, 505n
Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope (NASA), 199
financial crisis of 2008–2009, 3–4
Finnish Meteorological Institute, 385
First Battle of Bull Run, 124, 448n, 449n
first use of nuclear weapons, as option, 308, 309
Five D’s: deception, disruption, denial, degradation, and destruction, 322
Fizeau, Armand-Hippolyte-Louis, 144
Flamsteed, John, 52, 94
FOBS (Fractional Orbital Bombardment System), 286
F-117A stealth fighter, 197, 198, 332, 470n, 514n
food for mariners, 84–85
Food Stamps Act of 1964, 288
Fort Sumter, 124
Foucault, Jean-Bernard-Léon, 92, 133, 144
Fowler, William, 402
Fox Talbot, William Henry, 142, 455n
Franklin, Benjamin, 112, 123
Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 146
Fraunhofer lines, 146, 147
Frederick the Great, 111, 130, 446n
“freedom of space” issue after Sputnik, 268–69, 301, 505n
frequency, defined, 100
Frisius, Regnier Gemma, 95, 441n
Fugate, Robert, 155
Fukushima nuclear disaster, 255
Furst, Luther C., 449n
fusion bombs, 304, 389, 390, 391, 474n
fusion in stars, 304, 389, 390, 391, 400
Gagarin, Yuri, 157, 264, 282
Galaxy IV satellite failure, 478n
Galbraith, John Kenneth, 55
Galilei, Galileo
astrology, 49, 52–53
discoveries with telescopes, 52, 103, 109–10
drawings, 141, 202, 455n
patronage and telescopes, 105–6, 160, 173, 442–43n
telescope construction, 102, 107, 110, 441–42n
Galileo global positioning system, 160, 329, 337
GAMBIT (KH-8) satellites, 205
gamma-ray bursts, 214–15, 217, 473–74nn
gamma rays
detection of, 199, 213–18
discovery of, 171, 213
Earth’s atmosphere and, 214
generation by cosmic rays, 218
Garwin, Richard L., 249, 250–51, 377, 482n, 485n
General Dynamics, 11, 18
Generall Historie of Virginia (Smith), 436n
general theory of relativity, 182
geodetic meridian, 99
Geographike Hyphegesis (Ptolemy), 50, 78, 85, 86, 87
George III (king), 96
geostationary orbit (GEO), 278–79, 494n
Germany
air war against in World War II, 189–90
export and manufacturing after World War I, 137–39, 453n, 454nn
exports before World War I, 137, 453n
radar development, 186, 465n
rearming in 1930s, 186
withdrawal from the League of Nations, 139
Gettysburg, 126–27, 449nn
Giacconi, Riccardo, 225, 226
Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, 182–83
glass, 131
see also optical glass
Glaucon, 46
global GDP, 403, 533n
Global Positioning System (GPS)
accuracy and precision, 332, 333, 336–37, 513n
Air Force control of, 158, 337
Beidou system (China), 337
cruise missiles and, 332, 346
in first Gulf War, 332–36
funding, 337, 516n
Galileo system (EU), 160, 329, 337
and geodetic meridian, 99
GLONASS system (Russia), 160, 337–38, 362, 363, 516n
GPS III, 337
ionosphere and, 333
in Iraq War, 336, 346, 348
jamming of, 333, 515n, 516n
NAVSTAR Global Positioning System, 278, 332, 335–36
overview, 158, 332–33, 339–40
selective availability, 336
smart bombs and, 335
global security, 14–15
GLONASS global positioning system, 160, 337–38, 362, 363, 516n
GNSS (global navigation satellite systems), 337
Goddard, Robert, 192
Goebbels, Paul Joseph, 58, 59, 60, 61–62, 428n, 429n
Goerner, F. G., 59
Goldberg, Arthur J., 292
Goldwater, Barry, 288
Gonçalves, Lopes, 81
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 251, 307, 358, 359–60, 361, 522n
gravitational tractor, 256
gravitational waves, 198–99, 399, 461n
Gray, Colin, 335–36, 515n
Great Britain
Chain Home radar network, 187–88, 467n
demand for military production in World War I, 135–36
exports before World War I, 137, 453n
radar astronomy, 191
radar development, 186–87, 465–66nn
Great Pacific Garbage Patch, 238
Greece and the Greeks
ancient astronomy, 44–47
Antikythera Mechanism, 44–45, 422–23n
Athens’ dependence on grain shipments, 69
geometry, 44
on solstices, equinoxes, and directions, 68
Syracuse, siege of, 45, 47
Greenwich Mean Time, 441n
Griffin, Michael, 25, 26, 376
Guicciardini, Francesco, 52
guide stars, 153, 154, 155, 457n
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, 500n
Gulf War
antiwar movement, 10
communication satellites and, 340–41, 517n
factors leading up to, 331, 513n
as first space war, 330–31
Global Positioning System (GPS) use in, 332–36
intensive bombing, 330, 331
Kuwait invasion and, 9–10, 330, 331, 334, 341, 513n
news coverage and public reaction, 7–8, 10, 341
Scud missiles, 341
shortage of GPS receivers, 333–34
spy satellites and, 342–44
weather satellites and, 341–42
see also Operation Desert Storm
Gutenberg, Johannes, 442n
H-1 chronometer, 96
H-4 chronometer, 96, 97, 441n
Hadfield, Chris, 414n
Hagen, John, 489n
Hall, Chester Moor, 129–30
Halliburton, 11, 25
Hanno (king), 73, 434n
Hardy, John W., 156
Harley, J. Brian, 91–92
Harman, Jane, 412n
Harriot, Thomas, 102
Harrison, John, 95, 96–97, 441n
Harvey, Brian, 374
Harwit, Martin, 151, 223, 457n, 475n
Hayabusa spacecraft (Japan), 355
Hayden Planetarium, 15, 132, 366, 451n
healing, vision of future avenue to, 383–86
heat signatures, 219–20
Hecataeus of Miletus, 70
helium, discovery of, 148
Hellfire missiles, 20, 332
Henry, Paul-Pierre and Matthieu-Prosper, 148, 456–57n
Henry (Prince Frederick Henry of Nassau), 104
Henry the Navigator, 79–81, 83
Herodotus, 45, 70, 423n, 434n, 440n
Herschel, John Frederick William, 142
Herschel, William
discovery of infrared light, 167–68, 220, 461n
discovery of Uranus, 52, 167, 444n
“photography” named, 142
study of sunlight, color, and heat, 167–68, 220, 461n
telescope design, 444n
Hertz, Heinrich, 168, 184
Hess, Rudolf, 58–59, 428n
Hevelius, Johannes, 444n, 455n
HEXAGON (KH-9) satellites, 205, 228–29, 230
Higgs boson, 28
hijackings of commercial airplanes, 226
Hindu astronomy and astrology, 40, 54
Hipparchus, 72, 73, 87, 93, 440n
Hiroshima, Japan, 263, 301, 302, 303, 457n, 474n, 505n
Historia rerum ubique gestarum (Pius II), 86
Histories (Polybius), 46–47, 119, 423–24n
Hitler, Adolf
appointment as chancellor of the Third Reich, 58
astrology and mysticism, 40–41, 60–62, 421n
becoming Führer, 186
Beer Hall Putsch (1923), 57–58
horoscopes of, 57–58, 61, 62–63, 428n
HMS Beagle, 97
Homer, 67–68
Hondius, Jocodus, 439n
Hong Fan Zhuan (“Account of the Great Plan”), 43
Hooke, Robert, 109, 120
Hornsby, Thomas, 440n
House Committee on Un-American Activities, 265
Howe, Ellic, 57, 58, 428n, 429n
Hoyle, Fred, 402
Hubble Space Telescope
civilian ownership, 233
high-resolution images of star fields, 154, 203
jitter problem, 229–30
links to KH-9 HEXAGON satellite, 227–29, 230–31
mission and discoveries, 232–33, 398
most distant galaxy, 199
proposed by Spitzer, 262
retrieval by Canadarm, 520n
Hubble Wars, The (Chaisson), 227
Hughes Aircraft, 222
Hu Jintao, 376
Hulse, Russell A., 182
Hülsmeyer, Christian, 184
human body parts as measuring tools, 74–75, 93
Humboldt, Alexander von, 456n
Hunter, Duncan, 412n
Hurricane Maria, 181
Hussein, Saddam, 19, 20, 24, 331, 348
Huygens, Christiaan, 5–6, 36, 103, 169
Hyten, John E., 324–25, 531n
ibn Mājid, Ahmad, 73, 74, 432n, 434n
Iceland
Christopher Columbus and, 85, 437n
discovery by Irish monks, 65
Flóki saga, 430–31n
Pytheas and, 71, 72, 433n
Reagan-Gorbachev summit, 359
IEEE High Performance Extreme Computing Conference (2014), 224
Imago Mundi (d’Ailly), 86
immigrants in science and engineering, 21–22
Imperial America: Reflections of the United States of Amnesia (Vidal), 35
India
ASATs (antisatellite weapons), 259
astrology in, 54
Bharatiya Janata Party, 54
education and life expectancy, 519n
Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, 182–83
launch services provided, 352
military spending, 353, 519n
RISAT-2 satellite, 159
science and technology degrees awarded, 22
space program, 351–52
TES (Technology Experiment Satellite), 159
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), 159, 352, 533n
industry unity, 25, 26
Infrared Celestial Backgrounds program, 219, 221
infrared light
detection of, 169–70, 199, 219–25
detector technology, 223–24, 475–76n
discovery of, 146, 167–68, 220, 461n
Earth’s atmosphere and, 199
emission of, 170
heat signatures, 219–20
missile detection, 219–20
nonlethal weapons using, 201
sky surveys, 219, 220–22, 223, 224–25
insulation (polyethylene), 186
Inter-Allied Military Control Commission (IAMCC), 137, 454n
interferometers (radio telescopes), 182–83
Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty, 307
International Charter: Space and Major Disasters, 206–7
International Conference on High Performance Computing, Networking, Storage and Analysis (2012), 224
International Council of Scientific Unions, 261
international dateline, 88–89
International Geophysical Year (IGY), 261, 264, 267, 269, 292
International Launch Services, 363
International Meridian Conference, 89, 92, 98–99
International Politics of Space, The (Sheehan), 151, 522n
International Space Station (ISS)
ACES (Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space), 339
American astronauts ferried by Russia, 27–28, 363, 370, 372, 389
Canada and, 352, 353, 365, 368, 520n
China’s exclusion from, 366, 373–74, 376–77
Columbus laboratory, 368
cost, 366, 367–68, 524n
early concepts for, 352
failure of supply missions, 364, 389
history, 365–72
Japan and, 352, 355, 365, 368, 520n
Kibo space laboratory, 355, 368, 520n
oneness of Earth viewed from, 15, 316, 414n
opposition to, 368–69
Russian service module, 363, 364, 368, 372
scheduled end of operation, 370–71, 377
Soyuz transport to, 363, 364, 370, 372, 389
spacefarer collaboration on, 316, 366
time dilation on, 218
United States as “hegemonic partner,” 370, 525n
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat), 340, 501n
invisibility, 165, 172, 175, 459–60n
ionosphere
ballistic missile passage through, 181, 183, 192
GPS satellites and, 333
Project Defender and, 181
and radar research, 183, 187, 190, 191–92, 465n
reflection of radio waves, 176–77, 187
turbulence in, 183
Iran, 3, 299, 310, 378
Iran Deal, 378
Iraq, disintegration after Iraq War, 348, 518n
Iraq Veterans Against the War (IVAW), 410n
Iraq War
American troops in, 24–25, 416nn
antiwar movement, 10, 410n
battle for Baghdad, 19–20, 348
costs of, 25, 416–17n
Global Positioning System (GPS) use in, 336, 346, 348
Iraqi civilian deaths, 25, 416n
military deaths and injuries, 25, 416n
military satellites and, 10, 19
Operation Iraqi Freedom, 16–17, 19, 24, 197, 346–47
organizational improvements, 346–48
private contractors in, 24–25, 416n
reasons for war, 11, 336, 515n
space technology advancements and, 10, 344
use of military force authorized by Congress, 10–11, 410n
US “troop surge,” 34
“victory” declared, 348, 518n
Iraq War: Strategy, Tactics, and Military Lessons, The (Cordesman), 348
isba, 73
Ishango bone, 420n
ISIS (Islamic State of Iraq and Greater Syria), 34, 514–15n
Isle of Man, 71, 72
Israel, ASATs (antisatellite weapons), 259
ISR (intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance), 157–59, 204
ITAR (International Traffic in Arms Regulations), 374, 375, 376
It Can’t Happen Here (Lewis), 274, 315
James Webb Space Telescope, 23, 232, 233, 246–47, 533n
jamming, 260, 333, 515n, 516n
Jansky, Karl, 178–79, 180, 463n
Japan
Christianity banned in, 111
education and life expectancy, 519n
firebombing of Tokyo, 301, 304
Hiroshima, 263, 301, 302, 303, 457n, 474n, 505n
increasing civilian space workforce, 22, 27
and International Space Station, 352, 355, 365, 368, 520n
Kibo space laboratory, 355, 368
microwave radar in World War II, 189
military spending, 353, 519n
Nagasaki, 111, 263, 301, 302, 303, 474n, 505n
Pearl Harbor attack in World War II, 189, 466–67n
rocket development, 264, 355
Space Basic Law, 356
space program, 354–56
space spending, 354, 520n
telescopes in seventeenth century, 111
Jasons, 154–55
JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency), 32, 354–55, 520n, 533n
J Dollond & Son, 130
Jena, Germany, 130, 131–32, 139, 454n
Jerome, Aaron B., 126–27
João II (king), 83
Jodrell Bank Observatory, 181, 183, 191–92, 209–13, 468n
see also Mark I radio telescope
Johnson, Chalmers, 35
Johnson-Freese, Joan
alarming US space assets, 300, 504–5n
China’s space program, 373, 374, 376–77
connectivity and national security, 350
dual-use satellites, 159
International Space Station, 368
space shuttle as ASAT, 258
US space dominance prospects, 32, 396
Johnson, Lyndon B.
arms control treaties, 273, 289, 500n
cooperation promoted at United Nations, 280
laws and programs during presidency, 287, 288–89
militarization of space, 273–74, 287, 291
nuclear weapons and, 287
Outer Space Treaty, 273, 292–93, 501n
peaceful uses of space, 291–92
Senate hearings after Sputnik, 270, 279–80, 287–88, 490n, 495n
space budget, 289–90, 500–501n
space control as “ultimate position,” 157, 279–80
space program during presidency, 286–87, 289–91
vice presidency, 286
Vietnam War and, 289, 290, 500n
War on Poverty, 288
Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM), 335, 336
Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW), 335, 336
Joint Vision 2020 (Joint Chiefs of Staff), 302, 505n
Jones, Alexander, 44, 422n
Judt, Tony, 386
Jung, Carl, 426n
Jupiter’s moons discovered, 52, 103, 109–10
K-2 and K-3 chronometers, 97
Kalhu, Iraq (Nimrud), 33, 34
Kalic, Sean, 290
kalpa, 40
kamal, 75, 339
kavengas, 68
Kazakhstan, 362, 522–23n
KBR, 11
Kendall, Frank, 481n
KENNAN (KH-11) satellites, 204, 205, 343, 471n
Kennedy, Anthony, 53
Kennedy, John F.
on arms control and cooperation, 284
assassination, 286
Cuban Missile Crisis, 492–93n
inaugural address, 497–98n
on landing a man on the Moon, 282, 320, 458n
leadership theme, 323
Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 215
on mastery of space, 157
and militarization of space, 273–74, 281–82, 284
missile gap and 1960 election, 281, 496n
peace and freedom themes, 282, 283
space budget, 281–82, 283, 320, 510n
space power strategy, 319–20
space weapons program, 286
Kepler, Johannes, 49, 93, 110, 424n, 440n
KEYHOLE satellites, 204–5, 228, 230, 343, 500n
Khrushchev, Nikita, 281, 284, 492n, 496n, 497n, 506n
KH-1 CORONA satellites, 204–5, 228, 500n
KH-8 GAMBIT satellites, 205
KH-9 HEXAGON satellites, 205, 228–29, 230
KH-11 (Advanced) satellites, 205–6, 343
KH-11 KENNAN satellites, 204, 205, 343, 471n
Killkan report, “Meeting the Threat of Surprise Attack,” 493–94n
Kinetic Energy Antisatellite (KE-ASAT) interceptor, 258–59
kinetic-energy weapons, 240, 241
King’s College, New York, 112, 113
Kirchhoff, Gustav, 146–47
Kiska, evacuation by Japan, 189
Kitab al-Fawa’id fi usul al-bahr wa-l-qawa’id, 67, 431n
Klebesadel, Ray, 217
Knights Templar, 80
Korolev, Sergei, 263–64, 266, 268, 286, 487n, 489n
Krafft, Karl Ernst, 59, 60–61, 429n
Krepon, Michael, 309, 310, 485n, 507n
Kritzinger, H. H., 427–28n
Kubrick, Stanley, 494n
Kuiper Belt, 344
Kutzscher, Edgar, 476n
Lacrosse satellite, 343
LaFeber, Walter, 303
Landsat, 343–44
Langley, Samuel P., 128, 148, 457n
Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 456n
Large Hadron Collider, Switzerland, 28
Lascaux, France, cave drawings, 420–21n
laser-guided bombs, 332, 335, 342
laser guide stars, 154, 155
lasers
acronym, 242
in airborne antimissile defense, 156, 253
Curiosity rover’s ChemCam laser, 242, 389–90
as directed-energy weapons, 241–42, 247
fiber laser, 246
geodetic meridian and, 99
invention, 288
spaced-based lasers, challenges of, 245–47, 480–81n
Lasser, David, 192
Last Empire, The (Vidal), 35
Late Heavy Bombardment, 384
latitude, 72, 73–74, 83
Lay, James S., Jr., 304–5
leap second, 46
leap year, 422–23n
Lebombo bone, 420n
Lee, Robert E., 124, 126, 449n
Lee, Wen Ho, 375
Lehman Brothers, 5
LeMay, Curtis, 248, 304, 481n, 506n
lenses
achromatic lens, 130, 132
apochromatic lens, 132
color problem in lens optics, 129–30
combinations used in telescopes, 109, 110, 444n
concave lenses, 110, 129, 442n
convex lenses, 110, 129
double concave lenses, 129
double convex lenses, 129
plano-concave lenses, 129
plano-convex lenses, 129
problems in large refracting telescopes, 133
spectacle lenses, 102, 442n
see also telescopes
Leutze, Emanuel, 114–15
Lewis, Jerry, 412n
Lewis, Outer Hebrides, Scotland, 72
Lewis, Sinclair, 274, 315
LHS 1140B exoplanet, detection, 399
liangtianchi, 75
Libya, 328, 331
Liebenfels, Lanz von, 421n
Liebig, Justus von, 133
LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory), 198, 399, 461n
Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963), 215, 273, 285, 287, 293, 313, 498n
Lincoln, Abraham, 269
Lipperhey, Hans, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 109
“Little Boy” (Hiroshima), 303, 307, 505n
Little Round Top, 126–27
Lockheed Martin
campaign contributions, 412n
in Colorado Springs, 16
F-117A stealth fighter, 197, 198, 332, 470n, 514n
HEXAGON (KH-9) satellites, 205
prosperity after September 11, 2001, 11, 12
Russian rocket joint ventures, 363, 371
Skunk Works unit, 198, 276, 469n
weapons manufactured by, 18
Lo Compasso da Navigare, 77
lodestones, 75, 436n
long-distance telephone calls, 177–78, 462n
longitude
differences of latitude and longitude, 73
difficulty in determining, 73, 93, 440n
Hipparchus development of, 72, 73
methods of determining, 94–97
need for a system of latitude, 93–94
places used for zero degrees, 87, 89, 94
prime meridian and, 87, 89, 98–99
prizes for solving the longitude problem, 95–96
see also meridians
Lord, Lance W., 18, 19
Los Alamos National Laboratory, 216, 217, 390–91
Louis XVI, 121
Lovell, Bernard, 191, 209, 210–12, 268, 468n, 489n
low Earth orbit (LEO), 398
Luna (Lunik) probes, 211, 271–72, 473n
“lunar cycle effect” in stock market, 56
lunar cycles and lunar months, 39, 420–21n
Luther, Martin, 51
Lutwak, Robert, 339
Lydians and Medes, 45, 423n
Macbeth (Shakespeare), 173
Madeiras, 80
Mad Men (TV series), 161
Magellan, Ferdinand, 88, 436n
magnetic compass development, 75–78
magnetite, 75
Maher, Bill, 392
Making of a Soviet Scientist, The (Sagdeev), 360
Malus, Étienne-Louis, 456n
maneuverable satellites, 397, 531n
Manhattan Project, 390, 401
Mansfield Amendment, 222–23
Mao Zedong, 318, 351
maps and mapmaking
at end of thirteenth century, 78
Eratosthenes, 87
first extant terrestrial globe (“Erdapfel”), 87, 436n
first maps of Earth’s inhabited regions, 70–71
as a form of political and social power, 91–92
Geographike Hyphegesis (Ptolemy), 50, 78, 85, 86, 87
meaning of maps, 92
Mercator’s world map, 90, 439n
in sixteenth century, 89–90, 439n
see also charts, maritime
Marat, Jean-Paul, 121
March for Science, 378, 404
Marconi, Guglielmo, 184
Mark I radio telescope (Lovell Telescope), 180–81, 209–12, 472–73n
see also Jodrell Bank Observatory
Marseille Observatory, 133
Martin Marietta, 363
masers, 242, 245
Maskelyne, Nevil, 94, 96, 441n
Massalia (Marseille), 70, 71, 72
Maurice of Nassau (prince), 102, 104, 107, 117
Maya, 40
McCain, John, 53
McDougall, Walter A., 261
MC 14/2 (“Massive Retaliation”), 305–6
McNamara, Robert, 285, 289, 492–93n
Medes and Lydians, 45, 423n
Medicare and Medicaid legislation, 288
Melvill, Thomas, 145
Mercator, Gerardus, 90, 438n
meridians
convergence near Poles, 84, 436–37n
geodetic meridian, 99
need for, 87–88
places used for zero degrees, 87, 89, 94
prime meridian, 87, 89, 98–99
see also longitude
Mesopotamia, 34, 41, 42, 49, 57, 432n
meteors, detection with radar, 191
microwave ovens, 189
microwave radar, 188–89
microwaves
communication using, 171, 177–78
discovery of, 171
Earth’s atmosphere and, 200–201
nonlethal weapons using, 201, 470–71n
water hole, 200–201, 470n
MIDAS (Missile Defense Alarm System) satellite, 278
military burden, 452n
military, interservice competition, 262, 289, 500nn
military satellites
CCDs in, 204–7
Defense Support Program, 158, 341
during Eisenhower presidency, 278
film-return types, 204, 205, 228
ISR capabilities, 158–59
military space budget, 321, 510n
see also spy satellites
military spending
after Vietnam War, 8, 409–10n
compared to astrophysics spending, 402–3, 533nn
global military spending, 403, 404, 533n
military space budget, 321, 510n
after September 11 attack, 12–13, 412n
Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars), 12, 250, 411n
Milky Way
Andromeda galaxy collision predicted, 234
radio waves from center of, 178–79
rapid movement of central stars, 344
vs. other galaxies in universe, 131
width, 399
milspace, 349
Minoans, 68, 69
mirrors in reflecting telescopes, 133
Mir space station (USSR), 359–60, 362, 522n
Missile Defense Agency, 12, 252
missile defense technology, see Strategic Defense Initiative
Moltz, James Clay, 261, 280, 359
Moluccas (Spice Islands), 88
Molyneux, William, 108
Montgomery, Bernard, 305
Moon
albedo, 196
first daguerreotypes of, 143, 144, 456n
mountains and craters discovered, 52, 103, 110
plans to detonate a nuclear bomb on, 272, 491–92n
radio waves bounced off surface, 191
Moon landings
Apollo 11 mission, 353, 369
cost, 320, 510n
Kennedy’s plan for, 282, 320, 458n
NASA’s mandate, 289
opposition to, 289, 500n
reaction to, 381–82
Moore, Francis, 426n
Moran, James, 412n
Morgan, J. H., 138, 454n
Morgan, John Pierpont, 55, 161
Moseley, T. Michael, 33
Mosul, Iraq, 34, 518n
Mountain Pass Mine, California, 383
MOUT (Military Operations on Urban Terrain), 201–2
Mowthorpe, Matthew, 258
Mumford, Lewis, 381–82
muons, 218
Murtha, Jack, 412n
Mussolini, Benito, 403–4
mutual assured destruction (MAD), 298
Myer, Albert J., 123–26, 127–28, 448nn
myopia, 442n
Mysteries of the Sun and Soul (Kritzinger), 427–28n
Nagasaki, Japan, 111, 263, 301, 302, 303, 474n, 505n
Naked and the Dead, The, 387
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
aerospace budget, 533n
budget, 232, 282, 289–90, 320, 345, 510n
competition with Air Force, 289
contact with China prohibited, 376
cooperation with Pentagon in Vietnam War, 290
creation of, 270, 271
critiques of non-science budget, 369–70
funding of space research, 21
mandate for Moon landings, 289
Manned Spaceflight Center (Johnson Space Center), 286
National Academy of Sciences, 231–32, 251, 267, 269
National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, 270, 277, 279, 287
National Bureau of Standards, 192, 453n, 455n
National Defense Education Act, 270
National Endowment for the Arts, 289
National Nuclear Security Administration, 390
National Priorities Project, 14
National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), 21, 204, 225, 228, 231–32, 500n, 501n, 517n
National Science Foundation, 21, 227, 267, 271, 533n
national science laboratories, 28–29
National Security Act of 1947, 265, 481n
National Security Agency/Central Security Service (NSA/CSS), 13–14, 413n
National Security Council, 265, 268, 270, 276
national security, defined, 13–14, 413nn
National Space Program, The, 283
National Space Symposium, 16–20, 24–25, 26, 414n, 415n, 417n
Natural Magick (Porta), 107
Nauplius (king), 446n
Nautical Almanac (Maskelyne), 94
Navajo resistance to westward expansion, 124
navigation
by ancient mariners, 66–74
challenges in fifteenth century, 84–85, 86–87
clues used by wayfinders, 64–66, 82
dead reckoning, 77, 82, 86
defined, 65–66
ephemerides and, 82, 94
instruments and devices of early navigators, 74–75
magnetic compass development, 75–78
in the Mediterranean in 1320, 77–78
questionnaires on longitude and latitude, 90, 438n
running down the latitude, 82
see also charts, maritime
NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS), 278, 332, 335–36
Nazi Germany
astrology and, 57–63, 427–28nn, 429nn
Grossdeutschland as driving vision, 64
Nostradamus used for propaganda, 59, 428–29nn
near-Earth objects (NEOs), 253–54, 255, 256
Necho (king), 73, 434n
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 351
Nelson, Horatio, 115–16, 122
Netherlands
military use of telescopes, 110–11
Twelve Years’ Truce with Spain, 104, 107
New Astronomy, The (Langley), 148
Newell, Homer, 369
New Guinea, 64, 430n
Newton, Isaac
colors and, 145, 166–67
longitude and, 93, 95
on necessity of experiments, 460–61n
on particle nature of light, 146, 169
spectrum produced from white light, 145, 166–67, 461n
telescope design, 444n
on twinkling of stars, 152
New-York Convention of August 1776, 113
New Zealand, 65, 78
NII-4 think tank, 264
Nimbus satellites, 291
1984 (Orwell), 317, 508n
Nixon, Richard, 271, 281, 473n
Noah’s use of a dove, 65
no-first-use policies, 309, 507n
noise
in CCDs, 203
cooling of telescopes to avoid, 170, 203
defined, 220
infrared noise, 170
jamming and, 260, 515n
static in radio communications, 177, 178
from Van Allen radiation belt, 216
non-financial business sector, 4
nonlethal weapons using nonvisible wavelengths, 201–2, 470–71n
North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), 16, 353–54
North Atlantic Treaty, 265
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 265, 305–6, 309–10, 328
North Korea
ASAT (antisatellite weapon) program, 259
satellite surveillance of missile-launch sites, 379, 482n
Sohae Satellite Launching Station, 206
Taepodong-1 intermediate-range ballistic missile, 256
tension over missile and nuclear programs, 253, 299, 310, 356, 530n
Northrop Grumman
B-2 stealth bombers, 198, 303, 470n
campaign contributions, 412n
in Colorado Springs, 16
James Webb Space Telescope, 23
military-related projects and sales, 18, 23
overview, 22–23
prosperity after September 11, 2001, 11, 12
Starshade screen, 21
Nostradamus, 53, 59, 428–29nn
NSC 162/2, 304–5, 506n
NSC 68, “A Report to the National Security Council,” 266, 314, 499n
nuclear accidents, 255–60, 484–85n
nuclear explosions
damage from, 302
gamma-ray bursts, 215, 473–74n
peaceful (PNEs), 499n
see also atomic bombs; fusion bombs; nuclear tests
Nuclear Operations doctrine document, 308, 311
“nuclear Pearl Harbor,” 411n
Nuclear Posture Review Report, 308
nuclear tests
Bikini Atoll nuclear bomb tests, 402–3
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 313–14, 508n
Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 215, 273, 285, 287, 293, 313, 498n
moratorium under Eisenhower, 307
problems from, 284–85, 302, 496–97n
as “psychosis,” 302–4
Sedan, 496n
Starfish Prime, 302, 496–97n, 505n
Tsar Bomba, 307, 505–6n
unclassified data from, 402
yields of, 303–4, 505–6n
Obama, Barack
national security strategy, 323
nuclear policy, 308
space budget, 510n
space policy, 503n
summit with Hu Jintao, 376
UN General Assembly speech, 387–88, 528n
Wall Street speech, 4–5
obelisks, 40
Obering, Trey, 481n
Oberkochen, Germany, 132
“October effect” in stock market, 56
Odysseus, 45, 67
Oliver, Bernard, 470n
Olson, Roy, 217
On the Ocean (Pytheas), 71–72, 434n
On the Sphere of the World (Sacrobosco), 77, 83
On War (Clausewitz), 238
Operation Desert Shield, 340
see also Gulf War
Operation Desert Storm
absence of moonlight, 7, 79
aircraft used, 7, 332, 512n, 514n
bomb hit rates, 332, 514n
casualties due to fratricide, 334
news coverage and public reaction, 7–8, 341
shortage of GPS receivers, 333–34
stealth aircraft, 7, 197, 332, 514n
see also Gulf War
Operation Fishbowl, 290–91
Operation Iraqi Freedom, 16–17, 19, 24, 197, 346–47
see also Iraq War
Operation Overcast, 262
Operation Paperclip, 262, 468n
optical glass
about, 130–31
British production in World War I, 135–36
cost, 131, 451n
demand in World War I, 134–36, 139–40, 452n
fuel used in production, 131, 450–51n
US production in World War I, 139–40, 454–55n
optical munitions, 132, 134, 135, 136, 140
optical telegraphs, 118–19, 120–28, 446–47nn
see also telescopes
Opticks (Newton), 166–67
Order of Christ, 79
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, 327
Orient and Occident, 68
Orion Nebula, 103, 203
Orkney Islands, 71
Orwell, George, 317
Ostara, 421n
Outer Space Treaty
negotiations and diplomacy, 274, 313, 382, 503n
omissions and limitations, 313, 314
provisions of, 273, 286, 287, 296–97, 313–14, 486n, 493n
signing and ratification of, 292–93, 295–96, 314, 501n, 503n
US space doctrine and, 296–97, 503–4n
Owen, Wilfred, 387
ozone, 214, 225
Pakistan, 206, 310
Panama, 331, 499n
Paris Agreement, 388, 528–29n
Paris Observatory, 93, 94, 98, 133, 142
Parker, Hyde, 115–16
PAROS (Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space), 293–94
Parra Mantois et Cie. (Paris), 131, 452n
Parry, John Horace, 34–35, 84, 439n
particle accelerators, 28–29
Pave Low helicopters, 332
peaceful nuclear explosions (PNEs), 499n
Pearl Harbor attack by Japan, 189, 466–67n
Pearson, Lester, 497n
Pendulum Institute, 59
Pentland Firth, 71
periplus, 71–72
Perle, Richard, 251, 307
Perot, H. Ross, 362
Perry, William, 411n
Perseus cluster, 398–99
Pesticide Control Act, 287
Phelps, Edmund, 4, 6
Phoenicians, 70, 72–73, 433n
photography, overview and history, 140, 141–44, 202
photons, 169
Picasso, Pablo, 142, 174, 381
Pigafetta, Antonio, 88–89
pilot books, 77, 82
Pioneer 1, 212, 270
Pioneer 3, 211
Pioneer 5, 212–13
pixels, 202–3
P & J Dollond Instrument Makers, 130
planetarium projectors, 132, 139, 451n
plano-concave lenses, 129
plano-convex lenses, 129
Plato, 40, 46
Pleiades, 103, 457n
Plutarch, 78, 435n
Pluto, 62–63, 304, 344
PNT (position/navigation/timing) system, 337, 350
Polaris, 67, 68, 73, 74, 75, 82, 431–32n
Politics of Space Security, The (Moltz), 359
Pöllner, Otto, 424n
Polo, Marco, 75
Polybius, 46–47, 119, 423–24n
Polynesians, 65, 78, 339
Porta, Giovanbattista Della, 107
Portugal and the Portuguese
Cape St. Vincent, 89
colonies, 82
conquest linked to astronomy, 80, 81, 83, 436n
Henry the Navigator, 79–81, 83
knowledge gained from voyages, 85
motives for conquest, 83–84
Treaty of Saragossa, 88
Treaty of Tordesillas, 88
potentially hazardous asteroids (PHAs), 190, 253
Powell, Colin, 340
power
as its own excuse, 315
nature of, 508–9n
see also space power
PPWT treaty proposal, 294–95
Pratt & Whitney, 363
precession of the equinoxes, 67
Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, 248
President’s Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy, 323
President’s National Medal of Science, 226–27
Prettanikē (“Britannia”), 71
Price, Stephan, 222, 223
prime meridian, 87, 89, 98–99
printing press invention, 442n
Project Defender, 181, 271, 278
Project Excalibur, 246, 252
Project Plowshare, 287, 499n
Project RAND, 192, 262
see also RAND Corporation
Project Vanguard, 237, 267–68, 270, 488n, 489n, 490n
protoplanets, 384, 385
Ptolemy, Claudius
Almagest, 50
astrology, 49–51, 425n
distance to Sun estimated, 440n
eclipse prediction, 49
Geographike Hyphegesis, 50, 78, 85, 86, 87
Tetrabiblos, 50, 51, 425n
Pulham, Elliot, 25
Putin, Vladimir, 337, 363, 365, 507n
Pytheas, 70–72, 433–34nn
qianxingban, 75
Qian Xuesen, 264–65, 487–88n
quadrants, 74, 82, 84, 436n
quantum efficiency, 203
quantum physics (quantum mechanics), 169, 245, 401
quantum satellites, 236, 259, 351
QUESS (Quantum Experiments at Space Scale), 351
Question of General and Complete Disarmament, 285–86
radar
asteroid tracking, 184, 190
astronomy, 191–92
Chain Home network in Britain, 187–88, 467n
cooperation in postwar research, 190–91, 467–68n
countermeasures, 194–96
cross-section, 196, 197
development of, 183–89, 463–64n, 465–66nn
ionosphere and, 183, 187, 190, 191–92, 465n
Kriegsmarine’s Seetakt, 186
Luftwaffe’s Freya, 186
meteor detection, 191
microwave radar, 188–89
name origin, 183, 463n
origin of concept, 244–45
and Pearl Harbor attack by Japan, 189, 466–67n
secrecy about development, 186, 188–89, 190, 465n
spoofing, 195
women as radar operators, 187, 467n
in World War II, 184–90
Würzburg targeting radar, 186
Radar History of World War II, A (Brown), 185
radioactivity, 400
radio astronomy, 151, 179
Radio Research Board (UK), 187, 465n
radio telescopes, 179–83, 209, 212–13, 268, 400, 472–73nn
radio waves
discovery of, 171, 176, 461n
Earth as radio source, 194
reflection by ionosphere, 176–77, 187
transmission and reception, 177
Raleigh, Walter, 102
Raman, Bangalore Venkata, 425n
RAND Corporation, 246–48, 255, 262, 297, 299–300
ranging, defined, 184
rare earth elements, 383–5
Rationalia, 383
Raytheon
Active Denial/Silent Guardian System, 201, 470–71n
in Colorado Springs, 16
magnetrons manufactured in World War II, 189, 466n
prosperity after September 11, 2001, 11, 12
weapons manufactured by, 18
Reagan, Nancy, 53
Reagan, Ronald
astrology and, 53
Hollywood actor, 250
Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty, 307
International Space Station and, 365, 367
“morning again in America,” 8
Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars), 12, 156, 248–48–9, 411n
summit with Gorbachev, 251, 307, 359
Superconducting Super Collider (SSD), 29
Reber, Grote, 179, 180
reflection control, and stealth, 175, 462n
refraction, 166–67, 175, 460–61n
Regimento do astrolabio e do quadrante, 83, 84
relativity, special and general theories of, 182, 218, 336
remote-sensing satellites (Earth-observation)
commercial satellites, 206–7, 342–43
Galileo and Copernicus (EU), 160, 329, 337
Landsat, 343–44
SPOT, 343, 344
uses of, 159, 160, 206–7
see also spy satellites
Renatus, Flavius Vegetius, 172–73
Republic (Plato), 46
Resolution 1884, 285–86
resonant cavity magnetron, 188–89
Richter, Burton, 249–50
Rittenhouse, David, 145
Ritter, Johann Wilhelm, 168
Robespierre, 121
Rogalski, Antoni, 475n
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 61, 174, 188, 303, 466n
Roscosmos, 337, 352, 363–64, 370, 372
Rowe, A. P., 188, 243–44, 245
Royal Academy of Sciences (France), 93
Royal Observatory Greenwich, 89, 93, 94, 98–99
Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, 445n
r-process (nuclear physics), 403, 532n
Rudolf II, 49, 424n
Rudolph, Arthur, 262
Rumsfeld, Donald, 11, 248, 393, 395, 416n
Rumsfeld Space Commission, 11–12, 21, 323, 393, 395, 493n
running down the latitude, 82
Rusk, Dean, 292
Russia
American astronauts ferried to ISS by, 27–28, 356–57
annexation of Crimea, 370, 389
ASATs (antisatellite weapons), 259
economy after Soviet Union collapse, 361–62
GLONASS global positioning system, 160, 337–38, 362, 363, 516n
inflation in 1990s, 361
joint ventures and foreign support in space, 363, 364, 368, 371
military spending, 353, 519n
rocket engine ban by United States, 371–72
rocket engine sales to United States, 363, 364, 371
Roscosmos, 337, 352, 363–64, 370, 372
space spending, 362, 364
strained US–Russia relations, 357, 521n
Ukrainian incursions, 389
Western sanctions against, 364, 370, 389
Rutherfurd, Lewis, 98
Sacred Games (Chandra), 54–55
Sagan, Carl, 250, 251–52, 254, 255, 360, 388
Sagdeev, Roald, 360–61
Sahul, 64
Sambrook, Stephen, 134, 452n
SAMOS (Satellite and Missile Observation System), 278, 471n
sandglasses, 77, 93
Santa Ana sinking, 110
SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System, 391
Sapphire satellite (Canada), 354
Sarabhai, Vikram, 352
Sarpi, Paolo, 442n
Sassoon, Siegfried, 387
satellites
debris from destruction of, 3, 32, 235, 258
development by Soviet Union, 262, 264, 268
development by United States, 262, 267–68, 487n, 488–89n
disruption of, 259–60
dual-use satellites, 159, 207, 256, 278, 321
growing dependence on, 235, 257, 339–40, 478n
number in orbit, 235, 458n
as potential targets in space war, 235, 257
see also specific types
Saturn
astrology and, 50, 52, 56, 79
rings (companions), 21, 52, 103, 110, 165
Saxton, Jim, 412n
Schott AG, 132
Schott & Associates Glass Technology Laboratory, 132, 135, 138, 139, 452nn
Schott, Otto, 132
Schriever Air Force Base, 16, 337
Schwerin von Krosigk, Lutz, 61–62
Science, The Endless Frontier, 270–71
Scilly Isles, 95
scintillators, 213–14, 216
SCORE communication satellite, 278
Scud missiles, 341
scurvy, 85
Sea Launch partnership, 363
search receivers, 196
security, meanings of, 13–15, 413nn
Seeger, Hans, 454n
Selenographia (Hevelius), 455n
Selin, Ivan, 485n
Seller, John, 66, 431n
September 11, 2001, attacks
Nostradamus “prophecy” and, 53
reaction to, 11, 12–13, 328, 412n
Sessions, Jeff, 412n
seven, mystical significance of, 166, 460n
seventeenth-century wars, nature and frequency of, 108, 443n
Shangshu, or The Book of History, 66–67, 431n
Sheehan, Michael J., 151, 367, 373, 376–77
Shelby, Richard, 412n
Shevardnadze, Eduard, 307
Shovell, Cloudesley, 95
Siddiqi, Asif A., 486–7nn, 489–90nn
Sidereus Nuncius (Galileo), 52–53, 141, 455n
sighting tubes, 101, 119
Signal Corps (US Army Signal Corps)
adaptability after Civil War, 128
casualties, 126, 448–49n
in Civil War, 123, 124, 125, 447n, 448–49nn
Pearl Harbor attack and, 189, 466–67n
radar and, 189, 191
radio waves bounced off Moon surface, 191
Scientific and Study Division, 128
during World War I, 128, 450n
silver chloride, 143, 168
Simes, Dimitri, 252
Simon, Scott, 30
Singh, Khushwant, 54
Siracusa, Joseph M., 306
Sirius (Dog Star), 39, 40
situational awareness, 155, 157, 162, 329, 396, 397
Skunk Works (Lockheed Aircraft), 198, 276, 469n
Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), 224–25
Smith, John, 436n
Snowden, Edward, 14, 413n
Sobel, Dava, 73, 95
Socrates, 46
sodium, spectroscopy of, 145, 146
Sorrows of Empire, The (Johnson), 35
Sotheby’s, 361–62
Soviet Union
atomic and nuclear bomb development, 263
Berlin blockade, 266, 303
collapse of, 357–59
intent to dominate the world, 304–5
Luna (Lunik) probes, 211, 271, 473n
Mir space station, 359–60, 362, 522n
missile defense program, 250, 252
political purges, 266
rocket development, 262, 263–64, 269, 486–87n, 490n
satellite development, 262, 264, 268
science education in, 270
Soviet Star Wars (Skif and Kaskad), 359–60, 522n
space program in 1980s, 359–61
US–Soviet cooperation in space, 357
Venera probes, 211
vilification by the West, 265
see also Sputnik
Soyuz, 357, 363, 370, 372, 389, 521n
space control, 157, 396, 530–31nn
space debris
from asteroid deflection, 255
monitoring by Sapphire satellite, 354
overview of space junk, 237–38
from satellite destruction, 3, 32, 235, 258, 393
“Star Drek” (Maher), 392
United Nations concerns about, 260, 486n
space diplomacy, 260–61, 312–13, 531n
space economy worldwide, overview, 349–50, 518n
Space Foundation
charter of, 15
National Space Symposium, 16–20, 24–25, 26, 414n, 415n, 417n
Space Foundation Index, 15–16
Space Report: The Authoritative Guide to Global Space Activity, The, 15, 21, 510n, 520n
Space Technology and Investment Forum, 414n
Strategic Space Symposium, 414n
Space Handbook, The (Buchheim), 248
Space Operations: Air Force Doctrine Document, 297, 321, 324, 503n
“Space Pearl Harbor,” 12, 393, 411n
space power
China and, 5, 26, 32–33, 318–19, 372–73
competition and, 324–25
European approach to, 325–30
in first Gulf War, 330–36, 340–44
Five D’s: deception, disruption, denial, degradation, and destruction, 322
in future wars, 348–49
in Iraq War, 344–48
Kennedy’s strategy, 319–20
leadership and, 318, 323–25
nature of, 317–18, 379–80
and space economy, 349–56
see also space superiority
space programs of various countries, 32
see also specific countries
Space Report: The Authoritative Guide to Global Space Activity, The (Space Foundation), 15, 21
space science, links to military technology, 20–21
Space Security Index, 397
space shuttle
Challenger disaster, 357
shrinking workforce, 27
termination of program, 27, 363, 370
viewed as possible ASAT, 258
space superiority, 236–37, 302, 321–22, 324, 366, 396, 479n, 530–31nn
see also space power
Space Surveillance Network, 238
Space Technology and Investment Forum, 414n
space war
cyberwar and, 235
Gulf War as first space war, 330–31
preparing plans for, 235–36, 238, 321–22, 478n
remote possibility of, 312, 349, 392–96
satellites as potential targets, 235, 257
Spacewatch debate, 251–52
space weapons, 256–60, 286, 297–301, 312–13, 397, 485n
Space Weapons Earth Wars, 297–301, 504n
space weather, 160–61
SpaceX, 21, 300, 337
Spain
Treaty of Saragossa, 88
Treaty of Tordesillas, 88
Twelve Years’ Truce with Netherlands, 104, 107
special theory of relativity, 218, 336
spectacle lenses, 102, 442n
spectroscopy, overview and history, 140, 144–48
Spektr-RG orbital X-ray observatory, 364
Spencer, Percy, 189
sphaera of Posidonius, 422n
Spinola, Ambrogio, 107
Spitzer, Lyman, 262, 487n
Spitzer Space Telescope (NASA), 199, 487n
SPOT, 343, 344
Sputnik
booster rocket, 32–33, 210, 237, 269, 271
and “freedom of space” issue, 268–69, 301, 505n
launch date, 32, 158, 210, 268, 269
radio transmitter, 33, 269
Sputnik 2, 269, 279
Sputnik 3, 271
tracking by Jodrell Bank, 210
spy satellites, 204–7, 228, 342–45, 471n, 517n
see also remote-sensing satellites; specific types
Square Kilometre Array, 183
Sri Lanka, 32, 64, 69, 430n
Stalin, Josef, 263–64, 266, 282, 303
Standard Inscription of Ashurnasirpal, 33–34, 420n
“Star Drek” (Maher), 392
Starsem, 363
stars, twinkling of, 152–54, 300
Star Trek (TV series), 175, 241
Star Wars (movie), 241, 249
static (noise), 177, 178
stealth aircraft
albedo and, 197
B-2 stealth bombers, 198, 303, 470n
control of reflection, 175, 196
development of, 197–98, 469–70n
F-117A stealth fighter, 197, 198, 332, 470n, 514n
Operation Desert Storm, 7, 197, 332, 514n
Operation Iraqi Freedom, 197
stellar nurseries, 199
Stiglitz, Joseph E., 416n
Stone, I. F., 298–99
stone “passage tombs” of County Meath, Ireland, 41–42
Strachey, R., 98
Strategic Air Command (SAC), 304, 305, 481n
Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars)
and aerospace industry campaign contributions, 12, 411–12n
announced by Ronald Reagan, 12, 156, 248–49, 258, 411n
Brilliant Pebbles, 250, 271
end of Cold War and, 250, 252
laser use in airborne antimissile defense, 156, 253
opposition to, 250–52
Project Excalibur, 246, 252
research and development, 250
spending on, 12, 250, 411n
technical challenges, 249–50, 482n
Strategic Defense Initiative Organization, 26, 250, 251
Strategic Space Symposium, 414n
Strong, Ian, 217
Suhail (Canopus), 67, 73–74, 434n
Sulbār (Achernar), 74
Sumerians, 40, 69
sundials, 40, 44
Sun
distance from Earth estimated, 440n
use in navigation, 67
Sun Tzu, 172, 238
supercomputers, 390, 391
Superconducting Super Collider (SSD) project, 28, 29–30, 418–19n
supernovas in 1572 and 1604, 52, 171
superpowers
goal of American preeminence, 31, 419n
science, technology, and education importance of, 31
space programs, 5, 25
survivability of nuclear war, 306–7
Suskind, Ron, 35
Sylvester II (pope), 101, 441n
Syracuse, Greece, 45, 47
Syria, civilian deaths in air strikes, 514–15n
Szalay, Alexander S., 224
tachygraphe, 120, 446n
Tahiti, 91
Tartessos, tin mines, 70, 433n
tasimeter, 220, 221
Taurus, 41, 66, 422n
Taylor, E. G. R., 91
Taylor, Joseph H., Jr., 182
telescopes
about, 101–2
in American Revolution, 111–12
astronomical telescope development, 109
deformable telescope mirrors, 154
Galileo and patronage, 105–6, 160, 173, 442–43n
Galileo construction of, 102, 107, 110, 441–42n
Galileo’s discoveries with, 52, 103, 109–10
introduced at The Hague in 1608, 103–4, 107
invention and early development, 102–3
lenses and mirrors in refracting telescopes, 109, 110, 444n
military use in eighteenth century, 111–15, 116–18
military use in nineteenth century, 115–16, 123–24, 125–26, 127, 130
military use in seventeenth century, 107, 108–11, 116–18, 444–45n
mirrors in reflecting telescopes, 133
narrow role of in war, 116–18, 445–46n
problems in large refracting telescopes, 133
resolution, 101
see also lenses; optical telegraphs
Teller, Edward, 499n
Tempel 1 (comet), 207–8
Templo Mayor in Mexico City, 42
Terra Australis Incognita, 91
Tesla, Nikola, 184, 463–64n
Tetrabiblos (Ptolemy), 50, 51, 425n
Thakur, Ramesh, 310, 507n
Thant, U, 302
Thayer, Abbott, 172
The Iliad (Homer), 239
thermonuclear fusion bombs, 304, 389, 390, 391, 474n
Thirteen Towers at Chankillo, Peru, 42
This New Ocean (Burrows), 357
threat inflation, 257–58, 485n
Three Mile Island nuclear disaster, 255
Thule, 71, 433n
Thutmose III (pharaoh), 68
Tiede, Ernst, 424n
Tikhonravov, Mikhail, 264, 487n
time as a measure of distance, 92–93
time dilation, 218
time units as units of angular measure, 93
tin, 69–70, 432n
TIROS (Television Infrared Observation Satellite), 278
Titan Corporation, 412n
Tokyo, firebombing of, 301, 304
Toleta de Marteloio, 77
Toscanelli, Paolo dal Pozzo, 86
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), 340, 517n
trade and commerce
and ancient navies, 68, 70
early Mediterranean maritime trade, 68–70, 432n
medieval Middle Eastern and Asian trade networks, 81–82
Ottoman tax collectors and, 81–82
in thirteenth through fifteenth centuries, 78–79, 436n
types of cargo in ancient times, 69, 432n
Transit navigation satellites, 278, 291
transmission curves, 200
transparency, 175
TRAPPIST-1 exoplanets, detection, 399
Travels of Sir John Mandeville, 86, 437n
Travels (Polo), 86
Treaty of Saragossa, 88
Treaty of Tordesillas, 88
Treaty of Versailles, 137, 138, 139
Treaty on Common Security in Outer Space, 295
Truman, Harry S., 262, 264, 265, 303, 473n
Trump, Donald J.
budget proposals, 378, 527n
on “fake news,” 509n
“fire and fury” rhetoric, 306
immigration policy, 377
inauguration, 377
on NATO, 328
nuclear arms policy, 308
Paris Agreement and, 529n
reaction against, 377–79
threats of nuclear escalation, 395, 530n
truculence, 396, 530n
Tsar Bomba, 307, 505–6n
Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin, 263–64, 486–87n
Turnbull, David, 92
Twelve Years’ Truce, 104
Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), 222
Two-Micron Sky Survey, 221
2001: A Space Odyssey (movie), 494n
Tyson, Miranda, 8
Tyson, Neil deGrasse
Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry, 15, 318, 411n
Hayden Planetarium, 15
Natural History (magazine), 15
President’s Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy, 323
reaction to battle for Baghdad, 19–20
reaction to protestors against “weapons bazaar,” 17–18
Space Foundation board, 15–16, 20
Ufimtsev, Pyotr, 198
Uhuru satellite, 226
Ujjain, India, 94
ultraviolet radiation
discovery of, 146, 168
Earth’s atmosphere and, 199, 214
experienced by humans or animals, 169–70
United Launch Alliance, 371
United Nations
calls for peaceful use of space, 272–73, 382
concerns about space debris, 260, 486n
treaties and proposals addressing space, summary, 293–95
treaty proposed to ban nuclear weapons, 310
see also Outer Space Treaty
United States
balance-of-trade deficit with China, 372–73
demand for military production in World War I, 135
experience of modern war avoided, 386–87
military spending, 12–13, 353, 412n, 519n, 533n, 534n
optical glass production in World War I, 139–40, 454–55n
Russian rocket engine ban, 371–72
Russian rocket engine sales to, 363, 364, 371
space spending, 520n
see also Civil War
United States Military Telegraph, 123
Universal Time (UT1), 99, 441n
Uranus, 52, 62, 167, 304, 444n
Urban VIII (pope), 51
Ursa Major (the Great Bear), 67–68, 432nn
US Defense Mapping Agency, 99, 343
US economy
competitiveness in global economy, 30, 31
research and development spending, 30
science and engineering, percentage of US employment, 21
share of world economy, 31, 419n
technical industries, share of gross domestic product, 21
Ushant, France, 72
US Presidents and the Militarization of Space 1946–1967 (Kalic), 290
USS Abraham Lincoln, 24
U-2 spy plane, 198, 276, 278, 492n
Van Allen radiation belt, 216, 302
van Creveld, Martin, 116, 117, 445–46nn
Vedic astrology, 54
Vega, daguerreotype of, 144
Vela Hotel satellites, 216–17, 474n
Vela Sierra and Vela Uniform programs, 474n
Velázquez, Diego, 107
Venera probes, 211, 364
Venus
albedo, 196
in astrology, 50
radar echoes from, 191
recorded in Mesopotamian tablets, 41
transit in 1769, 91, 92, 440n
VERITAS (Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System), 199
Very Large Array, New Mexico, 199
Very Long Baseline Array, 182
Vespucci, Amerigo, 436n
Victoria (ship), 88
Vidal, Gore, 35
Vietnam War
antiwar movement and, 8, 410n
author’s revulsion at, 9
in Johnson era, 289, 290, 500n
in Kennedy era, 284
NASA cooperation with Pentagon, 290
photograph of naked Vietnamese girl (1972), 9, 17
and reaction to Desert Storm, 7–8
US troop numbers, 320
Vikings, 68, 78, 432n
Vinland, 78
visible light, 100, 101, 165–66, 169, 199
von Braun, Wernher
American space program, 267, 366, 488–89n, 523–24n
Operation Paperclip and, 262, 468n
V-2 rocket and, 193, 264, 468n
Voting Rights Act of 1965, 288
V-2 Rocket Panel, 193
V-2 rockets, 58, 183, 193–94, 468–69nn
Waiting for the Barbarians (Coetzee), 35
Wallace, David, 423n
Wallenstein, Albrecht von, 49
war as stimulus for creativity, 4, 5–6
War of the Worlds (Wells), 242–43
Washington Crossing the Delaware (Leutze), 114–15, 445n
Washington, George
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 112
command of the Continental Army, 112–15, 116
telescopes and, 111, 112–13, 115, 116, 130
water hole, 200–201, 470n
Watson-Watt, Robert, 190, 194, 244–45, 465–66n, 467nn
wavelength, defined, 100, 169
wave–particle duality, 169
Waxahachie, Texas, 29
wayfinders, clues used by, 64–66
weapons
ASATs (antisatellite weapons), 257–59, 283, 291, 294, 356, 485n
atomic bombs, 151, 190, 263, 303, 457n, 474n
directed-energy weapons, 240–41, 242
evolution and development of, 238–40
fusion bombs, 304, 389, 390, 391, 474n
kinetic-energy weapons, 240, 241
space weapons, 256–60, 286, 297–301, 312–13, 397, 485n
Weeden, Brian, 397
Weinberg, Stephen, 368–69
Weston, Scott A., 393–94
“When Johnny Comes Marching Home Again,” 10
Whipple, John Adams, 144
White, Theodore, 56
Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST), 232
wigwaggers, 125
Wilkins, Arnold, 244–45
Wilkins, John, 119–20
Wilson, Heather, 325
Wimperis, Henry, 244, 245
Wise, Donald U., 369
Wohl, Louis de, 61
Wolfowitz, Paul, 346–47
Wollaston, William Hyde, 145, 146
Wolter, Detlev, 295
Wood, John, 437n
Worden, Simon P. “Pete,” 26
world domination, 266, 287, 499n
World War I
demand for military production, 135–36
demand for optical glass and optical munitions, 134–36, 139–40, 452nn
US Army Signal Corps and, 128, 450n
World War II military spending, 403, 533–34nn
World War II radar use, 184–90
Wright, Edward, 90, 439n
Wright, F. E., 134, 140
Wright, Wilbur, 128
WS-117L satellite, 278
X-15 aircraft, 279, 495n
Xiaojing Gouming Jue, 43
Xi Jinping, 318
XMM-Newton (ESA), 199
X-ray astronomy, 151, 225, 226
X-rays
detection of, 180, 213, 225–27
discovery of, 171
Earth’s atmosphere and, 214, 225
year, length of, 39–40
Yeltsin, Boris, 358, 361
Zak, Anatoly, 372
Zanj (East African people), 436n
Zeiss, see Carl Zeiss Foundation
Zeiss, Carl Friedrich, 130, 131–32
Zeiss star projectors, 132, 139, 451n
Zenit (Kosmos) missions, 159, 458n
Zheng He, 78–79, 435n