Abbreviations
SWPPR |
Scowcroft West Point Personnel Records |
SPR |
Scowcroft Personnel Records |
BOHP |
Bush Oral History Project |
ADST |
Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection of the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training |
Nixon Project |
Richard Nixon Presidential Materials Project |
WHCF |
White House Central Files |
DNSA |
Digital National Security Archive |
FRUS |
Foreign Relations of the United States |
BPR |
Bush Presidential Records, Bush Presidential Library |
Preface
1. Brent Scowcroft, “Don’t Attack Saddam,” Wall Street Journal, August 15, 2002.
2. Leslie Gelb interview, April 9, 2014.
3. James A. Baker, “The Right Way to Change a Regime,” New York Times, August 25, 2002; see Thomas E. Ricks, Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq (New York: Penguin, 2006), 48.
4. Todd S. Purdum and Patrick E. Tyler, “Top Republicans Break with Bush on Iraq Strategy,” New York Times, August 16, 2002; Tony Karon, “Iraq: GOP War With Itself,” Time, August 21, 2002.
5. Iraq Hearing, US Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Thursday, February 1, 2007; Scowcroft interview, November 3, 2009.
6. See James Mann, The Obamians: The Struggle Inside the White House to Re-define American Power (New York: Viking, 2012).
7. Arnold Kanter interview, March 24, 2009.
8. Scowcroft interview, December 2, 2009; Lee Hamilton interview, May 5, 2009.
9. Scowcroft interview, August 22, 2012.
10. John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (New York: Penguin, 2012); Nicholas Thompson, The Hawk and the Dove: Paul Nitze, George Kennan, and the History of the Cold War (New York: Henry Holt, 2009).
11. Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, foreword, in The National Security Enterprise: Navigating the Labyrinth, eds. Roger Z. George and Harvey Rishikof (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2011), xii.
12. Amos A. Jordan interview, July 6, 2010; Leslie Gelb interview, April 9, 2014; Jonathan Howe interview, January 12, 2012.
13. See Victor W. Turner, Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967).
14. Nicholas Rostow interview, April 26, 2009; William Kristol interview, March 2009; David Lauter, “Brent Scowcroft,” in Fateful Decisions: Inside the National Security Council, eds. Karl F. Inderfurth and Lock K. Johnson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 204; Arnold Kanter interview, March 24, 2009.
15. Karl Jackson interview, June 11, 2009; Jordan interview, July 6, 2010.
16. But see Jeffrey Goldberg, “Breaking Ranks: What turned Brent Scowcroft against the Bush Administration?,” New Yorker, October 31, 2005; David F. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft: Internationalism and Post-Vietnam Foreign Policy (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2011).
17. Scowcroft’s books with Bush and Brzezinski are both “river books,” meaning that each book alternates portions of Scowcroft’s text, usually taken from tape transcriptions and then edited, with the other text, whether that of a second author, jointly written text with George Bush in A World Transformed, or that written by Bush and Brzezinski’s interlocutor, David Ignatius, in America and the World.
18. Condoleezza Rice interview, August 17, 2009.
19. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft.
Part I: Air Force Officer
Chapter 1: Junction City
1. C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), 199.
2. Mark Twain, Roughing It, in The Works of Mark Twain, eds. Harriet Elinor Smith and Edgar Marguess Branch, Robert H. Hirst (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 2, 76; “Job Pingree Company,” Mormon Pioneer Overland Travel, 1847–1868, http://history.lds.org/overlandtravels/companyDetail?lang=eng&companyId=236, www.lds.org/churchhistory/library/narrative/0,18046,4981-1-236,00.html.
3. Conway Sonne, Knight of the Kingdom (Salt Lake City: Deseret Press, 1989).
4. John G. Turner, Brigham Young: Pioneer Prophet (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2012), 314.
5. See John D. Unruh Jr., The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the Trans-Mississippi West, 1840–60 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1979), 302–323; also see Michael L. Tate, Indians and Emigrants: Encounters on the Overland Trails (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006).
6. Milton R. Hunter, Beneath Ben Lomond’s Peak: A History of Weber Country 1824–1900, 2nd ed. (Salt Lake City: Deseret News Press, 1945), 399, 404. Pingree was also a trustee of the local school district and treasurer of the Veteran Firemen’s Association. On the ZCMIs in general, see Turner, Brigham Young, 354–356.
7. Ogden City Commission, A History of Ogden, The Utah Historical Records Survey Project Division of Professional and Service Projects, Works Projects Administration (Ogden, UT: Utah State Historical Records Survey, 1940), 54.
8. Hunter, Beneath Ben Lomond’s Peak, 531.
9. For further information, see Frank MacLynn, Wagons West: The Epic Story of America’s Overland Trails (London: Jonathan Cape, 2002), 371–394.
10. See “Richard Ballantyne Company,” Mormon Pioneer Overland Travel, 1847–1868, http://history.lds.org/overlandtravels/companyDetail?lang=eng&companyId=59, www.lds.org/chuchhistory/library/narrative/0,18946,4981-1-59,00.html.
11. Sonne, Knight of the Kingdom.
12. Hunter, Beneath Ben Lomond’s Peak, 398.
13. “Biography of Richard Ballantyne,” microfilm, Mormon Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah; Conway B. Sonne, Ships, Saints, and Mariners (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1987).
14. Hunter, Beneath Ben Lomond’s Peak, 386, 442–443; J. Hugh Baird, “Richard Ballantyne,” Encyclopedia of Mormonism, vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan, 1992); Andrew Jenson, ed., Latter-Day Saint Biographical Encyclopedia (Salt Lake City: Andrew Jenson History Company, 1901), 1: 705.
15. Turner, Brigham Young, 353–354.
16. Ogden Standard-Examiner, May 1939, cited in Hunter, Beneath Ben Lomond’s Peak, 7, 419; Issac Goeckeritz, Ogden: Junction City of the West (IG Films, 2007); Steven D. Cornell, “Ogden High School and the Embodiment of Craft” (2011), http://utah-rchitecture.blogspot.com/2011/05/ogden-high-school-and-embodiment-of.html.
17. Goeckeritz, Ogden; Richard W. Sadler and Richard C. Roberts, Weber County’s History (Ogden, UT: Weber County Commission, 2000), 245.
18. “Historic Union Station & Ogden 25th Street,” Utah.com, n.d., www.utah.com/culture/ogden.htm.
19. Sadler and Roberts, Weber County’s History, 123; Richard C. Roberts and Richard W. Sadler, A History of Weber County, Utah Centennial County History Series (Salt Lake City: Weber County Commission, Utah Historical Society, 1997), 140; Lynn Arave, “Major Ogden Streets Have Presidential Ring,” Deseret News, December 10, 2007.
20. US Bureau of the Census, US Government Printing Office, various years.
21. Sadler and Roberts, Weber County’s History, 131, 210–216; Dale L. Morgan and Elizabeth M. Tillotson, A History of Ogden (Ogden: Ogden City Commission, 1940), 64–65; Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009.
22. Hunter, Beneath Ben Lomond’s Peak, 365; Sadler and Roberts, Weber-County’s History, 131–132.
23. Scowcroft interview, July 12, 2010.
24. Scowcroft interview, November 17, 2007; “Ballantyne-Scowcroft,” Ogden Standard Journal, August 21, 1915, city ed., 9.
25. Scowcroft interview, June 22, 2010.
26. Scowcroft interviews, July 27, 2009, and August 12, 2010; David Lauter, “Brent Scowcroft,” in Fateful Decisions: Inside the National Security Council, eds. Karl F. Inderfurth and Loch K. Johnson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 204; Brent Scowcroft scrapbook, n.p., courtesy of Brent Scowcroft.
27. Associated Press, “Breaks Spoil Ogden Victory,” Ogden State Tribune, April 18, in Scowcroft scrapbook; Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009.
28. Scowcroft interviews, November 17, 2007, and March 27, 2012; “Polk School Drum Corps Report,” 1938–1939, L. E. “Ray” Minter, Director, “Brent Scowcroft” scrapbook, n.p., courtesy of Brent Scowcroft.
29. Scowcroft interviews, March 4, 2009, July 27, 2009, and August 13, 2010; “Personal and School History Sheet,” application to the US Military Academy, July 2, 1944, 2, from Brent Scowcroft cadet file, provided by Joanna Rera, Chief Clerk, Graduate Records, Office of the Dean, US Military Academy, March 10, 2009 (henceforth Scowcroft West Point Personnel Records [SWPPR]).
30. Scowcroft interview, September 14, 2011; Scowcroft scrapbook.
31. Sarah Barringer Gordon, The Mormon Question (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 234; James Hinckley interview, November 10, 2009.
32. Scowcroft interviews, July 27, 2009, and August 12, 2010.
Chapter 2: Surviving Hell on the Hudson
33. Kendall Banning, West Point Today (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1937); Scowcroft interviews, November 18, 2007, and July 27, 2009.
34. David Lipsky, Absolutely American: Four Years at West Point (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 6.
35. Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office: A Diplomatic View of the American Presidency (Part 1 of 2),” West Point Center for Oral History, March 12, 2012, 2 of 30.
36. Banning, West Point Today; Scowcroft interviews, July 27 and December 2, 2009.
37. “Our America,” n.d., Brent Scowcroft scrapbook, courtesy of Brent Scowcroft.
38. Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009.
39. Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009; Annual Report of the Superintendent, United States Military Academy (West Point: USMA Printing Office, 1944), 1–2; letter, Jim Scowcroft to Adjutant, United States Military Academy, June 3, 1943, SWPPR; letter, Col. S. Wittle to Mr. Jim Scowcroft, June 6, 1943, SWPPR; telegram, Elbert Thomas, US Senate, to Academic Board, US Military Academy, June 15, 1943, SWPPR); letter, Maj. Gen. F. B. Wilby, Superintendent, to Honorable Elbert Thomas, June 15, 1943, SWPPR.
40. Elbert Thomas, US Senate, to Adjutant General’s Office, West Point Section, War Department, August 16, 1943, SWPPR.
41. Lance A. Betros, Carved from Granite: West Point Since 1902 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2012), 89.
42. Scowcroft interview, November 18, 2007.
43. Albert W. Gendebien, Biography of a College: A History of Lafayette College 1927–78 (Easton, PA: Lafayette College, 1986), 166–171; Betros, Carved from Granite, 89; Matthew F. Ingoffo, “A Brief History of USMAPS,” Assembly 34, no. 1 (June 1975): 13; Scowcroft interviews, November 18, 2006, and June 22, 2010.
44. Photograph of Vickie from Brent Scowcroft scrapbook, courtesy of Brent Scowcroft; Major General Edwin W. Robertson II, US Air Force oral history interview, April 24–25, 1989, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, K239.0512-1862.
45. Louis E. Keefer, Scholars in Foxholes: The Story of the Army Training Program in World War II (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company Inc., 1988), 56, 99–100; Gendebien, Biography of a College, 166.
46. Keefer, Scholars in Foxholes, 40, 70; Gendebien, Biography of a College, 165–172; Scowcroft interview, June 22, 2009.
47. Banning, West Point Today, 13.
48. See, for example, James T. Sparrow, Warfare State: World War II Americans and the Age of Big Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); Bartholomew H. Sparrow, From the Outside In: World War II and the American State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); Studs Terkel, The Good War (New York: Vintage Books, 1984).
49. Rick Atkinson, The Long Gray Line: The American Journey of West Point’s Class of 1966 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), 39.
50. Annual Report of the Superintendent, United States Military Academy (West Point: USMA Printing Office, 1943), 1. There were 1,843 cadets in 1940.
51. Act of October 1, 1942; Theodore J. Crackel, West Point: A Bicentennial History (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002), 208; see Annual Report of the Superintendent, 1943 (West Point, NY: US Military Academy Printing Office), 1943.
52. Annual Report of the Superintendent, 1943.
53. Crackel, West Point, 208; Johannes Vazulik, “German POWs at West Point During World War II,” paper presented at “Making History: West Point at 200 Years,” United States Military Academy, March 8, 2002.
54. Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009.
55. Brent Scowcroft, “Report of Physical Examination of Candidate for Admission to the United States Military Academy, West Point, N.Y.,” March 22, 1944, Form 0164, SWPPR.
56. Banning, West Point Today, 25, 30; Gen. William T. Smith interview, May 20, 2009; Atkinson, The Long Gray Line, 30.
57. Smith interview, May 5, 2009; Banning, West Point Today, 26–27; Atkinson, The Long Gray Line, 25–26; Scowcroft interview, July 20, 2012; Robertson, US Air Force oral history interview; Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office,” 3.
58. Smith interview, May 20, 2009; “Form 53, U.S.C.C.—Individual Delinquency Record,” Air Force Personnel Records, San Antonio, “Scowcroft Personnel Records” (henceforth Scowcroft Personnel Records [SPR]).
59. Memorandum for the 201 File of Cadet Scowcroft, B, Cadet Lieutenant, Company B-2, USCC, May 15, 1947, Department of Tactics, United States Military Academy, SPR; Scowcroft interview, October 6, 2010.
60. Scowcroft interviews, September 1, 2009, and July 12, 2010.
61. Scowcroft interview, June 6, 2012; “Athletic Record,” (Form 41, USCC), n.d., SWPPR.
62. Smith interview, May 20, 2009; Scowcroft interview, August 13, 2010.
63. Scowcroft interview, November 18, 2006.
64. Transcript, SPR; Scowcroft interviews, March 29 and August 13, 2010.
65. Transcript, SPR; Scowcroft interviews, March 29 and August 13, 2010; “Athletic Record,” SWPPR.
66. Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009.
67. Scowcroft interview, July 27, 2009. The Army Air Corps officially became the Army Air Forces in 1947, but the personnel within the AAF were still called the Army Air Corps.
68. Virginia Mulberger interview, October 5, 2011.
69. Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2009.
Chapter 3: Crash Landing
70. This account draws from Scowcroft interview, August 14, 2010; “Grenier Pilot Has Close Call: Escapes Death in Londonderry Crash,” Manchester Evening Leader, city edition, January 7, 1949, 1–2, courtesy of Manchester City Library; Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office: A Diplomatic View of the American Presidency (Part 1 of 2),” West Point Center for Oral History, March 12, 2012, 5; Jeffrey Goldberg, “Breaking Ranks: What turned Brent Scowcroft against the Bush Administration?,” New Yorker, October 31, 2005; Scowcroft gives a slightly different account in an interview with Mark Warren, “Brent Scowcroft,” Esquire, January 2009, 96.
71. Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office,” 6.
72. Scowcroft interview, November 18, 2006, and August 14, 2010; Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office,” 6; “Change of Physical Qualification Affecting Flying Status,” May 11, 1949, SPR; “Report of Proceedings of FEB [Flying Evaluation Board], 1st Lt. Brent Scowcroft, May 7, 1951, SPR; “Report of Disability for Insurance Purposes,” January 17, 1950, Form SG 700, SPR; “Medical Certificate,” Julius M. Koralsky, Captain, MC (USAF), Flight Surgeon, January 11, 1949, Station Hospital Grenier Air Force Base, SPR; caption of official USAF photo accompanying “Grenier Pilot Has Close Call,” 2.
73. Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 1 of 2),” 5; Scowcroft interview, February 11, 2013.
74. Major C. R. Melzer to Flight Surgeon, Station Hospital Grenier AFB, Manchester, NH, April 8, 1949, SPR; Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009.
75. Scowcroft interviews, July 27, 2009, and June 22, 2010.
76. Scowcroft interviews, November 18, 2006, and August 13, 2010; James Hinckley interview, November 10, 2009.
77. Scowcroft interviews, July 12 and August 10, 2010; “Prominent Woman Dies at 79,” Ogden Standard-Examiner, September 4, 1971, 14, courtesy of the Weber County Library.
78. Scowcroft interview, August 13, 2010.
79. Scowcroft interviews, March 4, 2009, and June 24, 2010.
80. “Summary of Hospitalization,” Capt. Lucas C. Hollister Jr., March 13, 1950, SPR.
81. Clinical Record, Narrative Summary, Standard Form 502, January 22, 1951, SPR; Scowcroft interviews, July 29, 2009, and June 22, 2010. Scowcroft was unable to remember the date when he received the letter.
82. Theodore J. Crackel, West Point: A Bicentennial History (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002), 214.
83. Michael Meese interview, May 15, 2009; William Y. Smith interview, May 5, 2009; Gen. Amos “Joe” Jordan interview, July 5, 2010; Scowcroft interview, September 27, 2012.
84. Jordan interview, July 19, 2010; Meese interview, May 15, 2009.
85. Scowcroft interviews, March 4 and July 27, 2009.
86. “Marian Horner Scowcroft,” obituary, Washington Post, July 18, 1995; Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.
87. Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.
88. Major C. R. Melzer to Flight Surgeon, Station Hospital, Grenier Air Force Base, July 6, 1949, SPR; “Report of Medical Examination,” May 4, 1950, Mitchel Air Force Base [form number illegible], SPR.
89. Scowcroft interview, June 22, 2010.
90. Scowcroft interviews, April 10, 2009, July 12, 2010, and November 10, 2012.
91. Armand L. Tremblay, USAF Captain, to President of the Flying Evaluation Board, Mather AFB, Mather Field, California, “Flight Check,” May 2, 1951, SPR. Scowcroft interview, May 5, 2010.
92. Scowcroft interviews, April 10, 2009, and July 12, 2010; Officer Effectiveness Report, October 31, 1951, SPR.
93. Scowcroft interview, December 2, 2009.
94. Brent Scowcroft transcript, Columbia University, courtesy of Brent Scowcroft and Columbia University.
95. Scowcroft interview, May 5, 2010; Scowcroft interview, November 12–13, 1999, Bush Oral History Project, Miller Center, University of Virginia, (henceforth BOHP), 3.
96. Scowcroft interviews, March 29 and August 13, 2010; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 7–8.
97. Michael Meese interview, May 15, 2009; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 3, 7.
98. Letter, Col. George A. Lincoln to Brig. Gen. R. J. Wood, West Point Correspondence Files, January 1955, File 1, USMA Files, Official Correspondence, January 1955–September 1955, Lincoln Collection, US Military Academy, West Point, NY; Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), 19–23. Also see Nicolas Guilhot, ed., The Invention of International Relations Theory: Realism, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the 1954 Conference on Theory (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011).
99. Scowcroft interviews, November 18, 2007, May 13, 2009, and October 20, 2011.
100. Scowcroft interviews, November 18, 2007, and May 13, 2009; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 4; also see Zbigniew Brzezinski and Brent Scowcroft, America and the World: Conversations on the Future of American Foreign Policy, Moderated by David Ignatius (New York: Basic Books, 2008), 243.
101. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 4.
102. Letter, Lincoln to Wood; William T. R. Fox, Memorandum for the Department of Public Law, Columbia University in the City of New York, May 26, 1953; Scowcroft records, Columbia University, Department of Public Law and Government [Department of Political Science], courtesy of Brent Scowcroft.
Chapter 4: Soldier-Scholar
103. Officer Effectiveness Report, November 4, 1953, SPR; Jordan interview, July 6, 2010.
104. Officer Effectiveness Report, May 7, 1954, SPR.
105. Annual Report of the Superintendent, United States Military Academy (West Point: USMA Printing Office, 1955), 102; Officer Effectiveness Report, November 4, 1953, SPR; Zbigniew Brzezinski interview, June 21, 2009; Jordan interview, July 6, 2010.
106. Scowcroft interview, August 13, 2010; Paul T. Gorman interview, June 18, 2010; Jordan interview, July 6, 2010; Scowcroft address, Hinckley Institute Hall of Fame, October 23, 2008.
107. Gorman interview, June 18, 2010.
108. USAF Officer Effectiveness Reports, May 7, 1954, April 30, 1955, and April 2, 1956, SPR.
109. Jordan interview, July 6, 2010; Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2010.
110. Jordan interview, July 6, 2010; Gorman interview, June 18, 2010.
111. Officer Effectiveness Report, November 4, 1953, SPR.
112. Officer Effectiveness Report, May 7, 1954, SPR.
113. Cited in Joseph Ellis and Robert Moore, School for Soldiers: West Point and the Profession of Arms (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 137–138.
114. John P. Lovell, Neither Athens nor Sparta? The American Service Academies in Transition (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 51; Michael Meese interview, June 23, 2010.
115. Gorman interview, June 18, 2010.
116. David Cloud and Greg Jaffe, The Fourth Star: Four General and the Epic Struggle for the Future of the United States Army (New York: Crown, 2009), 58–59. Lovell, Neither Athens nor Sparta?, 51. Ellis and Moore, in School for Soldiers (153, 156–157), make explicit what Cloud and Jaffe, as well as Lovell, leave implicit: that other West Point departments, particularly the humanities, didn’t share the intellectualism of the Department of Social Sciences. And if the Social Sciences Department tolerated if not nurtured dissent and debate, the same didn’t hold for other departments, where the watchword was administration and the officers were strongly aware of the need to conform in order to get the positive efficiency reports needed for good placement back in “the real Army.”
117. Daniel Christman interview, May 12, 2009; Cloud and Jaffe, The Fourth Star, 54; Meese interview, June 23, 2010.
118. Lovell, Neither Athens Nor Sparta?, 51; Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2009; Jay Parker interview, May 8, 2009.
119. “An Oral History Interview with Brent Scowcroft” by Timothy Naftali, Richard Nixon Oral History Project, Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, Yorba Linda, CA, June 29, 2007, 10; see Lincoln Papers.
120. Andrew J. Goodpaster, “National Technology and International Politics,” PhD dissertation, Princeton University, May 1952, 3; attachment to fax from Andy Goodpaster, Eisenhower Institute, to Ed Deagle, April 22, 2004, folder 6, “1995–2005,” Correspondence, Box 1 Andrew J. Goodpaster Collection, #231-A., George C. Marshall Library, Lexington, VA.
121. Cloud and Jaffe, The Fourth Star, 54, 55–56; Lovell, Neither Athens nor Sparta?, 50–51.
122. Scowcroft interview, September 27, 2012.
123. Annual Report of the Superintendent, United States Military Academy (West Point: USMA Printing Office, 1954), 33–34; Annual Report of the Superintendent, United States Military Academy (West Point: USMA Printing Office, 1955), 24.
124. Gorman interview, June 18, 2010.
125. Annual Report of the Superintendent 1954, United States Military Academy (West Point: USMA Printing Office), 37; Annual Report of the Superintendent 1956, United States Military Academy (West Point: USMA Printing Office, 1956), 30.
126. See Official Correspondence files, USMA files, George A. Lincoln Collection, US Military Academy, West Point, NY.
127. Scowcroft interviews, September 1, 2009, February 23, 2010, and August 13, 2010; letter, Lincoln to Brig. Gen. William Stone, Air Staff, Department of the Air Force, September 9, 1955, West Point correspondence files, September 1955, file 9, Official Correspondence, January 1955–September 1955, Box 16, USMA Files, Lincoln Collection.
128. Scowcroft interviews, March 4 and September 1, 2009; letter, George Lincoln to Paul Nitze, February 11 and November 10, 1955, Nitze, Official Correspondence, USMA files, Box 17, Lincoln Collection; letter to Henry A. Kissinger, February 6, 1956, Kissinger, Official Correspondence, USMA files, Box 18, Lincoln Collection; letter to Frank Barnett, 4 June 1956, “Barnett,” Official Correspondence, USMA files, Box 18, Lincoln Collection.
129. Robert S. Jordan, An Unsung Soldier: The Life of Gen. Andrew Goodpaster (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2013), 6.
130. Scowcroft interviews, September 1, 2009, February 23, 2010, and August 13, 2010.
131. Scowcroft interview, November 18, 2006; Officer Effectiveness Report, December 20, 1958, SPR.
132. Scowcroft interview, January 6, 2012; Lt. Col. Jay N. Fisher, USAF, Deputy Director, Civilian Institutions Progress, Training Report, December 31, 1958, SPR. Although the Navy had a similar intelligence training program, the US military didn’t have joint-service intelligence school analogous to the other joint-service postgraduate programs offered by the National Defense University, contrary to what had been initially proposed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1946. See John W. Masland and Laurence I. Radway, Soldiers and Scholars: Military Education and National Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957), 134–137.
133. Officer Effectiveness Report, September 30, 1959, SPR.
134. Scowcroft interviews, March 4 and December 2, 2009.
135. Lawrence S. Eagleburger interview, Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection of the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Foreign Service Institute, Arlington, VA, August 13, 1988, http://adst.org/oral-history/oral-history-interviews (henceforth ADST).
136. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 6, 7.
137. Officer Effectiveness Report, October 3, 1960, SPR.
138. Officer Effectiveness Report, July 26, 1961, SPR.
139. Scowcroft interview, December 2, 2009; Officer Effectiveness Reports, September 29, 1959, October 3, 1960, and July 26, 1961, SPR.
140. George F. Kennan, Memoirs: 1950–1963 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972), 274–275.
141. Scowcroft interview, February 11, 2013.
142. Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2010; Officer Military Record, “Scowcroft, Brent FR 17607 (Lt. Col.),” n.d.; Frank Lichtenheld, M.D. “Clinical Record, Narrative Summary,” December 20, 1960, Standard Form 502; USAF Officer Effectiveness Report, September 29, 1959, SPR.
143. Kennan, Memoirs, 279–280.
144. Ibid., 293–294; also see John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (New York: Penguin, 2011), 552–568; Scowcroft interview, July 20, 2012.
145. Scowcroft interview, January 6, 2012.
146. Scowcroft interview, January 6, 2012; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 8.
147. Scowcroft interview, July 27, 2009; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 7; Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 1 of 2),” 9.
148. Masland and Radway, Soldiers and Scholars, 307–316; Arthur A. Ageton with William P. Mack, The Naval Officer’s Guide, 8th ed. (Annapolis: United States Naval Institute, 1970), 403–404.
149. Aeronautical Orders, Number 196, Form 110, October 16, 1961, SPR; Training Report, January 19, 1962, SPR; Scowcroft interviews, August 13 and September 1, 2010.
150. Officer Effectiveness Report, December 20, 1958, and July 13, 1960, SPR; Personal Clothing and Equipment Record, AF Form 538, n.d., SPR; Scowcroft interview, July 12, 2010.
151. Scowcroft interview, August 13, 2010.
152. Scowcroft interview, August 12, 2009.
153. Officer Effectiveness Report, September 8, 1964, SPR.
154. Officer Effectiveness Report, September 8, 1964, SPR. On Col. Robert F. McDermott and the low morale at the US Air Force Academy, see Vance O. Mitchell, Air Force Officers Personnel Policy Development 1944–1974 (Washington, DC: Air Force History and Museums Program, United States Air Force, 1996), 223–227.
155. Citation to Accompany the Award of the Air Force Commendation Medal to Brent Scowcroft, Special Order G-89, September 16, 1964, USAF Academy, SPR.
156. Scowcroft interviews, May 13, 2009, and February 23, 2010.
157. Scowcroft interviews, May 13 and August 12, 2009.
158. Scowcroft interviews, May 13, 2009, and September 1, 2010; Karen Scowcroft interview, March 19, 2009; Sherri Piergeorge interview, June 1, 2011.
159. Major General Edwin W. Robertson II, US Air Force oral history interview, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, K239.0512-1862.
160. Scowcroft interviews, March 4 and July 27, 2009; also see Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 5.
161. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 11; Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009. See, generally, Jordan, An Unsung Soldier.
162. The term “blue suiter” is from Robert Corum, Boyd: The Fighter Pilot Who Changed the Art of War (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 2002).
Chapter 5: Blue Suiter
163. Scowcroft interviews, September 1 and October 6, 2010; Richard A. Yudkin, Oral History Interview by Dr. Edgar F. Puryear, Air Force Consultant, IRIS No. 01053505, July 30, 1979, US Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell Air Force Base, Montgomery, AL, 9; also see Maj. Gen. Richard A. Yudkin, “American Armed Strength and Its Influence,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 384 (July 1969): 1–13.
164. Scowcroft interview, August 13, 2010; Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), 356–358. Also see William Burr, “The Nixon Administration, the ‘Horror Strategy,’ and the Search for Limited Nuclear Options, 1969–1972: Prelude to the Schlesinger Doctrine,” Journal of Cold War Studies 7, no. 3 (Summer 2005): 34–78.
165. See Richard Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race (New York: Knopf, 2007); Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 1 of 2),” 13.
166. Scowcroft interview, August 13, 2010.
167. Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009; Officer Effectiveness Report, January 21, 1966, SPR; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 11.
168. Officer Effectiveness Report, August 17, 1966, SPR.
169. Officer Effectiveness Report, August 7, 1967, SPR.
170. Major General Edwin W. Robertson II, US Air Force Oral History Interview, Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, K239.0512-1862, 70–71; Scowcroft interview, January 3, 2014.
171. Maj. Gen. Edwin W. Robertson II, U.S. Air Force Oral History Interview, 72.
172. See H. R. McMaster, Dereliction of Duty: Lyndon Johnson, Robert McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies That Led to Vietnam (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), 156–158, 163, 306–308; Thomas E. Ricks, The Generals: American Military Command from World War II to Today (New York: Penguin, 2012); also see Robert Dallek, Camelot’s Court: Inside the Kennedy White House (New York: Harper, 2013). Scowcroft interview, January 3, 2014.
173. Scowcroft interview, August 12, 2009.
174. Jeanne W. Davis, “The Role of the Coordinative Staff Officer,” typescript, V-2, “Davis, Jeanne W.—Coordinating Staff Work (typescript) (2),” Box 84, US NSC Internal Files, 1974–1977, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library, Ann Arbor, MI.
175. “Citation to Accompany the Award of the Legion of Merit to Brent Scowcroft,” n.d., SPR; Special Order GB-393, October 30, 1967, Department of the Air Force, SPR; Colonel William B. Sandlin, Joint Chiefs of Staff, “Announcement of Award of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge,” March 23, 1971, SPR.
176. Yudkin interview by Puryear, 3–4; Scowcroft interviews, March 4, 2009, and October 6, 2010.
177. Scowcroft interview, November 3, 2009.
178. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 9; Scowcroft interviews, August 13, 2010, and September 1, 2010.
179. Scowcroft interviews, April 10, 2010, and November 28, 2012; Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office,” 13–14.
180. Scowcroft interviews, November 3 and December 2, 2009; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 9.
181. Scowcroft interview, August 13, 2010.
182. Scowcroft interviews, May 13, 2009, August 12, 2009, and September 1, 2010.
183. Brent Scowcroft, “Congress and Foreign Policy: An Examination of Congressional Attitudes Toward the Foreign Aid Programs to Spain and Yugoslavia,” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Political Science, Columbia University, 1967.
184. Ibid.
185. Brent Scowcroft, transcript, Columbia University in the City of New York.
186. Officer Effectiveness Reports, August 5, 1965, January 21, 1966, and August 7, 1967, SPR.
187. Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 1 of 2),” 14.
188. John W. Masland and Laurence I. Radway, Soldiers and Scholars: Military Education and National Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957), 344; Scowcroft interview, November 4, 2010.
189. Ageton, The Naval Officer’s Guide, 404; Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 1 of 2),” 15.
190. See “Curriculum,” Folders 4–12, Boxes 30–31, Record Group 231, VIII National War College (1930–1997), Andrew J. Goodpaster Papers, George C. Marshall Library, Lexington, VA.
191. “Trip II Middle East,” folder “Curriculum-Coursework-Course IV-Memoranda,” 30/16, Box 30, Record Group 231, Goodpaster Papers; Scowcroft interview, November 4, 2010.
192. Scowcroft interview, November 4, 2010.
193. Ibid. Forty-five years later, Scowcroft couldn’t recall any specific names of NWC classmates when asked.
194. Training Report, June 14, 1968, SPR; letters of Wm. E. Creer to General McConnell, June 4, 1968, and of J. P. McConnell to Assistant Secretary of Defense (International Security Affairs), July 1968 [exact date illegible], SPR; Brent Scowcroft, “Deterrence and Strategic Superiority,” Orbis 13, no. 2 (Summer 1969): 435–454.
195. Scowcroft interviews, July 29, 2009, August 13, 2010, and November 4, 2010; Robert S. Jordan interview, February 15, 2011.
196. Scowcroft interview, February 24, 2011; see, for instance, “The Atlantic Council,” Folder 9, Box 41, Record Group 231, Projects, XI Retirement, Goodpaster Papers.
197. Officer Effectiveness Reports, February 7 and December 2, 1969, SPR.
198. Jeffrey Kimball, Nixon’s Vietnam War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), 73; Willard J. Webb, The Joint Chiefs of Staff and the War in Vietnam 1969–1970, History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (Washington, DC: Office of Joint History, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2002).
199. Jacob Van Staaveren, “The Air Force in Southeast Asia: Toward a Bombing Halt 1968,” Office of Air Force History, September 1970, 47, Document 6, “Fighting the War in Southeast Asia, 1961–1973,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 248, www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB248.
200. Officer Effectiveness Report, February 24, 1970, SPR.
201. Van Staaveren, “The Air Force in Southeast Asia,” 45; Maj. Gen. Nguyen Duy Hinh, Vietnamization and Cease Fire, Indochina Monographs (Washington, DC: US Army Center of Military History, 1980), 44–45, 60.
202. Webb, The Joint Chiefs of Staff and the War in Vietnam, 123–124, 251; also see Van Staaveren, “The Air Force in Southeast Asia,” 45–47.
203. See James N. Willbanks, Abandoning Vietnam: How America Left and South Vietnam Lost Its War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 204–207; Arnold Isaacs, Without Honor: Defeat in Vietnam and Cambodia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), 102–114; also see Kimball, Nixon’s Vietnam War, 161.
204. Webb, The Joint Chiefs of Staff and the War in Vietnam, 252–254; William J. Crowe Jr. with David Chanoff, The Line of Fire: From Washington to the Gulf, the Politics and Battles of the New Military (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993), 80; also see Michael Eggleston, Exiting Vietnam: The Era of Vietnamization and American Withdrawal Revealed in First-Person Accounts (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2014).
205. Robert Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 619.
206. Ibid.; Scowcroft interview, October 20, 2011.
207. Kimball, Nixon’s Vietnam War, 182; Eric Van Marbrod quoted in John Prados, Keepers of the Keys (New York: William Morrow, 1991), 364.
208. Scowcroft interview, August 12, 2009.
209. Scowcroft interview, October 20, 2011; Officer Effectiveness Report, February 16, 1970, SPR.
210. Scowcroft interview, August 13, 2010; Officer Effectiveness Report, June 3, 1971, SPR; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 13.
211. “Citation to Accompany the Award of the Distinguished Service Medal to Brent Scowcroft,” n.d., SPR.
212. Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2010.
213. Officer Effectiveness Report, December 16, 1971, SPR.
214. Robertson, US Air Force oral history interview, 71.
215. Officer Effectiveness Report, December 16, 1971, SPR.
216. Scowcroft interview, August 12, 2009.
217. Ibid.
218. Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011.
219. “Washington: For the Record,” New York Times, November 17, 1971, 19; Bill Gulley interview, February 11, 2009. In his oral history of the Bush administration, however, Scowcroft states that there “was no notion that Al Haig would ever leave” (Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 10).
220. Bill Gulley interview, February 11, 2009.
221. Scowcroft interview, November 18, 2006; Gulley interview, February 11, 2009.
222. Bill Gulley with Mary Ellen Reese, Breaking Cover (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1980), 144; Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 350–351; Peter Rodman, Presidential Command: Power, Leadership, and the Making of Foreign Policy from Richard Nixon to George W. Bush (New York: Knopf, 2009), 66–67.
223. Gulley, Breaking Cover, 144; Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 350–351; Rodman, Presidential Command, 66–69; Walter Isaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), 380–385; Ivo Daalder and I. M. Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office: Profiles of the National Security Advisers and the Presidents They Served—from JFK to George W. Bush (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009), 84–85.
224. Bill Gulley interview, February 11, 2009; also see Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 1 of 2),” 20.
Part II: The Nixon and Ford Administrations, 1972–1977
Chapter 6: Military Assistant to the President
1. Bill Gulley interviews, February 11, 2009, April 13, 2009, and July 22, 2011; Request and Authorization for Permanent Change of Status, Special Order AA-2123, Form 899, November 8, 1971, SPR.
2. Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009; Scowcroft address, Hinckley Institute Hall of Fame, Salt Lake City, Utah, October 23, 2008.
3. Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009; Gulley interviews, February 11, 2009, April 13, 2009, and July 22, 2011; Lawrence Eagleburger interview, May 19, 2009; Frank Carlucci interview, September 29, 2011; Lee Hamilton interview, May 5, 2009.
4. Jack Brennan interview, February 24, 2009; Gulley interviews, February 11, 2009, April 13, 2009, and July 22, 2011.
5. Brennan interview, February 24, 2009; Gulley interviews, February 11, 2009, April 13, 2009, and July 22, 2011.
6. Gulley interviews, February 11, 2009, April 13, 2009, and July 22, 2011. Also see Crowe, The Line of Fire, 39, and Bradley Patterson Jr., The Ring of Power: The White House Staff and Its Expanding Role in Government (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 321–327.
7. Gulley, Breaking Cover, 29–43.
8. Gulley, Breaking Cover, 75–76, 89–92. Also see transcript of Jack Albright oral history interview I, December 11, 1980, by Michael L. Gillette, 80–83; transcript of Jewel Malachek Scott oral history interview II, December 20, 1978, by Michael L. Gillette, 7–9; transcript of Arthur B. Krim oral history interview VI, October 13, 1983, by Michael L. Gillette, 28–30, all in LBJ Presidential Library, Austin, TX.
9. Gulley, Breaking Cover, 19, 23–33; Gulley interviews, February 11 and April 13, 2009.
10. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Imperial Presidency (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973); Richard E. Neustadt, Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership from FDR to Carter (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1980), 181; Gulley, Breaking Cover.
11. See, for instance, Memorandum for H. R. Haldeman, March 7, 1972, from Brigadier General Brent Scowcroft, “Operation at Key Biscayne,” File “General Hughes [Gen. Brent Scowcroft] March 1972,” Box 94, White House Special Files, Haldeman Files, Richard Nixon Presidential Materials Project, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD (henceforth Nixon Project); Nixon’s papers were subsequently relocated to the Nixon Presidential Library in Yorba Linda, CA).
12. Memorandum for Mr. H. R. Haldeman from General Brent Scowcroft, October 10, 1972, “Sequoia Cruises,” file “General Hughes [Gen. Brent Scowcroft] October 1972,” Box 104, White House Special Files, Haldeman Files, Nixon Project; memorandum for Brigadier General Scowcroft, military assistant to the President, from Department of Army, Paul C. Miller, chief, Ceremonies & Special Events, December 18, 1972, “General Hughes [Gen. Brent Scowcroft] January 1973,” Box 108, White House Special Files, Haldeman Files, Nixon Project; memorandum for Brent Scowcroft from Al Haig, July 28, 1972, subject “Soviet Hydrofoil,” NSC Files, Henry A. Kissinger Office Files, Box 7, Nixon Project; Florence Gantt interview, November 2, 2009.
13. Scowcroft interviews, July 29 and August 12, 2009.
14. Scowcroft interviews, July 29 and August 12, 2009.
15. Memcon, Israeli Ambassador Simcha Dinitz, Minister Shalev, Major General Brent Scowcroft, Major R. C. McFarlane, December 12, 1973, “Dec. 12, 1973—Scowcroft, Israeli Ambassador Simcha Dinitz,” Memcons, Box 3, Ford Library.
16. Scowcroft interviews, April 10, 2009, and June 24, 2011.
17. Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009. In general, see Michael J. Allen, Until the Last Man Comes Home (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009). As Allen points out, Scowcroft was later involved with the POW-MIA issue in the Ford and then Bush administrations, if in different capacities.
18. See, for instance, letter from Brent Scowcroft to Mr. Frank Ray, February 3, 1972, and letter from Brent Scowcroft to Mrs. Sadler, same date, White House Central Files (henceforth WHCF), Subject 1969–74, National Security–Defense file, ND 18-3, Nixon Project. Also see letters to Mary McCain, June 26, 1972, Mrs. Donnie Collins, June 28, 1972, and others in “Gen. ND 18-3/CO-1 6/1/72–6/30/72,” in “Gen ND 18-3/CO 165-1” folder, “National Security—Defense (ND),” Box 10, Subject Files, 1969–74, Nixon Presidential Materials Staff, WHCF, Nixon Project.
19. Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.
20. Gulley interviews, February 11, 2009, and April 13, 2009.
21. Ibid.
22. Neil Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam (New York: Random House, 1988), 25–32.
23. Scowcroft interview, September 27, 2012.
24. Bush quoted in Nancy Gibbs and Michael Duffy, The President’s Club: Inside the World’s Most Exclusive Fraternity (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 378.
25. See correspondence by Scowcroft, as well as letters drafted by Col. Joseph Ulatoski and Col James S. Murphy, in “Gen ND 18-3/3CO 165-1 5/1/72–5/31/72,” “Gen ND 18-3/3CO 165-1 6/1/72–6/30/72,” and “Gen ND 18-3/3CO 165-1 7/1/72–7/31/72,” Box 10, “National Security—Defense (ND),” Subject Files, 1969–74, Nixon Presidential Materials Staff, WHCF, Nixon Project. Also, Scowcroft interviews, July 27, 2009, and January 4, 2011; Thomas Mallon, “Wag the Dog,” New Yorker, February 4, 2013.
26. Scowcroft interview, May 13, 2009; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 17–18. Gerald Ford recalled how moody Richard Nixon could be when both were members of the House of Representatives: sometimes Nixon would be extroverted and friendly, other times sad and withdrawn. See Gibbs and Duffy, The President’s Club, 295.
27. Scowcroft interviews, March 4, 2009, May 13, 2009, and January 4, 2011; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 6.
28. The White House Communications Agency was originally known as the White House Signal Detachment and was officially formed in 1942, during the Roosevelt administration.
29. Sig Rogich interview, BOHP, 93.
30. Gulley interview, July 22, 2011.
31. Robert Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 330 (October 20–25); J. Stapleton Roy, quoted in “China Policy and the National Security Council,” Oral History Roundtables, National Security Council Project, Ivo H. Daalder and I. M. Destler, moderators, Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland, Brookings Institution, November 4, 1999, 20; Gantt interview, November 2, 2009.
32. Memorandum for HAK/Haig from Winston Lord, March 17, 1972, Top Secret/Sensitive Exclusively Eyes Only, and “Checklist of Undertakings with the PRC,” Attachment, June 17, 1972, Subject “Undertakings with the PRC,” Henry A. Kissinger Office File, “Country File—Far East,” Box 87, NSC Files, Nixon Project.
33. Memorandum for the Deputy Secretary of State from HAK, “Transfer of Major Items of Military Equipment to the Republic of China: 100 M-48 Tanks,” March 21, 1974, “McFarlane Chron–Jan-March 1974” [1 of 2], Telcon files, Nixon Project; William Safire, Before the Fall: An Inside View of the Pre-Watergate White House (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975), 411.
34. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 15.
35. Safire, Before the Fall, 412. For a timeline of Watergate, see Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, The Final Days (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1976), appendix.
36. See letter, Kissinger to Scowcroft, September 18, 1972, Name Files, “Scowcroft, Brent Col. 1973–1974,” National Security Council (NSC) Files, Box 833, White House Special Files, Nixon Project.
37. “Citation to Accompany the Award of the Distinguished Service Medal (First Oak Leaf Cluster) to Brent Scowcroft,” n.d., SPR; Special Order GB-825, December 27, 1972, Department of the Air Force, Washington, DC, SPR.
Chapter 7: Kissinger’s Deputy
38. Henry A. Kissinger, Years of Renewal (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999), 182–183; Scowcroft interview, April 12, 2011.
39. Joseph Ellis and Robert Moore, School for Soldiers: West Point and the Profession of Arms (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 196; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 14; also see Walter Isaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), 386–387, 493; Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days, 197; Gulley interview, December 21, 2011.
40. Henry A. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), 107; Alexander M. Haig Jr., interview by Martha Kumar, December 22, 1999, White House Interview Program, www.archives.gov/presidential-libraries/research/transition-interviews/pdf/haig.pdf.
41. Roger Morris, Haig: The General’s Progress (New York: Playboy Press, 1982), 224; John Prados, Keepers of the Keys: A History of the National Security Council from Truman to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1991), 339; Winston Lord interview, March 29, 2011.
42. Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 325.
43. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 182–183; Kissinger interview, April 28, 2009.
44. Kissinger interview, April 28, 2009; Gulley interview, February 11, 2009; Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009. Gulley reported that he got the story from President Nixon’s personal secretary, Rose Mary Woods. Scowcroft didn’t deny the story when asked. Also see Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 12; “Up from Anonymity,” Newsweek, November 17, 1975, 44; Isaacson, Kissinger, 493; Goldberg, “Breaking the Ranks,” 63.
45. Nixon White House Tapes 801 A, October 17, 1972, at 37:00, Nixon Project; Safire, Before the Fall, 11; Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days, 187; Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009.
46. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 13; February 11, 2009. Bill Gulley, as a retired Marine sergeant with thirty years’ service, would become the first noncommissioned officer to become military assistant when Ford’s chief of staff Cheney appointed him military assistant (Gulley interview, July 22, 2011).
47. Kissinger interview, April 28, 2009; Gulley interviews, February 11 and April 13, 2009.
48. Scowcroft interview, March 3, 2009.
49. Isaacson, Kissinger, 493.
50. Haldeman, cited in John P. Burke, Honest Broker? The National Security Advisor and Presidential Decision Making (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2009), 154; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 13.
51. Robert McFarlane interview, April 3, 2009.
52. Lawrence Eagleburger interview, May 19, 2009.
53. Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009; Jack Brennan interview, February 24, 2009; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 13; Eagleburger interview, May 19, 2009. On Kissinger’s abuse of his subordinates, see Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 329; Safire, Before the Fall, 158; Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days, 193–195; Gantt interview, November 2, 2009.
54. Gulley interviews, February 11 and April 13, 2009; Joseph A. Sisco, “Ford, Kissinger and the Nixon-Ford Foreign Policy,” in The Ford Presidency: Twenty-Two Intimate Perspectives of Gerald Ford, ed. Kenneth W. Thompson, Portraits of American Presidents, vol. 7 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1988), 331.
55. Kissinger interview, April 28, 2009.
56. Eagleburger interview, May 19, 2009; McFarlane interviews, April 3 and April 23, 2009.
57. John Hersey, The President (New York: Knopf, 1975), 120, quoted in Christopher Jon Lamb, Belief Systems and Decision Making in the Mayaguez Crisis (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1989), 76–77; Robert McFarlane with Zofia Smardz, Special Trust (New York: Cadell and Davies, 1994), 154.
58. Winston Lord interview, March 29, 2011; Florence Gantt interview, November 2, 2009.
59. Henry Kissinger interview, April 28, 2009; also see Isaacson, Kissinger, 506.
60. See, for example, David J. Rothkopf, Running the World: The Inside Story of the National Security Council and the Architects of American Power (New York: PublicAffairs, 2005), 155.
61. McFarlane, Special Trust, 154–155; William Smyser interview, February 24, 2009.
62. McFarlane, Special Trust, 153–154; Jussi Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 488. Also see Seymour Hersh, The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House (New York: Summit Books, 1983), although Hersh’s study ends before Scowcroft began working for Kissinger, and Christopher Hitchens, The Trial of Henry Kissinger (London: Verso, 2001).
63. McFarlane, Special Trust, 154; William Safire quoted in John Osborne, White House Watch: The Ford Years (Washington, DC: New Republic Books, 1977), 80. Also see Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 610; Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 458, 488; Burke, Honest Broker?; Robert D. Schulzinger, Henry Kissinger: Doctor of Diplomacy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).
64. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 17; McFarlane, Special Trust, 152; Isaacson, Kissinger, 760; Scowcroft interview, February 24, 2011.
65. Kissinger interview, April 28, 2009; Ambassador Robert Oakley interview, ADST, July 7, 1992, 61; Walter Pincus interview, October 5, 2010; Scowcroft interview, November 4, 2010; Scowcroft quoted in Priscilla Painton, “Brent Scowcroft: Mr. Behind-the-Scenes,” Time, October 7, 1991, 24–26, cited in David Lauter, “Brent Scowcroft,” in Fateful Decisions: Inside the National Security Council, eds. William Inderfurth and Loch K. Johnson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004) 178; also see Peter W. Rodman, Presidential Command: Power, Leadership, and the Making of Foreign Policy from Richard Nixon to George W. Bush (New York: Knopf, 2009), 70.
66. Bob Schieffer interview, June 6, 2009.
67. “Telephone conversations—Chron File 1972 1–4 Feb.,” February 1, 1972, Henry A. Kissinger Telecons, Box 14; “Telephone conversations—Chron File 1972 25–30 Apr.,” April 25, 1972, Henry A. Kissinger Telecons, Box 14; “HAK Telephone conversations—Chron File 1973 21–31 July,” July 21, 1973, Henry A. Kissinger Telecons, Box 21, Nixon Project.
68. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 40.
69. Isaacson, Kissinger, 760–761; Lord interview, March 29, 2011; Oakley interview, ADST, 61; Scowcroft interview, April 12, 2011; John P. Leacacos, “Kissinger’s Apparat,” in Fateful Decisions, eds. William Inderfurth and Loch K. Johnson, 91; Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 299; Jack Brennan interview, February 24, 2009; Robert Hormats interview, November 9, 2009; Osborne, White House Watch, 311.
70. Isaacson, Kissinger, 762–763; Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 364.
71. Marvin Kalb and Bernard Kalb, Kissinger (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1974) 96. On Kissinger’s playfulness, see Safire, Before the Fall. Also see transcripts of his conversations with foreign leaders.
72. Safire, Before the Fall; Jeremi Suri, Henry Kissinger and the American Century (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2009); Isaacson, Kissinger.
73. Osborne, White House Watch, 273; Isaacson, Kissinger, 735; Gantt interview, November 2, 2009.
74. David Callahan, “The Honest Broker: Brent Scowcroft in the Bush White House,” Foreign Policy Journal 69, no. 2 (February 1992): 29.
75. Isaacson, Kissinger, 766–777.
76. Brandon Toropov, “Scowcroft, Brent,” Encyclopedia of Cold War Politics (New York: Facts on File, 2000), 181; Robert T. Hartmann, Palace Politics: An Inside Account of the Ford Years (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980), 371; Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie, 30; Pincus interview, October 5, 2010; Osborne, White House Watch, 218. Walter Isaacson, in Kissinger, and John Osborne, in White House Watch, treat Scowcroft more extensively than most writers. Examples of well-regarded historical accounts that essentially ignore Scowcroft include Schulzinger, Henry Kissinger, and Suri, Henry Kissinger and the American Century. For “Kissinger clone,” Hedrick Smith quotes the weekly Human Events (Smith, “Allen’s Operation Examined by Meese,” New York Times, December 4, 1981). But see Robert Oakley interview, ADST, 62.
77. Robert S. Jordan, An Unsung Soldier: The Life of Gen. Andrew Goodpaster (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2013), 131; Scowcroft interview, February 24, 2011.
78. Gulley interviews, February 11 and April 13, 2009; McFarlane interviews, April 3 and April 23, 2009; Richard C. Head, Frisco W. Short, and Robert C. McFarlane, Crisis Resolution: Presidential Decision Making in the Mayaguez and Korean Confrontations (Boulder: Westview Press, 1978), 78; Lord interview, March 29, 2011; Isaacson, Kissinger, 507; Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009; Kissinger interview, April 28, 2009.
79. Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.
80. Telcon, General Scowcroft/Sec. Kissinger, April 17, 1974, 10:10 A.M., “HAK Telephone Conversations—Chron File 1974, 10–14 April,” Henry A. Kissinger Telcons, Box 25, Nixon Project.
81. Telcon, Gen. Scowcroft/Sec. Kissinger, November 25, 1974, 12:50 P.M., “HAK Telephone Conversations—Chron File 1974, 20–30 December,” Box 25, Nixon Project.
82. Memorandum of conversation, March 25, 1975, President Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, “Mar 24, ’75—Ford, Kissinger,” Box 10, “National security advisor Memoranda of Conversations, 1973–1977,” Ford Presidential Library.
83. Memcon, “December 3, 1974—Ford, Kissinger,” Ford, Kissinger, and Scowcroft, Box 7, “National security advisor Memoranda of Conversations, 1973–1977,” Nixon Project; Kissinger disparaged Schmidt for being “unbelievably vain.”
84. Robert Oakley interview, ADST, 69, 76; Robert Oakley interview, February 4, 2014.
85. Jeanne Davis, “The Role of the Coordinative Staff Officer,” typescript, V-3, “Davis, Jeanne W.—Coordinating Staff Work (typescript) (2),” Box 84, US NSC Internal Files, 1974–1977, Ford Presidential Library; “Advance Man in Moscow: Brent Scowcroft,” New York Times, April 21, 1972.
86. Kissinger interview, April 29, 2009; Henry Kissinger, White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), 1156n. Winston Lord thought Kissinger was being polite and meant “invaluable” or “essential” rather than an equal partner (Winston Lord interview, March 29, 2011).
87. Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days,184.
88. Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 30.
89. Rothkopf, Running the World, 19; National Security Act of 1947, Section 101(c), (h)(2). The SWNCC was formed in December 1944 for the purpose of coordinating the positions of the State, War, and Navy Departments on issues in which they had a common stake. From late 1947 until June 1949, the SWNCC was called the State, Army, Navy, Air-Force Coordinating Committee. For histories of the NSC, see Prados, Keepers of the Keys; Rodman, Presidential Command; Ivo Daalder and I. M. Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office: Profiles of the National Security Advisers and the Presidents They Served—from JFK to George W. Bush (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009); Burke, Honest Broker?; Inderfurth and Johnson, eds., Fateful Decisions.
90. See Burke, Honest Broker?, 19–22; Inderfurth and Johnson, eds., Fateful Decisions, 31; Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 3–5; Alan G. Whittaker, Shannon A. Brown, Frederic C. Smith, and Elizabeth McKune, The National Security Policy Process: The National Security Council and Interagency System (Washington, DC: Industrial College of the Armed Forces, National Defense University, US Department of Defense, 2011), 7.
91. Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 5–6; Whittaker, Brown, Smith, and McKune, The National Security Policy Process, 7; also see Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 14.
92. Inderfurth and Johnson, eds., Fateful Decisions; Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 14.
93. Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 108; see Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 35.
94. Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 51–56.
95. Jonathan Howe interview, January 12, 2012.
96. Matthew Dickenson, “The Executive Office of the President: The Paradox of Politicization,” in Institutions of American Democracy: The Executive Branch, eds. Joel D. Aberbach and Mark A. Peterson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 149; Burke, Honest Broker?, 114–115.
97. Jussi Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 487.
98. Burke, Honest Broker?
99. Gantt interview, October 18, 2010; Gulley interviews, February 11 and April 13, 2009.
100. Gantt interview, November 2, 2009; Gulley interviews, February 11 and April 13, 2009; Jan Lodal interview, May 11, 2009; Scowcroft interview, March 29, 2010; McFarlane interviews, April 3 and April 23, 2009; Hormats interview, October 29, 2009; “Brent Scowcroft,” Facts on File, 582, Hoffman Collection, George BPR, College Station, TX.
101. Scowcroft interview, April 25, 2013.
102. Gantt interview, October 18, 2010.
103. Gantt interview, November 2, 2009; Gulley interviews, February 11 and April 13, 2009; Scowcroft interview, November 3, 2009.
104. Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days, 184.
105. Gantt interview, November 4, 2009.
106. McFarlane interview, April 23, 2009; Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 79; Robert M. Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).
107. Gantt interviews, November 2 and November 4, 2009.
108. Gantt interview, November 4, 2009; Gulley interview, February 11, 2009.
109. Gulley interviews, February 11 and April 13, 2009; “Up from Anonymity,” Newsweek, November 17, 1975, 44; Ron Nessen, Making the News, Taking the News: From NBC to the Ford White House (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2011), 116; Bob Schieffer interview, June 6, 2009; Maria Downs, “Book, Mostly Wine and Roses (1),” Box 1, Maria Downs Papers, 1975–77, Ford Presidential Library.
110. McFarlane interviews, April 4 and April 23, 2009.
111. Gantt interview, November 2, 2009; Gulley interviews, February 11 and April 13, 2009.
112. Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.
113. Scowcroft interview, July 12, 2011; Gen. William T. Smith interview, May 20, 2009; “Advance Man in Moscow: Brent Scowcroft,” New York Times, April 21, 1972; Gantt interviews, November 2, 2009, and October 18, 2010.
Chapter 8: White House Under Siege
114. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, The Final Days (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1976), 308–309, 314.
115. John Prados, Keepers of the Keys: A History of the National Security Council from Truman to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1991), 339, 340–341; Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days, 200; Alexander M. Haig, interview by Martha Kumar, December 22, 1999, White House Interview Program, www.archives.gov/presidential-libraries/research/transition-interviews/pdf/haig.pdf; William G. Hyland, Mortal Rivals: Superpower Relations from Nixon to Reagan (New York: Random House, 1987), 194–195.
116. William Lloyd Stearman interview, 1998, ADST, 62; Lou Cannon, “Not Always in Control,” Politics Daily, February 21, 2010.
117. Scowcroft interview, May 5, 2010; Haig interview, White House Interview Program, 9.
118. Gulley interview, February 11, 2009; Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days, 184–185; Isaacson, Kissinger, 503.
119. Scowcroft interview, July 17, 2012; Jonathan Howe interview, January 12, 2012. On the USMA tactical officer, see “About the Brigade Tactical Department,” USMA website, www.usma.edu/btd/SitePages/About.aspx.
120. It was because of Watergate that Kissinger wanted to go over to the State Department in first place, Sonnenfeldt said. The national security advisor wanted to be appointed to a position that had a firm institutional base; he didn’t want to be in a job that depended on Nixon’s personal involvement for its effectiveness.
121. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 14–15.
122. Ibid., 17–18.
123. Scowcroft interview, February 23, 2010; Rodman, Presidential Command, 71–73; Helmut Sonnenfeldt interview, ASDT, 2004.
124. Gulley interview, April 13, 2009. Woodward and Bernstein doubt this story, but they provide no factual evidence to suggest it is untrue. In their telling, Kissinger’s logic for keeping Scowcroft was that the secretary of state needed his own man in the West Wing (Scowcroft), since Haig and Nixon’s press secretary, Ron Ziegler, were both against him and since he had few other friends in the White House. But Rose Mary Woods had nothing to gain by saying that Nixon initially wanted Scowcroft. While she may have liked Scowcroft and disliked Kissinger, such a difference would hardly be grounds for her to misinform others about Nixon’s first choice as his new chief of staff. After he resigned, moreover, the former president gave Gulley the same account of how he hired Haig. Walter Isaacson’s version of this story is that since Kissinger no longer trusted Haig, he didn’t want him to become chief of staff. So Kissinger suggested that the president appoint Scowcroft as his chief of staff, and Nixon rejected the idea (Isaacson, Kissinger, 503). Yet Kissinger had something to lose if Woods’s version of events were true (and Kissinger had a track record of telling the press self-serving stories). John-Prados, for his part, writes that Nixon very much liked Haig and that he and Haldeman both thought Haig would be excellent; he doesn’t mention Scowcroft (Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 340).
125. Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days, 390.
126. Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 1 of 2),” West Point Center for Oral History, March 12, 2012, 22–23.
127. Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days, 422–424, 457.
128. Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 1 of 2),” 25–26; Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days, 388–389.
129. See John Robert Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988); Yanek Mieczkowski, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2005); but see Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days, 326.
130. Woodward and Bernstein, The Final Days; Safire, Before the Fall, 373, 657.
131. Safire, Before the Fall, 167, 169; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 338, 351; Rothkopf, Running the World,138.
132. Scowcroft interview, December 2, 2009; Gerald R. Ford, A Time to Heal: The Autobiography of Gerald R. Ford (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 129.
133. Scowcroft interview, December 2, 2009; McFarlane interviews, April 3 and April 23, 2009; Ford, A Time to Heal, 121; Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 77.
134. Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 376. Also see Burke, Honest Broker?, 154–155.
135. Mieczkowski, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s, 52; Brent Scowcroft, “Ford as President and His Foreign Policy,” in The Ford Presidency: Twenty-Two Intimate Perspectives of Gerald Ford, ed. Kenneth W. Thompson, Portraits of American Presidents, vol. 7 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1988), 310.
136. McFarlane interview, April 3, 1999; Rodman, Presidential Command, 83–84; John Osborne, White House Watch: The Ford Years (Washington, DC: New Republic Books, 1977), xvi, xix.
137. Ford, A Time to Heal, 326, 404; Osborne, White House Watch, 218; also see Burke, Honest Broker?, 154.
138. McFarlane interviews, April 3 and April 23, 2009; Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009; Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office: A Diplomatic View of the American Presidency (Part 2 of 2),” West Point Center for Oral History, March 12, 2012, 2; Joseph A. Sisco, “Ford, Kissinger, and the Nixon-Ford Foreign Policy,” in The Ford Presidency: Twenty-Two Intimate Perspectives of Gerald Ford, ed. Kenneth W. Thompson, Portraits of American Presidents, vol. 7 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1988), 327.
139. University of Michigan National Election Study, www.gallup.com/poll/5392/trust-government.aspx, accessed May 20, 2013. The one exception is a brief period in late 2001, when trust climbed back above 50 percent, higher than the proportion expressing the view that they could trust the government “only some of the time” or “never.” But it quickly dropped off again.
140. Nessen, Making the News, 113.
141. Isaacson, Kissinger, 516–519.
142. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval, 492, 496; Isaacson, Kissinger, 517–518; Avner Cohen, “The Last Nuclear Moment,” New York Times, October 6, 2003.
143. “An Oral History Interview with Brent Scowcroft,” by Timothy Naftali, Richard Nixon Oral History Project, Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, Yorba Linda, CA, June 29, 2007, 16.
144. Ibid.; Isaacson, Kissinger, 524–527.
145. “An Oral History interview with Brent Scowcroft,” 20; Isaacson, Kissinger, 531–532; Gates, From the Shadows, 40–41.
146. “An Oral History interview with Brent Scowcroft,” 22.
147. Memcon, “Umar al-Saqqaf, Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Saudi Arabia,” with Henry A. Kissinger and Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, file “June 15, 1974—Kissinger, Saudi Foreign Minister Umar al-Saqqaf,” Box 4, National security advisor Memoranda of Conversations, 1973–1977, Nixon Project.
148. Memorandum of Conversation, Schlesinger, Kissinger, Scowcroft, April 23, “April 23, 74–Kissinger/Schlesinger,” Box 3, Ford Presidential Library.
149. “HAK Telephone conversations—Chron File 1973 1–9 August,” telcon, Mr. Kissinger/Mr. Schlesinger, August 4, 1973, 10:05 A.M. Henry A. Kissinger Telecons, Box 21, Nixon Project.
150. “HAK Telephone conversations—Chron File 1974 5–9 March,” telcon, March 6, 1974, 9:30 P.M. Henry A. Kissinger Telecons, Box 25, Nixon Project.
151. McFarlane interview, April 23, 2009.
152. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Rumsfeld, Scowcroft, “March 17, 1976—Ford, Kissinger, Rumsfeld,” Box 18, Ford Presidential Library.
153. NSSM 219, Working Group Nuclear Cooperation Agreement with Iran, Digital National Security Archive (henceforth DNSA), George Washington University, April 22, 1975, www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb268/doc05a.pdf.
154. NSDM 238, February 13, 1976, “U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf,” PD 01489, DNSA.
155. “Meeting with Carlos P. Romulo, Foreign Secretary of the Republic of the Philippines,” April 13, 1976, PH 00855, DNSA.
156. McFarlane interview, April 23, 2009. Also see “113. Telegram from Secretary of State Kissinger to the Department of State,” Dacca, October 3, 1974, 0130Z, Foreign Relations of the United States (henceforth FRUS), 1969–1976, vol. 26, Arab-Israeli Dispute, 1974–1976, ed. Adam M. Howard (Washington, DC: US GPO, 2012), 452; Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, Monday, December 13, 1976, “December 13, 1976—Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft,” Box 21, Ford Presidential Library.
157. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, Sunday, October 3, 1976, “October 3, 1976–Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft,” Box 21, Ford Presidential Library.
158. Executive Summary/NSSM 231: “244. Study Prepared by the National Security Council Ad Hoc Group,” undated, “Israeli Military Requests,” FRUS, 1969–1976, 26:858; “254. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting,” January 13, 1976, FRUS, 1969–1976, 26:885.
159. Gantt interview, November 2, 2009.
160. Gulley interview, February 11, 2009.
161. Memorandum of conversation, Monday, July 7, 1975, 9:15 A.M., Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, “July 7, 1975—Ford-Kissinger,” Box 13, Ford Presidential Library.
162. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Rumsfeld, Scowcroft, “April, 1976—Ford, Rumsfeld,” Box 18, Ford Presidential Library.
Chapter 9: SALT, Détente, and the Intelligence Wars of the Seventies
163. “Address at the Industrial College of the Armed Forces,” March 4, 1974, “January–March 1974 [2 of 2],” McFarlane Chronological File, Henry A. Kissinger, NSC Administration and Staff Records, Nixon Project.
164. Ford, A Time to Heal, 216–217, 219.
165. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Rumsfeld, Scowcroft, “November 26, 1975—Ford, Kissinger, Rumsfeld,” Box 16, Ford Presidential Library.
166. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 44; John Robert Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988), 125–126; also see Jan M. Lodal, “SALT II and American Security,” Foreign Affairs (Winter 1978/79).
167. John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: Penguin, 2005), 182–183.
168. See “Jackson-Vanik Amendment,” The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Jackson-Vanik_Amendment.
169. Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford, 151–152; Ford, A Time to Heal, 297–298; Nessen, Making the News, 166.
170. Richard Cheney with Liz Cheney, In My Time (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 81.
171. Ford, A Time to Heal, 298; Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford, 152–153.
172. Scowcroft interview, August 22, 2012; Kissinger quoted in Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 45; telecon, Mr. Buckley/The Secretary, July 21, 1975, “Document 12,” National Security Archive, “The Kissinger State Department Telcons,” www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB135/index.htm.
173. Office of Current Intelligence, CIA, “The CSCE and Western Europe—Plusses and Minuses,” July 18, 1975, “Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, 1975 (1) NSC,” Box 44, NSC Europe, Ford Presidential Library.
174. See Mieczkowski, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s, 296–297.
175. Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford, 152–153.
176. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 45.
177. Ibid., 46.
178. Burke, Honest Broker?, 161; Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford, 152–153; Scowcroft quoted in Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 48.
179. Ford quoted in Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford, 153.
180. Osborne, White House Watch, 174; Ford, A Time to Heal, 299 (emphasis in original).
181. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 49–50.
182. Brent Scowcroft, “Signing Ceremony for S. 2679 Establishing a Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe,” Thursday, June 3, 1976, “Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, 1976 (2),” Box 44, NSC Europe files, Ford Presidential Library; Brent Scowcroft, “Memorandum for the President, Implementation of the Final Act of Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe,” August 28, 1976, “Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, 1976 (3),” Box 44, NSC Europe files, Ford Presidential Library.
183. Quoted in Arnaud de Borchgrave, “Euro Byliner,” attached to Jerry H. Jones, “Memorandum for the Honorable Henry A. Kissinger,” May 6, 1975, “Scowcroft, Brent (NSC) 1975 (1),” J. E. Connor Papers, Box 30, Ford Presidential Library.
184. James A Schlesinger, “The Continuing Challenge to America,” Reader’s Digest, April 1976, 61–66, in “Defense—Schlesinger Interviews,” Box 7, Ron Nessen Papers, 1974–1977, Ford Presidential Library.
185. “Memorandum, Eugene Rostow to Participant in the March 12 meeting at the Metropolitan Club,” March 19, 1976, subject file, “Committee on Present Danger Miscellaneous, 1976–79,” Box 70, Nitze Papers, Library of Congress.
186. Scowcroft interview, November 4, 2010.
187. William Colby, Honorable Men: My Life in the CIA (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 15, 391; see John Ranelagh, The Agency: The Rise and Decline of the CIA (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988).
188. William E. Colby to the President, December 24, 1974, “Investigation of the US Intelligence Community,” Box 11, America Since Hoover Collection, Ford Presidential Library; James A. Wilderotter, “CIA Matters,” Memorandum for the File, January 3, 1975, “Intelligence—President’s Meeting with Richard Helms, 1/75,” Box 7, Cheney Files, Ford Presidential Library.
189. Ranelagh, The Agency, 629–630.
190. Kissinger quoted in Kenneth Kitts, Presidential Commissions & National Security: The Politics of Damage Control (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004), 51; Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, The CIA and American Democracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 195.
191. Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 53–54; Memcon, February 21, 1975, “Feb. 21, 1975—Ford, Kissinger, Rumsfeld, March,” Box 9, Memcons, Ford Presidential Library.
192. Jeffreys-Jones, The CIA and American Democracy, 201–202.
193. Nessen, Making the News, 141–143; Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 61–63.
194. Osborne, White House Watch, 281–282. Scowcroft made the “perhaps 25 to 30 percent extra time” comment in a TV interview with ABC’s Ann Compton; Memorandum of conversation, Lt. General Brent Scowcroft, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, Ms. Ann Compton, ABC TV, Ms. Margi Vanderhye, Note Taker, Saturday, December 13, 1975, “Chron File, Nov.-Dec., 1975,” NSC Press-Cong. Liaison, Box 7, Ford Presidential Library.
195. Brent Scowcroft, Memcon, “May 27, 1975—Ford, Schlesinger, Colby, Rumsfeld, Ingersoll,” Box 12, Memcons, Ford Presidential Library.
196. Colby, Honorable Men, 16–17; memorandum of conversation, June 16, 1975, President Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, “June 16, 1975—Ford, Kissinger,” Box 12, Ford Presidential Library.
197. The Man Nobody Knew: In Search of My Father, William Colby, Carl Colby, director and producer, 2011.
198. Scowcroft interview, July 17, 2012. Scowcroft acknowledged that Colby’s family disagreed with him and that he hadn’t drawn any conclusions about Colby’s mysterious death.
199. McFarlane, Special Trust.
200. Walter Pincus, Donald Rumsfeld, and Bob Woodward, quoted in The Man Nobody Knew.
201. Carl Colby interview, June 26, 2012.
202. Colby, Honorable Men, 16–17.
203. Scowcroft interview, August 12, 2009.
204. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, October 13, 1975, “October 13, Ford, Kissinger,” Box 16, Ford Presidential Library.
205. Stephen Hadley interview, April 7, 2009; memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Schlesinger, Levi, Lynn, Colby, Buchan, Marsh, Rumsfeld, Scowcroft, Raoul-Duval, October 13, 1975, “October 13, Ford, Kissinger,” Box 16, Ford Presidential Library.
206. Colby, Honorable Men, 436–437.
207. McFarlane interview, April 23, 2009.
208. Nessen, Making the News, 146; Ford, A Time to Heal, 297–298; Jeffreys-Jones, The CIA and American Democracy, 200, 208; also see John Prados, The Family Jewels: The CIA, Secrecy, and Presidential Power (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2013).
209. Osborne, White House Watch, 284–285.
210. See “Issues,” attached to Jack Marsh, “Meeting on Intelligence Community,” January 10, 1976, “Intelligence—Meeting to Review Intelligence Community Decision Book, 1/10/76,” Box 6, Cheney files, 1974–77, Ford Presidential Library.
211. Gerald R. Ford, “Special Message to the Congress Proposing Legislation to Reform the United States Foreign Intelligence Community,” February 18, 1976, Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=5590.
212. “The President’s Actions Concerning the Foreign Intelligence Community,” Office of the White House Press Secretary, February 17, 1976, “Intelligence—President’s Actions (1)” Box 7, Cheney files. Ford Presidential Library.
213. “Ford’s CIA Shake-Up,” Newsweek, March 1, 1976.
214. Ibid.
215. Richard Pipes, “Team B: The Reality Behind the Myth,” Commentary 30 (October 1986); Anne Hessing Cahn, Killing Détente: The Right Attacks the CIA (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), 127–130.
216. Scowcroft interview, February 24, 2011; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 25.
217. Cahn, Killing Détente, 154–155, 159.
218. Memorandum of conversation, President Ford, Henry Kissinger, Brent Scowcroft, January 4, 1977, The Oval Office, “Jan. 4, 1977—Ford, Kissinger,” Box 21, Memcon files, Ford Presidential Library; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 25.
219. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 24.
220. Brent Scowcroft, “American Attitudes Toward Foreign Policy,” Naval War College Review 32, no. 2 (1979): 11–19, 16–17.
Chapter 10: Managing Failure
221. Osborne, White House Watch, 321–322; Arnold R. Isaacs, Without Honor (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), 435; Nessen, Making the News, 10; Robert D. Schulzinger, A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941–1975 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 325; Hartmann, Palace Politics, 321–322.
222. Scowcroft interviews, August 22, 2012, and January 3, 2014; Greene, The Presidency of Gerald Ford, 139–140; Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 393–395; Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 2 of 2),” 1, 3.
223. Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009; John Robert Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988), 161; “The Tactical Thinker Shaping Nuclear Strategy,” Business Week, April 11, 1983, 111.
224. Scowcroft interview, June 6, 2012.
225. Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 2 of 2),” 2.
226. Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Anchor Books, 2008), 397.
227. Richard D. Johnston, “Summary of the Evacuation of Saigon, South Vietnam Under Operation Frequent Wind (U),” Operations Analysis Group Report No. 2–75, Headquarters of the Commander in Chief Pacific Operations Analysis Group, Department of Defense, May 16, 1975, 96; Schlesinger quoted in “Memorandum of Conversation,” April 17, 1975, 4:30 P.M., Cabinet Room, White House, Subject: Vietnam Evacuation Transcript,” “April 17, 1975—Ford, Kissinger, Schlesinger, Rumsfeld, Marsh,” Box 11, Memcon Files, Ford Presidential Library; Olivier Todd, Cruel April: The Fall of Saigon, trans. Stephen Becker (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), 371.
228. See, for instance, “Memorandum for Secretary Kissinger,” from Jeanne W. Davis, subject “Minutes of the NSC Meeting March 28, 1975,” DNSA 01346, 1–14.
229. Eyes only via Martin Channel, to General Scowcroft from Chargé Lehmann, March 17, 1975, DNSA, No. 01328; Lien-Hang T. Nguyen, Hanoi’s War: An International History of the War for Peace in Vietnam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012).
230. Charles Henderson, Goodnight Saigon (New York: Penguin, 2005), 320; Frank Snepp, Decent Interval (New York: Random House, 1977), 447–448; Johnston, “Summary of the Evacuation of Saigon,” 96; Schlesinger quoted in “Memorandum of Conversation,” April 17, 1975, 4:30 P.M., Cabinet Room, White House, Subject: Vietnam Evacuation Transcript,” “April 17, 1975—Ford, Kissinger, Schlesinger, Rumsfeld, Marsh,” Box 11, Memcon Files, Ford Presidential Library; Todd, Cruel April, 371; Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 391.
231. “Memorandum for the Record of National Security Council Meeting,” Washington, April 24, 1975, 4:35 P.M., FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:899–900; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 361–362, 366; Henry Kissinger, Crisis: The Anatomy of Two Major Foreign Policy Crises (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003), 482–483, 497–499; Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Cold War Presidents (New York: Times Books, 1995), 343–344; Todd, Cruel April, 277; Snepp, Decent Interval, 417–418, 478, 534.
232. Walter Boyne, “The Fall of Saigon,” Air Force Magazine, April 2000, 73–74; Snepp, Decent Interval, 408, 533, 566; Johnston, “Summary of the Evacuation of Saigon,” 61; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 366–367; George J. Veith, Black April: The Fall of South Vietnam 1973–1975 (New York: Encounter Books, 2012); Richard Smyser interview, February 24, 2009.
233. Snepp, Decent Interval, 413.
234. See National Security Council Memorandum to General Scowcroft from W. R. Smyser, April 16, 1978, DNSA 01411; George S. Springsteen, Executive Secretary, Department of State, “Memorandum for Lieutenant General Brent Scowcroft, The White House,” Subject: “Study of Evacuation Planning Issues and Options for Viet-Nam,” April 17, 1975, DNSA 01417, 15, 16; Henry Kissinger, Ending the Vietnam War: A History of America’s Involvement In and Extrication from the Vietnam War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003), 542–543; Snepp, Decent Interval, 418–419, 447–448.
235. See Snepp, Decent Interval; Evan Thomas, “The Last Days of Saigon,” Newsweek, May 1, 2000; Johnston, “Summary of the Evacuation of Saigon,” 67–70.
236. Cable from Ambassador Martin to General Brent Scowcroft, April 7, 1975, DNSA 01376; statement by Kissinger to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in “Memorandum of Conversation, Washington, April 14, 1975,” FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:818; Memorandum for General [Scowcroft] from Bud [McFarlane], April 15, 1975, DNSA 01406; “Memorandum for Lieutenant General Brent Scowcroft the White House,” Subject: Study of Evacuation Planning Issues and Options for Viet-Nam, Department of State, April 17, 1975, DNSA 01417.
237. The total number of potential evacuees was inflated because of the South Vietnamese and US governments’ disinformation on the grisly fates that awaited the South Vietnamese after their capture by the communists (Springsteen, “Memorandum for Lieutenant General Brent Scowcroft, the White House,” Subject: “Study of Evacuation Planning Issues and Options for Viet-Nam,” 3; Isaacs, Without Honor.
238. See Snepp, Decent Interval, 566–567, 569–570; Isaacs, Without Honor, 94–95, 450–451; Memorandum for Secretary Kissinger from W. R. Smyser, Clinton E. Granger, and William L. Stearman, “WSAG Meeting on the Evacuation of South Vietnam, National Security Council, April 16, 1975,” “WSAG, April 17, 1975, Evacuation,” Box 25, NSC East Asian Files, Ford Presidential Library. Also see Johnston, “Summary of the Evacuation of Saigon.”
239. Isaacs, Without Honor, 480; Todd, Cruel April, 351; Snepp, Decent Interval, 404–405.
240. Mark Atwood Lawrence, The Vietnam War: A Concise International History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 168; Snepp, Decent Interval, 569.
241. Quoted in Robert Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger: Partners in Power (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 154; Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 2 of 2),” 3; Isaacson, Kissinger, 246.
242. Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 385.
243. See Memorandum for Mr. Kissinger from William L. Stearman, Subject: “Alleged U.S. and GVN Cease-fire Violations,” May 14, 1973, “Nixon—NSC-Henry Kissinger,” Country Files, Far East–Vietnam, Box 116, “Vol. I Meeting Book, May 1973, General Scowcroft Top Secret,” Nixon Project; “Rebuttal to Charges of USG Violations,” Nixon, NSC Files, Henry A. Kissinger Office Files, Country Files-Far East-Vietnam,” Volume I—Meeting, Box 116, Book “December 26, 1973–75,” Nixon Project; William Lloyd Stearman interview, 1998, ADST, 40.
244. On Haig’s role in the war see, for instance, Kimball, Nixon’s Vietnam War; Tad Szulc, Illusion of Peace (New York: Viking Press, 1978); “An Oral History interview with Brent Scowcroft.”
245. Robert Hartmann, “A War That Is Finished as Far as America Is Concerned,” in Tears Before the Rain: An Oral History of the Fall of South Vietnam, ed. Larry Engelmann (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 149.
246. McFarlane interview, April 3, 2009.
247. There is no mention of General Scowcroft in Lien-Hang T. Nguyen’s fine history of the war from the perspective of the North Vietnamese, Hanoi’s War, for example, and Scowcroft came to the NSC too late to be included in Jeffrey Kimball’s revealing volume of annotated documents, The Vietnam War File: Uncovering the Secret History of Nixon-Era Strategy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004). And there is only one reference in Arnold Isaacs’s comprehensive and engrossing account, Without Honor.
248. William Shawcross, Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon, and the Destruction of Cambodia, rev. ed. (New York: Cooper Square Press, 1987), 95, 269, 340.
249. “Memorandum from the President’s Deputy Assistant for National Security Affairs (Scowcroft) to the President’s Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger),” Washington, April 11, 1973, FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:186–188.
250. “Minutes of Washington Special Actions Group Meeting,” Washington, DC, November 29, 1973, 3:21–3:49 P.M., FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:464.
251. Scowcroft in “Meeting at Noon, March 24, on Indochina,” DNSA 01547l, 6; “Memorandum of Conversation, Tuesday, October 2, 1973, 1:15–2:55 [Luncheon],” 2, file “October 2, 1973—Kissinger, Schlesinger, Colby, Moorer,” Box 2, Ford Presidential Library; “Memorandum of Conversation,” Monday, January 13, 1975, DNSA KT 01475, 2.
252. Brent Scowcroft to Roy Ash, January 13, 1975, “Additional 1975 Foreign Aid Requests for South Vietnam.” DNSA 01283.
253. See “Memorandum of Conversation,” August 7, 1973, Tuesday, 12:00 noon, NSC Deputies, DNSA KT 00786.
254. See, for example, “Conversation Between President Nixon and the President’s Deputy Assistant for National Security Affairs (Scowcroft),” Washington, June 12, 1973, FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:331–337; Scowcroft interview, November 4, 2010.
255. Lloyd Gardner, “Harry Hopkins with Hand Grenades?” in Behind the Throne: Servants of Power to Imperial Presidents, 1898–1968, eds. Thomas J. Mc-Cormick and Walter LaFeber (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), 221–222.
256. Scowcroft quoted in Christopher Jon Lamb, Belief Systems and Decision Making in the Mayaguez Crisis (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1989), 77.
257. Also see Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 388–389.
258. Quoted in “Meeting at Noon, March 24, on Indochina,” March 24, 1975, DNSA 01547, 4; Kissinger quoted in FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:718.
259. Brent Scowcroft to Roy Ash, January 13, 1975, “Additional 1975 Foreign Aid Requests for South Vietnam,” DNSA 01283.
260. James H. Willbanks, Abandoning Vietnam: How America Left and South Vietnam Lost Its War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008), 229–230; Veith, Black April, 310.
261. See comments by Ambassador Graham Martin and Mr. William Hyland in “Meeting at Noon, March 24, on Indochina,” DNSA 01547; Engelmann, ed., Tears Before the Rain, 302–303.
262. William Colby, Jeanne W. Davis, “Memorandum for Secretary Kissinger,” Minutes of NSC Meeting, March 28, 1975, DNSA 01346; Thomas, “The Last Days of Saigon,” 2; Boyne, “The Fall of Saigon,” 72.
263. Boyne, “The Fall of Saigon,” 70–71; Snepp, Decent Interval, 567–568.
264. “Memorandum for Secretary Kissinger,” from Jeanne W. Davis, Subject: “Minutes of the NSC Meeting March 28, 1975,” DNSA 01346, 17; Scowcroft interview, August 22, 2012.
265. Johnston, “Summary of the Evacuation of Saigon,” 57; Thomas, “The Last Days of Saigon”; also see Isaacs, Without Honor, 453–454.
266. Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 384–385, 387–388.
267. Scowcroft interview, August 12, 2012.
268. Dobrynin, In Confidence, 343; Scowcroft interviews, March 4, 2009, and August 22, 2012.
269. Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009; Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office (Part 2 of 2),” 4.
270. Snepp, Decent Interval, 374; Telecon, General Scowcroft/The Secretary, April 15, 1975, KA 13492, DNSA.
271. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, December 18, 1975, “Dec. 18, 1975—Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft,” Memcon Files, Box 17, Ford Presidential Library.
272. Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 383.
273. Larry Berman, No Peace, No Honor: Nixon, Kissinger, and Betrayal in Vietnam (New York: Free Press, 2001), 261.
274. Boyne, “The Fall of Saigon,” 72; see, generally, Veith, Black April; Isaacs, Without Honor, 393.
275. Snepp, Decent Interval, 416; Veith, Black April, 454, 537n23.
276. Kennerly quoted in Isaacs, Without Honor, 405; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 362–363.
277. Snepp, Decent Interval, 358–359; Springsteen, “Memorandum for Lieutenant General Brent Scowcroft,” 10, 11; also see Memorandum for Secretary Kissinger from W. R. Smyser, Clinton E. Granger, and William L. Stearman. Also see “Categories of Evacuees,” Tab M, “WASG, April 19, 1975, Evac (3),” Box 25, NSC East Asian Files, Ford Presidential Library.
278. See “Memorandum of Conversation,” Washington, April 14, 1975, FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:817–822; “Minutes of the Washington Special Actions Group Meeting,” Washington, April 17, 1975, 3:28–4:10 P.M., FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:837–838; Springsteen, “Memorandum for Lieutenant General Brent Scowcroft”; Dean Brown quoted in “Minutes of Washington Special Actions Group Meeting,” Washington, April 19, 11:05 A.M.–12:02 P.M., Subject: Vietnam Evacuation, FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:853.
279. Scowcroft interview, August 22, 2012.
280. See Scowcroft’s statements in “Memorandum of Conversation,” Washington, March 24, 1975, noon, FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:692–693.
281. Springsteen, “Memorandum for Lieutenant General Brent Scowcroft,” 3.
282. “The Situation in Vietnam,” DCI Briefing for April 17 WSAG Meeting, “WSAG, April 17, 1975, Evac,” Box 25, NSC East Asia Files, Ford Presidential Library, 1–8.
283. See remarks by President Ford in “Memorandum of Conversation,” Washington, April 14, 1975, 3:30 P.M., FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:817–822.
284. Scowcroft interview, July 17, 2012; General Brent Scowcroft, “Ford as President and His Foreign Policy,” in The Ford Presidency, 148–149.
285. See cable from Ambassador Martin to General Brent Scowcroft, April 7, 1975, DNSA 01376, 3; Scowcroft interview, August 22, 2012; also see Memorandum for General Scowcroft from W. R. Smyser, April 15, 1975, DNSA 01405, attachment, Cable to Henry A. Kissinger from Graham Martin, April 25, 1975, 1–2; “Memorandum of Conversation,” Washington, April 14, 1975, 3:30 P.M., FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:817–822; Kissinger, Ending the Vietnam War, 540; Kissinger, Crisis, 510; Snepp, Decent Interval, 386.
286. Memorandum of Conversation, August 7, 1973, Tuesday, 12:00 Noon—NSC Deputies, DNSA 00786; Todd, Cruel April, 274–275; Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.
287. Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.
288. Cable from Brent Scowcroft to Ambassador Graham Martin, April 19, 1975, DNSA 01432.
289. Snepp, Decent Interval, 346.
290. Henderson, Goodnight Saigon, 328; Snepp, Decent Interval, 489–490; Greene, The Presidency of George Bush, 140–141.
291. Snepp, Decent Interval, 363; Boyne, “The Fall of Saigon,” 74.
292. McFarlane, Special Trust, 146.
293. Scowcroft and Martin quoted in David Butler, The Fall of Saigon: Scenes from the Sudden End of a Long War (New York: Simon & Schuster,1985), 438–439. Also see Snepp, Decent Interval, 421.
294. Martin quoted in Butler, The Fall of Saigon, 441.
295. Graham Martin, “Walking Around with My Head in a Basket,” in Tears Before the Rain, 58.
296. Ibid.; Isaacs, Without Honor, 470–471.
297. Martin, “Walking Around with My Head in a Basket,” 58; Todd, Cruel April, 367.
298. Snepp, Decent Interval, 562; Isaacs, Without Honor, 468–477.
299. Todd, Cruel April, 368; Snepp, Decent Interval, 561–562.
300. Isaacs, Without Honor, 481–483; Snepp, Decent Interval, 568. For detailed and often firsthand accounts of those final hours, see Snepp, Decent Interval; Butler, The Fall of Saigon; Isaacs, Without Honor; Engelmann, ed., Tears Before the Rain; Henderson, Goodnight Saigon; and Todd, Cruel April. The lead vehicle was tank No. 843.
301. To Graham Martin from Henry Kissinger, April 30, 1975, “Sent via Military Channels,” DNSA, 01515.
302. See, for instance, Memorandum of Conversation, November 14, 1974, 6:00 P.M., White House, “Gayler, Noel A. M. (Admiral),” National security advisor files, President Nixon Files, Box 1, Ford Presidential Library.
303. See Springsteen, “Memorandum for Lieutenant General Brent Scowcroft”; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 367.
304. Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 367; Nessen, Making the News, 10.
305. For Kissinger’s worsening moods, see “Minutes of Washington Special Actions Group Meeting,” Washington, April 28, 1975, 10:38–11:14 A.M., FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:914–920; Hartmann, Palace Politics, 324; Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 396.
306. Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009.
307. Isaacs, Without Honor, 401; also see Memorandum of conversation, Friday, February 8, 1974, 2:37–3:35 P.M., Cabinet Room, White House, National security advisor Collection, folder “February 8, 1974—Nixon, President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board,” Nixon Project.
308. Kissinger, Crisis, 542; Snepp, Decent Interval, 452.
309. Scowcroft interview, August 12, 2009.
310. Snepp, Decent Interval, 579.
311. “245. Minutes of Washington Special Actions Group Meeting,” April 19, 1975, FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:855.
312. Osborne, White House Watch, 124.
313. Hartman, “A War That Is Finished as Far as America Is Concerned,” 151. Also see Isaacs, Without Honor, 434–435.
314. Osborne, White House Watch, 124.
315. David Elliott, “Senior Scholars’ Interpretations of the American Experience in Southeast Asia,” East Auditorium, George C. Marshall Conference Center, Washington, DC. September 29, 2010, http://history.state.gov/conferences/2010-southeast-asia/senior-scholars.
316. John Prados, “Senior Scholars’ Interpretations of the American Experience in Southeast Asia,” East Auditorium, George C. Marshall Conference Center, Washington, DC. September 29, 2010, http://history.state.gov/conferences/2010-southeast-asia/senior-scholars.
317. Scowcroft interviews, April 10, 2009, October 6, 2010, and February 11, 2013; William Lloyd Stearman interview, 1998, ADST, 37, 45; Eagleburger interview, August 13, 1988, ADST; “An Oral History interview with Brent Scowcroft,” 25.
318. Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 383, 386.
319. Kissinger, Ending the Vietnam War, 556–560.
320. Also see Nguyen, Hanoi’s War, on the determination of the North Vietnamese.
321. George S. Springsteen, “Memorandum for Lieutenant General Brent Scowcroft, The White House,” Subject: Lessons of Viet-Nam, May 9, 1975, Department of State, DNSA 01542; Secret Action memorandum, William Smyser to Secretary Kissinger, “Lessons of Vietnam,” May 12, 1975, 11 pages, DNSA, VW01539.