Chapter 11: We Mean Business

322. Osborne, White House Watch, 136–137; John Guilmartin, A Very Short War (College Station: Texas A&M Press), 26.

323. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, May 12, 1975, “May 12, ’75—Ford, Kissinger,” Box 11, Ford Library; see Robert J. Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident: Testing American’s Resolve in the Post-Vietnam Era (Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 2011), 19; “Capture and Release of SS Mayaguez by Khmer Rouge Forces in May 1975,” www.usmm.org/Mayaguez.html; Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 103–104.

324. “285. Minutes of National Security Council Meeting,” Washington, May 12, 1975, 12:03–12:50 P.M., FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:977–985; Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 102–103.

325. “285. Minutes of National Security Council Meeting”; Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 102–104; Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 550.

326. McFarlane interviews, April 3, April 23, 2009; Ford, A Time to Heal, 275.

327. Ford, A Time to Heal, 275–277, 280; Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 550–551; Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 26–29; also see Admiral William J. Crowe Jr. with David Chanoff, The Line of Fire: From Washington to the Gulf, the Politics and Battles of the New Military (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993), 63–74.

328. “Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting,” Washington, May 13–14, 1975, 10:40 P.M.–12:25 A.M., FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:1015. Also see Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 117, and Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident.

329. Scowcroft quoted in Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 79.

330. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 550–551; Guilmartin, A Very Short War, 37; Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 28–29.

331. Letter from Lawrence Eagleburger to Elmer B. Staats, Comptroller General of the United States, March 5, 1976, “Unclassified with Secret Attachment,” “7600658—Comments on GAO Mayaguez Study (1),” Box 32, President NSC Logged Documents, Ford Presidential Library.

332. “295. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting.”

333. Ibid.; also see Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 74.

334. Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 31.

335. McFarlane interviews, April 3 and April 23, 2009.

336. “291. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting,” Washington, May 13, 10:22 A.M.–11:17 P.M., FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:991–1001.

337. “295. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting,” Washington, May 13–14, 1975, 10:40 P.M.–12:25 A.M., FRUS 10:1004–1013.

338. Memorandum for the President from Henry A. Kissinger, Subject: Debrief of the MAYAGUEZ Captain and Crew, May 19, 1975, “Cambodia-Mayaguez Seizure (3),” Box 1, Kissinger-Scowcroft West Wing Office Files, 1969–77, Ford Presidential Library; Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 116.

339. “295. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting,” 1004–1013.

340. Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 120; Guilmartin, A Very Short War, 60–62; Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 94–97.

341. Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 96–100.

342. Guilmartin, A Very Short War, 60–61; Ford, A Time to Heal, 282.

343. Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 59.

344. See Guilmartin, A Very Short War, 63–64, 167–187; Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 59–60.

345. “Military Operations Which Resulted in the Successful Recovery of the SS Mayaguez and Crew,” “Cambodia–Mayaguez Seizure (3),” Box 1, Kissinger-Scowcroft West Wing files, 1974–77, Ford Presidential Library; footnote 4 of “301. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting,” Washington, May 14, 4:02 P.M.–4:20 P.M., FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:1039–1043, identifies the date of this Department of Defense report as May 20, 1975. Also see Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 161–180.

346. “Capture and Release of SS Mayaguez by Khmer Rouge Forces in May 1975,” www.usmm.org/Mayaguez.html.

347. Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 179–180; see generally Ralph Wetterhahn, The Last Battle: The Mayaguez Incident and the End of the Vietnam War (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2001).

348. “298. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting,” Washington, May 14, 3:52 P.M.–5:42 P.M.” FRUS, 1969–1976, 10:1021–1036.

349. “295. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting,” 1004–1013.

350. Ford, A Time to Heal, 280; Memorandum of Conversation, President Ford, Dr. Henry A. Kissinger, and Lt. General Scowcroft, Wednesday, May 14, 1975, 11:45 A.M., Oval Office, “May 14, 1975—Ford-Kissinger,” Mayaguez file, Box 11, Ford Presidential Library.

351. Ford, A Time to Heal, 280.

352. Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 155; Wetterhahn, The Last Battle, 190.

353. Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 155–156.

354. Transcript of telephone conversation between President Ford and the President’s Deputy Assistant for National Security Affairs, Washington, DC, May 13, 1975, 8:10 P.M., “Cambodia, Mayaguez Seizure (1),” Box 1, National security advisor, Kissinger-Scowcroft West Wing Office Files, Ford Presidential Library.

355. “The President/General Scowcroft,” 9:50 P.M., May 13, 1975, “Cambodia, Mayaguez Seizure (1),” Box 1, National security advisor, Kissinger-Scowcroft West Wing Office Files, Ford Presidential Library.

356. “298. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting”; also see Ford, A Time to Heal, 281.

357. “298. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting.”

358. Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford, 148.

359. “295. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting,” 1004–1013.

360. “298. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting.”

361. Ibid.

362. McFarlane, Special Trust, 163; Ford, A Time to Heal, 283.

363. Quoted in Wetterhahn, The Last Battle, 206; also see Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford, 143–155.

364. Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 156; Wetterhahn, The Last Battle, 206–207; Memcon, “May 16, 1975—Ford, Kissinger,” Box 11, Ford Presidential Library.

365. “Capture and Release of SS Mayaguez by Khmer Rouge Forces in May 1975,” www.usmm.org/Mayaguez.html.

366. See Wetterhahn, The Last Battle, 197–198; Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 79–81.

367. Memorandum for the President from Henry A. Kissinger, Subject: Debrief of the MAYAGUEZ Captain and Crew, May 19, 1975, “Cambodia-Mayaguez Seizure (3),” Box 1, Kissinger-Scowcroft West Wing Office Files, 1969–77, Ford Presidential Library.

368. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 565.

369. Hersh, The Price of Power, 639–640.

370. “285. Minutes of National Security Council Meeting.”

371. Ford, A Time to Heal, 283; letter from Lawrence Eagleburger to Elmer B. Staats, Comptroller General of the United States, March 5, 1976, “Unclassified with Secret Attachment,” “7600658—Comments on GAO Mayaguez Study (1),” Box 32, President NSC Logged Documents, Ford Presidential Library. See also Greene, The Presidency of Gerald Ford, and Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 194–203.

372. Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 192–193, 194–203; Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford, 151; Schulzinger, Henry Kissinger, 203–204; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 371.

373. Mark J. Rozell, The Press and the Ford Presidency (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), 98–101; Wetterhahn, The Last Battle, 257; Osborne, White House Watch; Mieczkowski, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s, 295.

374. Wetterhahn, The Last Battle, 311–312; McFarlane interviews, April 9 and 23, 2009; William Lloyd Stearman, April 15, 1992, ADST, 43.

375. Gerald R. Ford, “Memorandum for the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs,” Subject: “The Rescue of the SS Mayaguez and Its Crew,” May 18, 1975, “Cambodia-Mayaguez Seizure (2),” Box 1, Kissinger-Scowcroft West Wing Office Files, 1969–77,” Ford Presidential Library.

376. “301. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting”; Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 571; “298. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting”; also see Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 185–186.

377. Memorandum for General Scowcroft from Thomas J. Barnes, Subject: “Mayaguez Post-Mortem,” October 16, 1975, “Draft Report to the President, October 16, 1975 (1)” Box 29, National Security Council East Asia files, Ford Presidential Library; also see Ford, A Time to Heal, 284.

378. Memorandum for General Scowcroft from Thomas J. Barnes, Subject: “Mayaguez Post-Mortem”; also see Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 85–100.

379. “The Daily Diary of President Gerald R. Ford,” May 15, 1975, White House, Washington, DC, “5/9–15/75 (work copy),” Box 14, President’s Daily Diary, Ford Presidential Library.

380. Also see Nessen, Making the News, 161–165.

381. Kennerly quoted in Wetterhahn, The Last Battle, 123–124; Ford, A Time to Heal, 279–280; Ron Nessen, It Sure Looks Different from the Inside (New York: Playboy Press, 1979), 122; Scowcroft interview, February 23, 2011.

382. Nessen quoted in Wetterhahn, The Last Battle, 205.

383. “291. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting.”

384. Scowcroft interview, October 20, 2011.

385. “295. Minutes of the National Security Council Meeting”; Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 562–563.

386. Nessen, Making the News, 162.

387. Wetterhahn, The Last Battle, 191; Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 569; Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 127; Nessen, Making the News 162.

388. Gerald R. Ford, “Memorandum for the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs,” Subject: “The Rescue of the SS Mayaguez and Its Crew,” May 18, 1975, “Cambodia-Mayaguez Seizure (2),” Box 1, Kissinger-Scowcroft West Wing Office Files, 1969–77,” Ford Presidential Library.

389. Richard A. Gabriel, Military Incompetence: Why the American Military Doesn’t Win (New York: Hill and Wang, 1985), 61–83, cited in James R. Locher, Victory on the Potomac: The Goldwater-Nichols Act Unifies the Pentagon (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2003), 30; McFarlane quoted in Locher, Victory on the Potomac, 279, 278.

390. Amy Zegart, Flawed by Design: The Evolution of the CIA, JCS, and NSC (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 144–145; Dick Cheney interview, BOHP, 39.

391. See Crowe, The Line of Fire, 146–147; Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, xv, 260; Sam Nunn, foreword, in Locher, Victory on the Potomac, xi–xii.

392. Zegart, Flawed by Design, 141; Locher, Victory on the Potomac.

393. US Statutes at Large 1989, 1005, quoted in Zegart, Flawed by Design, 141.

394. Scowcroft interview, November 3, 2009; Locher, Victory on the Potomac, 170–171, 348, 398.

395. Attachment, Memorandum for Colonel Keith McCartney from Colonel Kenneth R. Bailey, Office of the Secretary of Defense, June 10, 1975, Name File, “Scowcroft, Brent,” WHCF, Box 2848, Ford Presidential Library.

396. Ibid.

397. Guilmartin, A Very Short War, xxi, 28; Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 575.

398. Mahoney, The Mayaguez Incident, 207, 202.

Chapter 12: National Security Advisor

399. Scowcroft quoted in The Man Nobody Knew; Memorandum of conversation, June 16, 1975, President Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, “June 16, 1975—Ford, Kissinger,” Box 12, Ford Presidential Library.

400. On Colby’s experience, see William Colby, Honorable Men: My Life in the CIA (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 8–12; Cheney, In My Time, 91; Cheney interview, BOHP, 22–23; Stephen F. Hayes, Cheney: The Untold Story of America’s Most Powerful and Controversial Vice President (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 96–97.

401. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 16; Osborne, White House Watch, 219–220; Hartmann, Palace Politics, 364–365; Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.

402. Bob Schieffer interview, June 6, 2009.

403. Osborne, White House Watch, 228, 298; Ford, A Time to Heal, 330; Henry Kissinger, On China (New York: Penguin, 2011), 313–314.

404. Ford, A Time to Heal, 329–330.

405. “President Nixon and Bob Haldeman Discuss Donald Rumsfeld,” March 9, 1971, conversation no. 464-12, http://whitehousetapes.net/clips/rmn_rumsfeld.html; Henry A. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), 175.

406. Osborne, White House Watch, 228; Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.

407. Victor Gold, Invasion of the Party Snatchers: How the Holy-Rollers and the Neo-Cons Destroyed the GOP (Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2007), 88.

408. George H. W. Bush interview, December 18, 2009.

409. Mieczkowski, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s, 322.

410. Burke, Honest Broker?, 155; Hyland, Mortal Rivals; Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 837.

411. Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2009; Sen. Henry Jackson, 42/29, “Firing of James Schlesinger,” n.d., Speeches and Writing, AC No. 3560–012 Campaign Papers, 1952–82, Henry Jackson Papers, University of Washington Libraries; Roger Morris, Haig: The General’s Progress, 224; Scowcroft interview, December 20, 2012; Senator Byrd quoted in UPI, “Ford Helped by Rocky’s Decision,” The Pocono Record, Tuesday, November 4, 1975; George Will, “Dampening Dissent, . . .” Washington Post, November 5, 1975; Joseph Kraft, “The Crumbling Administration,” Washington Post, November 4, 1975, in “Cabinet Reorganization,” Box 78, Robert Goldwin Papers, Ford Presidential Library.

412. Gaylord Shaw, “Scowcroft: Out of the Shadows and Into the Security Spotlight,” Los Angeles Times, November 4, 1975.

413. Ambassador Dobbins quoted in Rothkopf, Running the World, 153; Osborne, White House Watch, 218–219, 227–228, 272–273; Hyland, Mortal Enemies, 149; Joseph A. Sisco, “Ford, Kissinger and the Nixon-Ford Foreign Policy,” in The Ford Presidency, 327.

414. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, “October 16, 1975—Ford, Kissinger,” Box 16, Ford Presidential Library.

415. Ford, A Time to Heal, 320; Dallek, Nixon and Kissinger, 573; Leslie H. Gelb, “Ford Discharges Schlesinger and Colby and Asks Kissinger to Give Up His Security Post,” New York Times, November 3, 1975; Greene, The Presidency of Gerald Ford, 158–163.

416. Hartmann, Palace Politics, 377–378, Osborne quoted on 379; Memcon, Wednesday, November 19, 1975, 9:15 A.M., Oval Office, DNSA, KT01832; also see Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 841–844; Hyland, Mortal Enemies.

417. Sen. Henry Jackson, 42/29, “Firing of James Schlesinger,” n.d., Speeches and Writing, AC No. 3560-012 Campaign Papers, 1952–82, Henry Jackson Papers, University of Washington.

418. Scowcroft interviews, August 12, 2009, and April 25, 2013.

419. Jeremiah O’Leary, “Scowcroft’s Commission in Air Force Questioned,” Washington Star, November 9, 1975.

420. L. Niederlehner, Acting General Council, to Rep. John E. Ross, May 29, 1973, “Personal—White House: Appointment of Military Personnel to Staff,” Buchen Files, Box 41, Ford Presidential Library.

421. Dick Cheney interview, BOHP, 31; Arnold Kanter interview, March 24, 2009; Scowcroft interview, August 12, 2009.

422. O’Leary, “Scowcroft’s Commission in Air Force Questioned”; Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009; Gulley interviews, April 13 and February 11, 2009; also see L. Niederlehner, Acting General Counsel, to Representative John A. Moss, May 29, 1973, “Personal—White House; Appointment of Military Personnel to Staff,” Buchen Papers, Box 41, Ford Presidential Library.

423. Brent Scowcroft quoted in “The Role of the National Security Advisor,” Oral History Roundtables, 11.

424. Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 376; Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution; Jonathan Howe interview, January 12, 2012.

425. On issues Kissinger neglected as national security advisor, see, for example, Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 72–73.

426. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, Tuesday, October 19, 1976, “October 19, 1976—Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft,” Box 21, Ford Presidential Library.

427. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, “November 11, 1975—Ford, Kissinger,” Box 16, Ford Presidential Library; James Dobbin quoted in Rothkopf, Running the World, 154.

428. Memorandum of conversation, Monday, July 19, 1975, 3:31–4:15 P.M., President Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, “July 19, 1975—Ford-Kissinger-Scowcroft,” Box 20, Ford Presidential Library.

429. Memorandum of conversation, Thursday, August 7, 1975, 9:30–10:21 A.M., Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, “August 7, 1975—Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft,” Box 14, Ford Presidential Library; Howe interview, January 12, 2012.

430. Burke, Honest Broker?, 114–115.

431. David Callahan, “The Honest Broker: Brent Scowcroft in the Bush White House,” Foreign Policy Journal 69, no. 2 (February 1992): 27–32, 29. Also see Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 50–51.

432. Memorandum for General Scowcroft from Clinton E. Granger, November 4, 1975, “Outside of the System Chronological File, 11/3/75–11/11/75,” Box 2, Ford Presidential Library.

433. Daniel Christman interview, May 12, 2009.

434. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, “November 3, 1975—Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft,” Box 16, Ford Presidential Library.

435. Burke, Honest Broker?, 148; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 376–377.

436. Burke, Honest Broker?, 154, 157; Scowcroft interview, March 4, 2009; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 376–377.

437. Press Office staff meeting, Sunday June 29, 1975, 3–5, “Press Office Improvement Meeting, 6/26–29/75 (3),” Box 28; “Press Office Improvement Meeting,” October 18, 1975; “Press Office Improvement Meeting, 10/18/75 (2),” Box 23, Nessen Papers, 1974–77, Ford Presidential Library.

438. Memorandum of conversation, Lt. General Brent Scowcroft, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, Ms. Ann Compton, ABC TV, Ms. Margi Vanderhye, Note Taker, Saturday, December 13, 1975, “Chron File, Nov.-Dec., 1975,” NSC Press-Cong. Liaison, Box 7, Ford Presidential Library.

439. Brent Scowcroft, “Ford as President and His Foreign Policy,” in The Ford Presidency, 311; also see Burke, Honest Broker?, 155, 158.

440. Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 376; Callahan, “The Honest Broker,” 30; Burke, Honest Broker?, 156.

441. Head, Short, McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 78–79; Howe interview, January 12, 2012.

442. McFarlane interview, April 3, 2009; also see Scowcroft quoted in “The Role of the National Security Advisor,” 11.

443. Scowcroft quoted in “The Role of the National Security Advisor,” 11.

444. Rothkopf, Running the World, 154.

445. David Gompert quoted in Burke, Honest Broker?, 157; Scowcroft, “Ford as President,” 311; Rodman, Presidential Command, 102–103; Scowcroft interview, April 25, 2013. But to say that Kissinger “destroyed the State Department,” as this critic did, that the “Foreign Service lost most of its power in that period,” and that he gutted their morale are overstatements. Kissinger elevated the State Department from where it had been under Secretary of State Rogers—acknowledging that that degraded status was partly Kissinger’s own doing. He was able to give Foreign Service officers more of a feeling of participation and to provide firmer and more forceful leadership, thereby empowering the State Department.

446. Burke, Honest Broker?, 156–157; David Gompert, quoted in “The Bush Administration National Security Council,” 3, 13; McFarlane interviews, April 3 and April 23, 2009; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 376. But see Rodman, Presidential Command, 77–78.

447. Burke, Honest Broker?, 149, 154–155, 159; Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 183–184.

448. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 183–184.

449. Scowcroft quoted in Burke, Honest Broker?, 156–157; emphasis in original.

450. Burke, Honest Broker?, 149; Rodman, Presidential Command, 78.

451. Kenneth Rush, “Ford and the Economy: National and International,” in The Ford Presidency, 148–149.

452. Rothkopf, Running the World, 139; Burke, Honest Broker?, 147; Hyland, Mortal Rivals, 188, 190.

453. See, for example, Rothkopf, Running the World, 141; Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 92–93.

454. Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 57–93; Burke, Honest Broker?, 148.

455. Larry Eagleburger, “Interview with Lawrence S. Eagleburger,” ADST; Hyland, Mortal Rivals, 196–198.

456. William Lloyd Stearman, April 15, 1992, ADST, 39.

457. Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 341, 355.

458. Also see Schulzinger, Henry Kissinger, 239–241.

459. Chicago Tribune, November 11, 1984, 13; also see Osborne, White House Watch, 302.

460. Karen Scowcroft interview, March 19, 2009; Gulley interviews, February 11, 2009, and April 13, 2009.

Chapter 13: The Fixer

461. See Douglas Wass, Decline to Fall: The Making of British Macro-Economic Policy and the 1976 IMF Crisis (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008; Mark D. Harmon, The British Labour Government and the 1976 IMF Crisis (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997); Kathleen Burk and Alec Cairncross, Goodbye, Great Britain: The 1976 IMF Crisis (New London: Yale University Press, 1992).

462. Also see Memcon, “Dec. 3, 1976—Ford, Kissinger,” Box 21, Ford Presidential Library.

463. For the British prime minister’s more detailed but somewhat different account, see James Callaghan, Time and Change (London: Collins, 1987), 413–444.

464. Robert Hormats interview, October 29, 2009.

465. Hormats interview, October 29, 2009.

466. Scowcroft interviews, October 6, 2010, and February 24, 2011.

467. Burk and Cairncross, Goodbye, Great Britain, 62–63.

468. Ibid., 77.

469. McFarlane interview, April 3, 2009; Hormats interview, October 29, 2009.

470. Alan Greenspan interview, October 5, 2010; Scowcroft quoted in Burk and Cairncross, Goodbye, Great Britain, 38.

471. Hormats interview, October 29, 2009.

472. Hormats interview, October 29, 2009; Robert McFarlane interview, April 3, 2009; Scowcroft interview, October 6, 2010.

473. Burk and Cairncross, Goodbye, Great Britain, 79.

474. Ibid., 115.

475. Dominic Sandbrook, “Crisis, What Crisis?” New Statesman, October 2, 2008.

476. Brent Scowcroft, Memorandum for the President, April 14, 1976, “Outside the System Chronological Files, 4/11/76–4/14/76,” Box 4, National Security Advisor Files, Ford Presidential Library.

477. “A Follow-on to the Summit,” “Economic Summit—Puerto Rico (1),” Box 3, IEASF (1973), 1975–1976, National Security Advisor Files, Ford Presidential Library; “Second Session of Summit Meeting,” June 28, 1978, “Memcon—Puerto Rico Summit, June 27 and 28, 1976,” “Economic Summit in Puerto Rico (7),” Box 4, IEASF (73), 1975–76, National Security Advisor Files, Ford Presidential Library.

478. Memcon, June 29, 1976, “Puerto Rico Economic Summit,” “June 26, 1976, Cabinet Meeting,” Box 20 Memcons, Ford Presidential Library.

479. Robert Hormats, Memorandum for Secretary Kissinger, “Scenario for Economic Summit,” October 24, 1975, “Economic Summits—Rambouillet (3),” Box 4, IEASF (73), 1975–76, NSC files, Ford Presidential Library.

480. Ford, A Time to Heal, 345.

481. See Jeffrey T. Richelson, The U.S. Intelligence Community, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper Business, 1989), 338.

482. Greene, The Presidency of Gerald Ford, 112–114.

483. Memcon, “Nov. 11, 1975—Ford, Kissinger,” Box 16, Ford Presidential Library.

484. Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, “November 28, 1975—Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft,” Box 16, Ford Presidential Library.

485. Brent Scowcroft, “I. Soviet Dynamics: Rapporteur’s Summary,” in Soviet Dynamics—Political Economic Military (World Affairs Council of Pittsburgh, 1978), 2–8, 4.

486. Margi Vanderhye to General Scowcroft, February 26, 1976, “President’s Recent Remarks on Angola,” “Chron File, Jan.-Feb. 1976,” Box 7, NSC Presidential and Congressional Liaison Collection, Ford Presidential Library; “Memorandum of Conversation, Lt. General Brent Scowcroft, Arthur House, John McGoff, Les Devilliers,” White House, January 21, 1976, “Jan. 21, 1976—Scowcroft, Arthur House, John McGoff, Les Devilliers,” Box 17, A/Africa, NSC files, Ford Presidential Library.

487. Margi Vanderhye to General Scowcroft, February 26, 1976, “President’s Recent Remarks on Angola,” “Chron File, Jan.-Feb. 1976,” Box 7, NSC Presidential and Congressional Liaison Collection, Ford Presidential Library; “Memorandum of Conversation, Lt. General Brent Scowcroft, Arthur House, John McGoff, Les Devilliers,” White House, January 21, 1976, “Jan. 21, 1976—Scowcroft, Arthur House, John McGoff, Les Devilliers,” Box 17, A/Africa, NSC files, Ford Library.

488. Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford, 115.

489. Associated Press, “Money Funneled,” Fort Scott Tribune, February 2, 1976.

490. Mieczkowski, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s, 286–287.

491. NSSM 241, April 21, 1976, PI01490, DNSA.

492. Richelson, The U.S. Intelligence Community, 343.

493. Ford, A Time to Heal, 397–398; Osborne, White House Watch, 378–379.

494. Brent Scowcroft, “American Attitudes Toward Foreign Policy,” Naval War College Review 32, no. 2 (1979): 11–19, 17.

495. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 82–84.

496. Reagan and Thatcher quoted in John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: Penguin, 2005), 216–217.

Part III: The Carter and Reagan Years, 1977–1989

Chapter 14: Out on the Street

1. Brent Scowcroft interview, November 12–13, 1999, BOHP, 21.

2. Carla Hills interview, January 6, 2004, BOHP, 35.

3. Ibid., 5.

4. Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2009; John Osborne, White House Watch: The Ford Years (Washington, DC: New Republic Books, 1977), 415–416.

5. Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2009.

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid.

8. See Richard Head, Frisco W. Short, and Robert C. McFarlane, Crisis Resolution: Presidential Decision-Making in the Mayaguez and Korean Confrontations (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1978), 149–215; William G. Hyland, Mortal Rivals: Superpower Relations from Nixon to Reagan (New York: Random House, 1987), 168–171.

9. Brent Scowcroft, “American Attitudes Toward Foreign Policy,” Naval War College Review 32, no. 2 (1979): 11–19, 17–18.

10. Hyland, Mortal Rivals, 169; Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 172. This account draws mostly from the comprehensive treatment of the crisis by Head, Short, and McFarlane.

11. See Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 172, 179; Hyland, Mortal Rivals, 169.

12. See Head, Short, and McFarlane, Crisis Resolution, 196–201.

13. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 79; Robert McFarlane interview, April 23, 2009.

14. Yanek Mieczkowski, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2005), 332–333.

15. Walter Isaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), 702; Osborne, White House Watch, 415–416; Jussi Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 453; McFarlane interview, April 23, 2009.

16. Isaacson, Kissinger, 702; Hyland, Mortal Rivals, 178.

17. Osborne, White House Watch, 415–416; Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 453; McFarlane interview, April 23, 2009; Office of the White House Press Secretary, October 6, 1978, White House, The Holiday Inn, San Francisco, “Ford, Gerald R., Speeches by Advocates,” Phelan Papers, Box 3, Ford Presidential Library.

18. Mieczkowski, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s, 333.

19. Ron Nessen, It Sure Looks Different from the Inside (New York: Playboy Press, 1979), 268–277; John Robert Greene, The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988), 183–186; Isaacson, Kissinger, 702–703; Osborne, White House Watch, 54; Hyland, Mortal Rivals, 179; Mark J. Rozell, The Press and the Ford Presidency (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1992), 146–148.

20. Memorandum of Conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, Monday, October 11, 1976, “October 11, 1976—Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft,” Box 21, Ford Presidential Library; Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 453; Osborne, White House Watch, 417.

21. Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2009.

22. Nancy Gibbs and Michael Duffy, The President’s Club: Inside the World’s Most Exclusive Fraternity (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 299.

23. Ibid., 316–318; Mieczkowski, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s, 312–313; also see Osborne, White House Watch, 301–302.

24. Isaacson, Kissinger, 719–720, 721.

25. Letter, Ford to Lt. Gen. Scowcroft, November 1, 1976, Name File, “Scowcroft, Brent,” Box 2848, WHCF, Ford Presidential Library.

26. Robert Timberg, A Nightingale’s Song (New York: Free Press, 1996), 251.

27. See, for instance, Mieczkowski, Gerald Ford and the Challenges of the 1970s, 325–337.

28. Memorandum of Conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, Thursday, November 4, 1976, “Nov. 4, 1976—Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft,” Box 21, Ford Presidential Library.

29. Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2009.

30. Scowcroft interview, June 20, 2013.

31. Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.

32. Scowcroft interview, October 20, 2011; Jack Brennan interview, February 24, 2009; Bill Gulley interview, April 13, 2009.

33. Bill Gulley interview, December 21, 2011; Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office: A Diplomatic View of the American Presidency (Part 1 of 2),” West Point Center for Oral History, March 12, 2012, 19, 28–29.

34. Scowcroft interview, January 4 and October 20, 2011.

35. Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009; Gulley interviews, April 13, 2009, and December 21, 2011; Maxine Cheshire, “VIP: The Mysterious Business of the ‘International Six,’” Washington Post, February 3, 1980.

36. Gulley interview, December 21, 2011; Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.

37. Gulley interview, April 13, 2009; Scowcroft interviews, April 10, 2009, and January 3, 2014.

38. Gulley interview, December 21, 2011; Brennan interview, February 24, 2009.

39. Gulley interviews, February 11, 2009, and December 21, 2011; Scowcroft interview, April 10, 2009.

40. FBI 302 report, cited in Joseph J. Trento, Prelude to Terror: The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America’s Private Intelligence Network (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2005), 303.

41. Scowcroft interview, March 14, 2013; Isaacson, Kissinger, 733–734; Seymour Hersh, The Price of Power (New York: Summit Books, 1983), 642; Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 467–468.

42. David Lauter, “Brent Scowcroft,” in Fateful Decisions: Inside the National Security Council, eds. Karl F. Inderfurth and Loch K. Johnson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 207; Isaacson, Kissinger, 744; Scowcroft interview, May 13, 2009.

43. See Isaacson, Kissinger, 745; Jeff Gerth, “Scowcroft Sold Military Holdings a Month Before Persian Gulf War,” New York Times, January 18, 1991; Jeff Gerth and David Van Natta, “Threats and Responses: The Adviser; Still Very Much a Player, Scowcroft Straddles the Worlds of Business and Government,” New York Times, September 20, 2002.

44. Douglas Kellner, The Persian Gulf TV War (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), 39–40, 53. On US assistance to both Iran and Iraq, see Jeffrey T. Richelson, The U.S. Intelligence Community (New York: Harper Business, 1989), 344–346.

45. Hanhimäki, The Flawed Architect, 468–469.

46. Lawrence Eagleburger interview, April 19, 2009.

47. Isaacson, Kissinger, 714; Gulley interview, December 21, 2011.

48. Gulley interview, December 21, 2011; Scowcroft interview, May 13, 2009.

49. The Atlantic Council’s Special Working Group on the Middle East, Oil and Turmoil: Western Choices in the Middle East, John C. Campbell, rapporteur, Andrew J. Goodpaster and Brent Scowcroft, cochairmen (Washington, DC: Atlantic Council of the United States, 1979); The Atlantic Council’s Special Working Group on the Credibility of the NATO Deterrent, Strengthening Deterrence: NATO and the Credibility of Western Defense in the 1980s, Kenneth Rush and Brent Scowcroft, cochairmen, Joseph J. Wolf, rapporteur and editor (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1982); The Atlantic Council’s Special Working Group on the Caribbean Basin, Western Interests and U.S. Policy Options in the Caribbean Basin, James R. Greene and Brent Scowcroft, cochairmen, Richard E. Feinberg, rapporteur, Robert Kennedy, co-rapporteur, Joseph W. Harned, projects director (Washington, DC: The Atlantic Council of the United States, 1983); The Atlantic Council’s Special Working Group on Strategic Stability and Arms Control, Defending Peace and Freedom: Toward Strategic Stability in the Year 2000, Brent Scowcroft and R. James Woolsey, cochairmen, and Thomas H. Etzold, rapporteur (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1988); Brent Scowcroft, ed., Military Service in the United States (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1982).

50. “Address at the Industrial College of the Armed Forces,” March 4, 1974, “January-March 1974 [2 of 2],” McFarlane Chronological File, Henry A. Kissinger, NSC Administration and Staff Records, Nixon Presidential Library.

51. Jan Lodal interview, May 11, 2009.

52. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 22.

Chapter 15: The Scowcroft Commission

53. See “Missile Impossible,” editorial, New York Times, January 6, 1983, “Scowcroft, Brent, June 1973 to” [clippings file], “Early Bird Files,” Box 380, WGBH Interviews Collection, National Security Archive, George Washington University.

54. James McCartney, “A Defense That Would Depend on Offense,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 26, 1982; Les Aspin, interview, UBIT 12135, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” 1, 7, MX Transcripts, Copy 2, Vol. 3, WGBH Interviews Collection, Box 3, National Security Archive, George Washington University. Also see Russell Warren Howe, “MX Panel to Sift All Missile Options,” Washington Times, January 3, 1983; R. Jeffrey Smith, “A Doomsday Plan for the 1990’s,” Science, April 23, 1982, 388–390; Gregg Harken, Counsels of War (New York: Knopf, 1985), 331–332; Hedrick Smith, The Power Game: How Washington Works (New York: Ballantine Books, 1988), 530.

55. James Woolsey, oral history, UBIT A21008 “The Nuclear Age,” MX Transcripts, Box 2, Copy 2, Vol. 5, WGBH Interviews Collection.

56. James Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009; “Dense Pack and SALT II,” 1, Folder 29, Box 48, Accession Number 3560-S, Henry Jackson Papers, University of Washington Libraries; Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12044, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” 9, WGBH Interviews Collection. See, generally, Kenneth Kitts, Presidential Commissions and National Security: The Politics of Damage Control (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2006); Gregg Harken, Cardinal Choices: Presidential Science Advising from the Atomic Bomb to SDI (New York: Century Foundation, 2000), 206–207; David C. Morrison, “ICBM Vulnerability,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, November 1984, 22–29; Smith, The Power Game, 529–543.

57. Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12044, 7.

58. Scowcroft interview, November 2, 2012; Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12044, 7–8.

59. Charles Townes interview, UBIT A12146, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” 1–2, MX Transcript, Copy 2, Vol. 5, WGBH Interviews Collection, Box 2; John Deutch interview, UBIT A12112, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” MX transcripts, Copy 2, Vol. 3, WGBH Interviews Collection, Box 3.

60. John Deutch interview, April 17, 2009; Robert McFarlane interview, April 23, 2009.

61. Robert McFarlane with Zofia Smardz, Special Trust (New York: Cadell and Davies, 1994), 223–224; also see “The Tactical Thinker Shaping Nuclear Strategy,” Business Week, April 11, 1983, 111; Lou Cannon, President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 324; Frances FitzGerald, Way Out There in the Blue Yonder (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 192; Brent Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12043, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” 2, MX Transcripts, Copy 2, Vol. 1, WGBH Interview Collection, Box 2; Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2009.

62. Kitts, Presidential Commissions and National Security, 78–80; Cannon, President Reagan, 324; Brent Scowcroft, I, October 10, 1986, Page 1, “Reagan Years,” WGBH Interview Collection, Box 4; Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12043, 7; Cohen quoted in McFarlane, Special Trust, 224; “The Tactical Thinker Shaping Nuclear Strategy.” On McFarlane’s role in both the Scowcroft Commission and SDI, see FitzGerald, Way Out There in the Blue Yonder, 191–209.

63. Scowcroft interview, November 2, 2012; Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue Yonder, 193.

64. Deutch interview, UBIT 12112, 7–8; Scowcroft interview, November 2, 2012.

65. Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 81.

66. Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2009; Townes interview, UBIT A12146, 7.

67. Walter Pincus, “Will You Defense Mavens Open Reagan’s Window of Reality on the MX?” Washington Post, January 17, 1983; Deutch interview, UBIT A12112, 6; “The Tactical Thinker Shaping Nuclear Strategy.”

68. Brent Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12043, 4–5.

69. Deutch interview, UBIT 12112, 3.

70. Brent Scowcroft, I, October 10, 1986, 1, “Reagan Years,” WGBH Interview Collection, Box 4, National Security Archive, George Washington University.

71. “Brent Scowcroft on Arms Control and the MX,” The Inter Dependent, May–June 1983, 1, 6; Brent Scowcroft interview with Sam Donaldson, This Week with David Brinkley, ABC News, Sunday, June 17, 1984, in “Scowcroft, Brent, June 1973 to” [clippings file], in “Early Bird Files,” Box 380, WGBH Interviews Collection.

72. See Oberdorfer, The Turn, 65–68; Benjamin B. Fischer, “A Cold War Conundrum: The 1983 Soviet War Scare,” CIS, www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/a-cold-war-conundrum/source.htm.

73. Les Aspin, interview, UBIT 12135, 2.

74. Ibid., 3; Fred Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), 387.

75. Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009; also see R. James Woolsey, “Introduction,” in Nuclear Arms: Ethics, Strategy, Policy, ed. R. James Woolsey (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1984), 2–3; Les Aspin, interview, UBIT 12135, 1.

76. See generally, [Brent Scowcroft,] “Address to the Industrial College of the Armed Forces,” Wednesday, March 6, 1974, in “McFarlane, June–March 1974 [2 of 2],” Administration and Staff Files, Henry A. Kissinger, Henry A. Kissinger Office Files, National Security Council files, Nixon Project; Brent Scowcroft, “I. Soviet Dynamics: Rapporteur’s Summary,” 2, “Soviet Dynamics—Political Economic Military, World Affairs Council of Pittsburgh (1978), in “Scowcroft, Brent, June 1973 to” [clippings file], in “Early Bird Files,” Box 380, WGBH Interviews Collection; “A Military Report,” Atlantic Community Quarterly 17, no. 4 (1980), 411–412; Brent Scowcroft, “Understanding the U.S. Strategic Accord,” in Nuclear Arms: Ethics, Strategy, Policy, ed. R. James Woolsey (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1984), 65–86.

77. Scowcroft, “Understanding the U.S. Strategic Accord,” 74. On the Soviets’ advantages, as detailed by Senator Jackson’s staff (unattributed), see “Key Measures of U.S.-Soviet Military Balance,” in “Arguments Against the MX and Points for Rebuttal, May 25 [1983],” and “Dense Pack and SALT II,” Folder 29, Box 48, Accession Number 3560-S, Henry Jackson Papers, University of Washington Libraries.

78. Quoted in Brian Reppert, “Warning: Soviets Set to Win,” Philadelphia-Inquirer, January 25, 1981; Scowcroft, “I. Soviet Dynamics: Rapporteur’s Summary,” 2.

79. Scowcroft, “A Military Report,” 411–412; “The Tactical Thinker Shaping Nuclear Strategy.”

80. Brent Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12045, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” 6–7; “Interview with Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft,” “Two Views: How to Avert an Atomic War,” U.S. News & World Report, December 5, 1983, 31–32; Scowcroft, “A Military Report,” 411–416; also see “Shevchenko Tapes,” 27–28, 32, CBS Walter Cronkite Unit, “Hiroshima,” Tape 44, WGBH Interview Collection, Box 2, “Walter Cronkite, CBS,” National Security Archive, George Washington University.

81. Scowcroft, “A Military Report,” 411–416; “Interview with Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft,” “Two Views: How to Avert an Atomic War,” U.S. News & World Report, December 5, 1983, 31–32.

82. Brent Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12046, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” 8; Scowcroft, “I. Soviet Dynamics: Rapporteur’s Summary,” 5–6.

83. General Scowcroft interview, “MX ‘Important to Demonstrate National Will’,” U.S. News & World Report, April 19, 1983, 25; also see Brent Scowcroft, “Understanding the U.S. Strategic Arsenal,” in Nuclear Arms: Ethics, Strategy, Policy, ed. R. James Woolsey (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1984), 78.

84. Scowcroft interview, October 20, 2011.

85. Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009; Deutch interview, April 17, 2009; Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12043, 2.

86. McFarlane, Special Trust, 223–224.

87. Ibid.

88. Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12043, 5, 9–10; Woolsey interview, UBIT A12007, 16, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” MX Transcript Copy 2, Vol. 5, WGBH Interview Collection, Box 2.

89. John Deutch interview, UBIT A12113, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” 4–5, MX transcripts, Copy 2, Vol. 3, WGBH Interviews Collection, Box 3.

90. Woolsey interview, UBIT A12008, 6–7; also see Woolsey interview, UBIT A12009, 1–2.

91. Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009; Woolsey interview, UBIT A12008, 1.

92. Scowcroft, “Understanding the U.S. Strategic Arsenal,” 76.

93. Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009; Woolsey interview, UBIT A12008, 1; Les Aspin interview, UBIT A12135, 4; also see Elizabeth Drew, “A Political Journal,” New Yorker, June 20, 1983, 49–50.

94. Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12043, 8.

95. Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009; Scowcroft interview, November 2, 2012; Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 85.

96. Deutch interview, April 17, 2009.

97. Scowcroft interview, May 13, 2009.

98. Deutch interview, UBIT A12113, 15–17; Woolsey interview, UBIT A12007, 17–18.

99. Woolsey interview, UBIT A12007, 17–18.

100. Les Aspin interview, UBIT A12135, 4; also see Drew, “A Political Journal,” 49–50.

101. Les Aspin, interview, UBIT A12135, 4; Kenneth Kitts, personal communication, December 31, 2012.

102. Deutch interview, UBIT A12113, 14–15; Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12043, 7; Drew, “Political Journal”; Scowcroft interviews, April 10, 2009, and November 2, 2012.

103. Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009; Woolsey interview, UBIT A12008, 2.

104. Scowcroft interview, November 28, 2012.

105. Margot Hornblower and George C. Wilson, “Recommendation on MX Basing ‘Has a Chance’ for Hill Approval,” Washington Post, April 12, 1983.

106. See “Scowcroft, Brent, June 1973 to” [clippings file], “Early Bird Files,” Box 380.

107. Dr. Richard Garwin interview, UBIT A12163, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” 15–18, MX Transcripts, Copy 2, Vol. 5, WGBH Interviews Collection, Box 2, National Security Archive, George Washington University. See R. James Woolsey, “The Politics of Vulnerability: 1980–83,” in Nuclear Arms, ed. Woolsey, 251–266; Kaplan, The Wizards of Armageddon, 379–385.

108. Garwin interview, UBIT A12163, 15–18; Townes panel quoted in R. Jeffrey Smith, “An Alternative to the MX,” Science, May 21, 1982, 828. See, generally, Woolsey, “The Politics of Vulnerability.”

109. Robert G. Kaiser, “Crazy Assumptions and the MX,” Washington Post, April 17, 1983; James Schlesinger, “Press Briefing by General Brent Scowcroft on the MX Commission Report,” April 11, 1983, The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, “Press Secretary: Press Releases: Briefing, 4/11/83,” #4167, Box 54, Reagan Presidential Library.

110. Scowcroft, “Understanding the U.S. Strategic Accord,” 78, 80–81; also see Woolsey interview, UBIT A12008, 10–12; Michael Getler, “MX Advisory Panel May Have Opened New Threat Debate,” Washington Post, April 12, 1983; Kaiser, “Crazy Assumptions and the MX.”

111. “MX D-Day Delay,” Time, February 21, 1983, 18; “What’s the Right Rx for Troubled MX?” U.S. News & World Report, February 21, 1983, 13.

112. Drew, “A Political Journal,” 55.

113. Stephen Chapman, “The MX: Walking the Last Mile,” Chicago Tribune, April 17, 1983. On the stakes the members had in the MX, see Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 81–82; Harken, Counsels of War, 333–334.

114. Drew, “A Political Journal,” 55–56, 66; Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12044, 5.

115. See, for example, Cannon, President Reagan; Julian Zelizer, Arsenal of Democracy: The Politics of National Security—From World War II to the War on Terrorism (New York: Basic Books, 2011).

116. FitzGerald, Way Out There in the Blue Yonder, 195–206.

117. McFarlane, Special Trust, 228; Gregg Harken, Cardinal Choices: Presidential Science Advising from the Atomic Bomb to SDI (New York: Century Foundation, 2000), 208–209.

118. McFarlane, Special Trust, 231; Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 85–86.

119. Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 86.

120. John Deutch interview, UBIT A12113, 7–8.

121. Ibid.; Deutch interview, April 17, 2009.

122. Deutch interview, April 17, 2009, emphasis in original; Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009.

123. Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12045, 11; “Brent Scowcroft on Arms Control and the MX,” 1, 6; Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009; Woolsey interview, UBIT A12009, 17–18.

124. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 22.

125. Brent Scowcroft, I, Oct 10, 1986, 1, “Reagan Years,” WGBH Interview Collection, Box 4, National Security Archive, George Washington University.

126. Don Oberdorfer, The Turn: From the Cold War to a New Era (New York: Touchstone Books, 1991), 209, also see 169–209.

127. President’s Commission on Strategic Forces, Report of the President’s Commission on Strategic Forces, April 1983, Washington, DC.

128. Smith, The Power Game, 533.

129. President’s Commission on Strategic Forces, Report.

130. Scowcroft interview, May 13, 2009.

131. Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 92.

132. Drew, “Political Journal,” 64.

133. Drew, “Political Journal”; Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 90.

134. Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 91–93; Les Aspin interview, UBIT A12135, 8.

135. Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 92–93.

136. Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12044, 2–3; Townes interview, UBIT 12149, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” 4–5, Copy 2, Vol. 5, WGBH Interviews Collection, Box 2.

137. Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12044, 11–12.

138. Les Aspin interview, UBIT A12135, 18; Woolsey interview, UBIT A21008, 3; Drew, “A Political Journal.”

139. Scowcroft interviews, March 29, 2010, and November 28, 2012.

140. Kitts, Presidential Commissions; “Statement by Edward Rowny, Ambassador to the START Talks,” June 1, 1983, The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, #4476, Box 58, Press Secretary: Press Releases: Briefings, Reagan Presidential Library.

141. McFarlane, Special Trust, 298; McFarlane interview, April 23, 2009; Scowcroft interview, November 2, 2012; also see Serge Schmemann, “Soviet Says It Offered Talks to Reagan Envoy,” New York Times, March 28, 1984.

142. Editorial, Chicago Tribune, November 11, 1984, 13; Leslie H. Gelb, “Reagan Initiative on Arms Control Is Hinted,” New York Times, November 3, 1984. Also see Smith, The Power Game, 615.

143. Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009; Scowcroft interview, November 2, 2012; Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 85; Deutch interview, April 17, 2009; “The Tactical Thinker Shaping Nuclear Strategy.”

144. “The Tactical Thinker Shaping Nuclear Strategy.”

145. John Deutch interview, April 17, 2009; Paul Nitze IV interview, January 6, 1987, 2, “WGBH, Box 4, “Carter Administration,” WGBH Interview Collection.

146. McFarlane, Special Trust, 270–271.

147. Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12044, 1; Les Aspin interview, UBIT A12135, 10; Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12043, 11–12; Deutch interview, April 17, 2008.

148. Drew, “Political Journal,” 46.

149. “The Tactical Thinker Shaping Nuclear Strategy,” 111–112.

150. Deutch interview, UBIT A12113, 14–15; Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12043, 7.

151. See “Flexo #35 MX Missile,” June 9, 1983, Folder 34, Box 217, Accession Number 3560-S, and “Arguments Against the MX and Points for Rebuttal, May 25 [1983],” and “Dense Pack and SALT II,” Folder 29, Box 48, Accession Number 3560-S, Henry Jackson Papers.

152. Deutch, UBIT A12113, 16; Drew, “A Political Journal,” 58; Harken, Counsels of War, 325–326.

153. Scowcroft interview, UBIT A12044, 12.

154. Brent Scowcroft, John Deutch, and R. James Woolsey, “Midgetman: Keep It on Track,” Washington Post, April 1, 1986.

155. Brent Scowcroft, John Deutch, and R. James Woolsey, “A Way Out of Reykjavik,” New York Times Magazine, January 25, 1987.

156. Brent Scowcroft, John Deutch, and R. James Woolsey, “The Danger of Zero Option,” Washington Post, March 31, 1987; Brent Scowcroft, “INF: Fewer Is Not Better,” Washington Post, April 20, 1987.

157. Brent Scowcroft, John Deutch, and R. James Woolsey, “The Survivability Problem,” Washington Post, December 3, 1987; Brent Scowcroft, John Deutch, and R. James Woolsey, “Come and Get Us: Reagan’s Nuclear Strategy,” New Republic, April 19, 1988. Also see Brent Scowcroft, John Deutch, and R. James Woolsey, “Verify but Survive,” Washington Post, June 14, 1988.

158. Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009; Michael Mawby cited in James McCartney, “MX Missile Champion Says $25 Billion ‘Wasted,’” Philadelphia Inquirer, August 28, 1986.

Chapter 16: A Watergate-Type Problem

159. The Tower Commission Report: The Full Text of the President’s Special Review Board, Introduction by R. W. Apple (New York: New York Times, 1987), xv, xvi.

160. McFarlane, Special Trust, 98; John Prados, The Family Jewels: The CIA, Secrecy, and Presidential Power (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2013); Peter Rodman quoted in “The Bush Administration National Security Council,” Oral History Roundtables, National Security Council Project, Ivo H. Daalder and I. M. Destler, Moderators, Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland, Brookings Institution, November 4, 1999, 16.

161. Theodore Draper, A Very Thin Line: The Iran-Contra Affairs (New York: Hill & Wang, 1991), 537–541.

162. McFarlane, Special Trust, 98; Prados, The Family Jewels, 298.

163. Kitts, Presidential Commissions and National Security, 102–104; John Tower, Consequences: A Personal and Political Memoir (Boston: Little, Brown, 1991), 273.

164. Dennis Thomas, “Random Thoughts—Iran,” December 1, 1986, “Regan Memorandum 1986 October–December [2 of 4],” Box 18, Dennis Thomas Files, Reagan Presidential Library; The Communications Group, Memorandum for Donald T. Regan, Subject: Iran—A Strategy/General Observations, December 5, 1986, “Regan Memorandum 1986 October–December [2 of 4],” Box 18, Dennis Thomas Files, Reagan Presidential Library; David Chew/Dennis Thomas to Donald T. Regan, “Memorandum—Dealing with Iran/Advancing the 1987 Agenda,” n.d., “Regan Memorandum (Jan. ’87) [2 of 2],” Box 18, Dennis Thomas Files, Reagan Presidential Library; Sam Nunn interview, April 23, 2012.

165. Thomas quoted in Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 105; Reagan quoted in Tower, Consequences, 273; Ronald Reagan, Executive Order 12575—President’s Special Review Board, December 1, 1986.

166. Reagan quoted in Tower, Consequences, 273; Reagan, Executive Order 12575.

167. Ronald Reagan, “President’s Special Review Board for the National Security Council,” IC 03991, DNSA.

168. Reagan, Executive Order 12575.

169. Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 106–107.

170. Quoted in Tower, Consequences, 273.

171. Scowcroft interview, November 2, 2012.

172. Scowcroft interview, September 27, 2012; Scowcroft quoted in Joanne Omang and Walter Pincus, “Security Experts Differ on Effects of CIA Mining,” Washington Post, April 21, 1984.

173. Scowcroft interview, September 27, 2012; John Prados, Keepers of the Keys: A History of the National Security Council from Truman to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1991), 537.

174. McFarlane, Special Trust, 338–339.

175. McFarlane, Special Trust, 91; Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 111, 112; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 507. On McFarlane’s difficult relationship with Regan, see John Burke, Honest Broker? (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2009), 215–217.

176. McFarlane interview, April 3, 23, 2009; Tower, Consequences, 278–279.

177. Scowcroft interview, November 28, 2012.

178. Tower, Consequences, 274–275; emphasis added.

179. McFarlane, Special Trust, 346.

180. “Summary and Recommendations from Special Review Board Interview With Richard Allen,” n.d., and “Summary and Recommendations from Special Review Board Interview With William Colby,” January 8, 1987, “Case Studies: Summaries Wise Men—Lessons Learned Scowcroft, 2/2,” Box 93222, President’s Special Review Board (Tower Commission) 1986–87, Reagan Presidential Library.

181. Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 110; Scowcroft interview, September 27, 2012.

182. Scowcroft interview, September 27, 2012; Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, “Window to the Oval Office: A Diplomatic View of the American Presidency (Part 2 of 2),” West Point Center for Oral History, March 12, 2012, 14.

183. Scowcroft interviews, November 3, 2009, and September 27, 2012.

184. Tower, Consequences, 276; Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 114–115; Scowcroft interview, September 27, 2012.

185. See “Case Studies: Summaries Wise Men—Lessons Learned Scowcroft, 1/2,” Box 93222, President’s Special Review Board (Tower Commission) 1986–87, Reagan Presidential Library.

186. See, for example, Alexander L. George, “The Case for Multiple Advocacy in Making Foreign Policy,” American Political Science Review 66, no. 3 (September 1972): 751–785.

187. Tower, Consequences, 285; Scowcroft interview, September 27, 2012; Rostow interview, April 28, 2009.

188. Cannon, President Reagan, 729, 733.

189. Ibid.

190. Ibid., 736–738.

191. “The President’s Special Review Board Interview of Richard Armitage, Washington, D.C., December 18, 1986,” Tab 13, 6, “Tower Board: 12/07/1985 White House Meeting (1),” Box 5, Howard H. Baker Jr. Files, Series I: Subject File, Reagan Presidential Library; Tower, Consequences, 286–287.

192. Scowcroft quoted in Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 537.

193. Tower Commission Report, 4–5.

194. Ibid., 88–99.

195. Nicholas Rostow interview, April 28, 2009; Stephen Hadley interview, April 7, 2007.

196. “Summary and Recommendations from Special Review Board Interview with Henry Kissinger, January 23, 1987, 3, “Case Studies: Summaries Wise Men—Lessons Learned Scowcroft, 2/2,” Box 93222, President’s Special Review Board (Tower Commission) 1986–87, Reagan Presidential Library. Also see Morton Abramowitz interview, April 10, 2007, ADST, 105.

197. Stephen Hadley interview, April 7, 2009.

198. Associated Press, Editorial Reaction to the Tower Commission Report, February 27, 1987, www.apnewsarchive.com/1987/Editorial--Reaction-to-the-Tower-Commission-Report/id-508e2ebf5b8edc165788f772233e4e2e; Tower, Consequences, 288–289.

199. Pincus interview, October 5, 2010.

200. Herbert S. Parmet, George Bush: The Life of a Lone Star Yankee (New York: Scribner, 1997), 307–314; Murray Waas and Craig Unger, “In the Loop: Bush’s Secret Mission,” New Yorker, November 2, 1992. See Maura Dolan, “The Tower Commission Report: Bush Largely Spared from Blame; Regan Story Buttressed,” Lost Angeles Times, February 27, 1987; statements by Richard Secord, Michael Ledeen, and editorial in The Nation quoted in Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 120; also see C. J. Mixtter to Judge Walsh, “Criminal Liability of President Bush,” March 21, 1991, 9, 19, 65, 83–84, 86, National Security Archive, George Washington University.

201. Parmet, George Bush, 313–314; Pincus interview, October 5, 2010.

202. Cannon quoted in Ivo Daalder and I. M. Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office: Profiles of the National Security Advisers and the Presidents They Served—from JFK to George W. Bush (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009), 160.

203. Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 356; Lou Cannon, President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 714; Waas and Unger, “In the Loop.”

204. See Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair: With Supplemental, Minority, and Additional Views, Lee H. Hamilton, Chairman, Daniel K. Inouye, Chairman, 100th Congress, 1st Session, H. Rept. No. 100-433, S. Rept. No. 100-216 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1987); Lawrence E. Walsh, Firewall: The Iran-Contra Conspiracy and Cover-Up (New York: Norton, 1997).

205. Scowcroft interview, February 23, 2010; Arthur Liman, Lawyer: A Life of Counsel and Controversy (New York: PublicAffairs, 1998), 306.

206. Scowcroft interview, February 23, 2010; Parmet, George Bush, 713; Liman, Lawyer, 306.

207. Waas and Unger, “In the Loop,” 65; Rostow interview, April 28, 2009.

208. Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 120. Also see Harold Hongju Koh, The National Security Constitution: Sharing Power After the Iran-Contra Affair (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), 13–16.

209. Rostow interview, April 28, 2009; Paul B. Thompson interview, October 2, 2009.

210. Koh, The National Security Constitution, 15.

211. Robert Parry, “Lost History: Newsweek’s Convenient Lies,” The Consortium, www.consortiumnews.com/archive/lost5.html, retrieved on March 19, 2012.

212. Pincus interview, October 5, 2010.

213. “Deposition of John M. Poindexter,” Saturday, May 2, 1987, United States Senate, Select Committee to Investigate Covert Arms Transactions with Iran, 126, Tab 10, “Tower Board: 12/07/1985 White House Meeting (1),” Box 5, Howard H. Baker Jr. Files, Series I: Subject File, Reagan Presidential Library.

214. See Howard Means, Colin Powell: Soldier/Statesman, Statesman/Soldier (New York: Donald I. Fine, 1992), 215–231; Thompson interview, October 2, 2009.

215. McFarlane, Special Trust, 364.

216. Kitts, Presidential Commissions, 124; Abrams interview, October 6, 2010.

217. Stephen Hadley interview, April 7, 2009.

218. For an overview of Bush’s involvement, see Timothy Naftali, George H. W. Bush: The 41st President (New York: Times Books, 2007), 44–51.

219. Brent Scowcroft quoted in “The Role of the National Security Advisor,” Oral History Roundtables, October 25, 1999, 32.

220. Fox Butterfield, “The White House Crisis; Tower Commission Feared Analysis Was Compromised,” New York Times, February 28, 1987; Nunn interview, April 23, 2012.

Part IV: The Bush Administration, 1989–1993

Chapter 17: Organizing Security

1. Claude Monnier cited in “The World Looks at the ‘New World Order,’” August 16, 1991, “Media Analysis,” USIA, Foreign Media Relations, file, “New World Order,” Nancy Bearg Dyke files, NSC Collection, Bush Presidential Records, George BPR (henceforth BPR).

2. Herbert S. Parmet, George Bush: Life of a Lone Star Yankee (New York: Scribner, 1997), 364; Michael Duffy and Dan Goodgame, Marching in Place: The Status Quo Presidency of George Bush (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), 50; Elliott Abrams interview, October 6, 2010.

3. Scowcroft interview, October 6, 2010; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 27–28.

4. Scowcroft interview, October 6, 2010; Brent Scowcroft quoted in “The Role of the National Security Advisor,” Oral History Roundtables, The National Security Council Project, Ivo H. Daalder and I. M. Destler, moderators, Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland, Brookings Institution, October 25, 1999, 26–27; Russell L. Riley, “History and George Bush,” in, 41: Inside the Presidency of George H. W. Bush, eds. Michael Nelson and Barbara A. Perry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014), 1–24, 9–11.

5. Frank Carlucci interview, Miller Center, University of Virginia, Ronald E. Reagan Oral History Project, Miller Center, 49–51; Robert Oakley interview, the Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection of the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Foreign Service Institute, ADST, 124–126.

6. Elliott Abrams interview, October 6, 2010.

7. George Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York: Knopf, 1998), 47; Robert Gates interview, April 17, 2012.

8. Margaret D. Tutwiler, ADST, May 4, 1999.

9. Dennis Ross interview, BOHP, 5, 18, 19, 21, 41; Peter W. Rodman, Presidential Command: Power, Leadership, and the Making of Foreign Policy from Richard Nixon to George W. Bush (New York: Knopf, 2009), 186–187.

10. George Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York: Knopf), 18; James A. Baker III, The Politics of Diplomacy (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1995), 18–20; Rodman, Presidential Command, 186; Ivo Daalder and I. M. Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office: Profiles of the National Security Advisers and the Presidents They Served—from JFK to George W. Bush (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009), 175–176; Maureen Dowd and Thomas L. Friedman, “The Fabulous Bush and Baker Boys,” New York Times Magazine, May 6, 1990, 34; Arnold Kanter interview, March 24, 2009. Baker reveals that Bush offered the job to him two days before the election. The same day that Bush announced Baker’s appointment, the day after the election, Bush also announced that Boyden Gray would serve as his counsel and Chase Untermeyer as director of presidential personnel.

11. Dowd and Friedman, “The Fabulous Bush and Baker Boys,” 59; Philip D. Brady interview, BOHP, 23; Timothy Naftali, George H. W. Bush (New York: Times Books, 2007), 59.

12. Reginald Bartholomew interview, May 5, 2010; Nicholas Burns interview, April 4, 2009.

13. Robert Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 456; Gates interview, April 17, 2012; Daniel Poneman interview, April 10, 2009; Lawrence Eagleburger interview, April 19, 2009; Kanter interview, March 24, 2009.

14. Burns interview, April 4, 2009; Dowd and Friedman, “The Fabulous Bush and Baker Boys,” 60.

15. Dowd and Friedman, “The Fabulous Bush & Baker Boys,” 60; Eagleburger interview, April 19, 2009.

16. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 24–24; Scowcroft interview, December 20, 2012; Kimmitt interview, BOHP, 41.

17. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 20–21; Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 177.

18. Zbigniew Brzezinski, “NSC’s Midlife Crisis,” Foreign Policy 69 (Winter 1987–88): 80–99, and Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 26, cited in, “Transformation: Editors’ Introduction” in Fateful Decisions: Inside the National Security Council, eds. Karl F. Inderfurth and Loch K. Johnson, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004) 77, 79 (see also 74–79, Editors’ Introduction,137–138).

19. See John Prados, Keepers of the Keys: A History of the National Security Council from Truman to Bush (New York: William Morrow, 1991); Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 164–167; Carlucci interview, September 29, 2011; Carlucci interview, BOHP; Colin Powell with Joseph E. Persico, My American Journey (New York: Random House, 1999), 368.

20. Rodman, Presidential Command, 345; Michael Meese interview, May 15, 2009.

21. Powell, My American Journey, 368.

22. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 19; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 19.

23. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 38; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 19.

24. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 86.

25. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 14.

26. Arnold Kanter interview, March 24, 2009.

27. Parmet, George Bush, 387; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 46–47, 138.

28. David Lauter quoted in Rodman, Presidential Command, 182. See, generally, Barbara Bush, Barbara Bush: A Memoir (New York: Scribner, 1994) and Maureen Dowd’s coverage of the White House in the New York Times.

29. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 36. Brent Scowcroft quoted in “The Role of the National Security Advisor,” Oral History Roundtables, October 25, 1999, 6, 34; also see Brent Scowcroft, “Ford as President and His Foreign Policy,” in The Ford Presidency: Twenty-Two Intimate Perspectives of Gerald Ford, ed. Kenneth W. Thompson, Portraits of American Presidents, vol. 7 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1988), 310.

30. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 29; Richard Haass interview, BOHP, May 27, 2004; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 26; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 548.

31. Scowcroft interview, September 14, 2011.

32. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 13, 19; Scowcroft interview, September 14, 2011.

33. Scowcroft interview, September 14, 2011; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 14, 19, 39. Also see Dennis Ross interview, BOHP, 13.

34. James A. Baker interview, September 2, 2009.

35. Baker interview, September 2, 2009; Zelikow quoted in “The Bush Administration National Security Council,” Oral History Roundtables, October 25, 1999, 5; Abrams interview, October 6, 2010.

36. Baker interview, September 2, 2009; Zelikow quoted in “The Bush Administration National Security Council,” Oral History Roundtables, April 29, 1990, 5; Abrams interview, October 6, 2010; Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 25.

37. Kissinger quoted in Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 183; Richard N. Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice: A Memoir of Two Iraq Wars (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009), 83; Baker interview, September 2, 2009.

38. Kanter interview, March 24, 2009.

39. Dan Quayle, Standing Firm: A Vice Presidential Memoir (New York: HarperCollins, 1994), 101, 102.

40. Baker interview, II, BOHP, 26–27; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 26; also see Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 183.

41. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 30; Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 182.

42. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 37–38.

43. Quayle, Standing Firm, 102.

44. Ibid., 101, 102; Gates interview, April 17, 2012.

45. Quayle interview, BOHP, 30; Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011.

46. Quayle interview, BOHP, 30.

47. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 26–27.

48. Ibid., 41.

49. Gates interview, BOHP, 8; Burns interview, April 4, 2009.

50. Zelikow quoted in “The Bush Administration National Security Council,” Oral History Roundtables, 37.

51. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 26; Gates interview, BOHP, July 23–24, 2000; Kanter interview, March 24, 2009; Prados, Keepers of the Keys, 550.

52. Timothy Deal interview, June 9, 2009.

53. Scowcroft interview, January 6, 2012; January 27, 2010; Richard C. Barth interview, May 26, 2009; Gates interview, April 17, 2012.

54. Gates interview, BOHP, 7; Scowcroft interview, December 20, 2013.

55. Gates interview, BOHP, 7; also see Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 186.

56. Robert Kimmitt quoted in Steve A. Yetiv, “Testing the Government Politics Model: U.S. Decision Making in the 1990–91 Persian Gulf Crisis,” Security Studies 11, no. 2 (Winter 2001/2): 50–84, 77.

57. Gates interview, BOHP, 7; Scowcroft interview, March 29, 2010; “The Modern NSC: Editors’ Introduction,” Fateful Decisions, 99.

58. Gates interview, April 17, 2012.

59. “National Security Advisers: Profiles: Editors’ Introduction,” Fateful Decisions, 178–189.

60. Marcus Mabry, Twice as Good: Condoleezza Rice and Her Path to Power (Emmaus, PA: Modern Times, 2007), 112.

61. Ibid., 111; Antonia Felix, Condi: The Condoleezza Rice Story (New York: Newmarket Press, 2002), 137; “National Security Advisers: Profiles: Editors’ Introduction,” Fateful Decisions, 179; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 36n.

62. Mabry, Twice as Good; Elisabeth Bumiller, Condoleezza Rice: An American Life (New York: Random House, 2007); Felix, Condi.

63. Ann Reilly Dowd, “Is There Anything This Woman Can’t Do?” George 5, no. 5 (June 2000): 86–90, 101–103; Parmet, George Bush, 38; Mabry, Twice as Good.

64. Bumiller, Condoleezza Rice, 94; Mabry, Twice as Good, 111; Condoleezza Rice, Extraordinary, Ordinary People: A Memoir of a Family (Crown Archetype, 2010), 242.

65. Gates interview, BOHP, 18, 20.

66. Scowcroft interview, September 14, 2011; Burns interview, April 4, 2009; Gates, From the Shadows, 460.

67. Daniel Poneman interview, April 10, 2009; Burns interview, April 6, 2009; Marlin Fitzwater interview, February 27, 2008.

68. Burns interview, April 4, 2009.

69. Quayle interview, BOHP, 26; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 30; Scowcroft interview, September 27, 2012. See Robert A. Strong, “Character and Consequence: The John Tower Confirmation Battle,” in 41: Inside the Presidency of George H. W. Bush, eds. Michael Nelson and Barbara A. Perry (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2014), 122–139.

70. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 30; Parmet, George Bush, 372.

71. John Robert Greene, The Presidency of George Bush (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 52; Sam Nunn interview, April 23, 2012; Bob Schieffer interview, June 6, 2009.

72. Chase Untermeyer interview, BOHP, 87; Greene, The Presidency of George Bush, 52.

73. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 20–21; Bush, A Memoir, 271–272; Strong, “Character and Consequence,” 135.

74. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 32.

75. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 32, 35; Scowcroft interview, September 14, 2011; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 22; Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 23; Maureen Dowd, “How Cheney’s Name Came Up Again,” New York Times, March 12, 1989; Cheney interview, BOHP, 32; Cheney interview, May 13, 2009; Douglas Paal interview, March 5, 2009.

76. Cheney interview, BOHP, 39.

77. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 24.

78. Colin Powell in “The Role of the National Security Advisor,” Oral History Roundtables, October 25, 1999, 57.

79. Peter Rodman quoted in “The Bush Administration National Security Council,” Oral History Roundtables, 16; Chase Untermeyer interview, BOHP; also see Rodman, Presidential Command, 346.

80. Quayle interview, BOHP, 56; John Sununu quoted in Bobbie Kilberg interview, BOHP, 73.

81. Thomas Pickering interview, BOHP, 8.

82. Rodman, Presidential Command, 180–181; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 51–52.

83. Cheney interview, BOHP, 45.

84. Quayle interview, BOHP, 56.

85. Gates interview, BOHP, 11.

86. Frank Carlucci interview, September 29, 2011.

87. See Roman Popadiuk, The Leadership of George Bush: An Insider’s View of the Forty-First President (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2009), 58–61.

88. Scowcroft quoted in “The Role of the National Security Advisor,” 9.

89. Cheney interview, BOHP, 36; Kimmitt quoted in David J. Rothkopf, Running the World: The Inside Story of the National Security Council and the Architects of American Power (New York: PublicAffairs, 2005), 268, 271.

90. Richard Haass interview, BOHP, 45; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 25; Rothkopf, Running the World, 271; Popadiuk, The Leadership of George Bush, 83–85; Poneman interview, April 10, 2009.

91. Maureen Dowd, “Washington Talk: Remorseless Dozing Gets Presidential Nod,” New York Times, November 10, 1989; Gates interview, BOHP, 12, 13.

92. Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 182.

93. Baker interview II, BOHP, 14; Gates, From the Shadows, 456; Andy Card quoted in “The Bush Administration National Security Council,” Oral History Roundtables, 23.

94. Burns interview, April 4, 2009.

95. Deal interview, June 9, 2009.

96. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 38, 41. Scowcroft would also get his “geographic principals”—that is, the principal officials in the NSC area directorates—reading the cables going out from State and Defense Departments, since policy is made by the outgoing cables from the State and Defense.

97. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 41; Roger Porter quoted in “The Bush Administration National Security Council,” Oral History Roundtables, 36.

98. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 18; Fred McClure interview, BOHP, 84.

99. Paal interview, March 5, 2009.

100. Roman Popadiuk, “White House Interview Program,” Martha Kumar interviewer, November 2, 1999, www.archives.gov/presidential-libraries/research/transition-interviews/pdf/popadiuk.pdf; William Sittmann interview, May 12, 2009.

101. Scowcroft interview, May 5, 2010.

102. Scowcroft interview, November 4, 2010.

103. Roman Popadiuk, “White House Interview Program”; Fitzwater interview, February 27, 2008.

104. Fitzwater interview, February 27, 2008; Schieffer interview, June 2009; Walter Kansteiner interview, May 18, 2009; Nicholas Rostow interview, April 28, 2009.

105. See Parmet, George Bush, 420.

106. Rostow interview, April 28, 2009.

107. Scowcroft interview, October 6, 2010; also see Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 164–165.

108. Scowcroft, author interview, October 6, 2010; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 32.

109. Bush quoted in Rodman, Presidential Command, 183; Robert Kimmitt quoted in “The Bush Administration National Security Council,” 7.

110. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 32.

111. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 34; See Alexander L. George, “The Case for Multiple Advocacy in Making Foreign Policy,” American Political Science Review 66, no. 3 (September 1992), 763–765. The “Group of Eight” or “Big Eight” of the Desert Shield period and Desert Storm was but a slightly expanded Core Group. (In actuality, it was a group of nine since press secretary Marlin Fitzwater routinely sat in, but Fitzwater’s name was purposely not included on the circulation lists).

112. Baker interview II, BOHP; Baker, Politics of Diplomacy; Cheney interview, May 13, 2009.

113. Cheney interview, BOHP, 36.

114. Robert S. Hutchings, American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 23; Alan G. Whittaker, Shannon A. Brown, Frederick C. Smith, and Elizabeth McKune, The National Security Policy Process: The National Security Council and Interagency System, Research Report, August 15, 2011, Annual Update (Washington, DC: Industrial College of the Armed Forces, National Defense University, US Department of Defense, 2011),10, 24.

115. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 31.

116. Baker interview II, BOHP, 9.

117. Gates interview, BOHP, 7; Vice President Quayle also attended the meetings, but with his lesser experience in national security affairs, he wasn’t as active (Quayle interview, BOHP, 56).

118. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 39.

119. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 39.

120. Karl Jackson interview, June 11, 2009.

121. Scowcroft interview, January 6, 2012; Gates interview, BOHP, 6.

122. Florence Gantt interview, November 2, 2009.

123. Gates interview, BOHP, 7.

124. Rostow interview, April 29, 2009.

Chapter 18: The Pause

125. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 161–162; Sigmund Rogich interview, BOHP, 67; Naftali, George H. W. Bush, 87; Popadiuk, The Leadership of George Bush, 86; Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 133. US-Soviet summits had been held on a rotating capital-and-capital basis. The Soviet Union was due to host, but Gorbachev didn’t want to hold the summit in Moscow. Preston Bush, the president’s brother, suggested having the summit in Malta and passed along the idea.

126. See, for instance, “Document No. 57: National Intelligence Estimate 11-4-89, “Soviet Policy Toward the West: The Gorbachev Challenge,” April 1989, in Masterpieces of History: The Peaceful End of the Cold War in Europe, 1989, eds. Svetlana Savranskaya, Thomas Blanton, and Vladislav Zubok (New York: Central European University Press, 2010), 442–445.

127. Cheney interview, BOHP, 92; Marlin Fitzwater, Call the Briefing! Reagan and Bush, Sam and Helen: A Decade with Presidents and the Press (New York: Times Books, 1995), 232–233.

128. Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011.

129. Scowcroft, BOHP, 77.

130. ABC News, “World News Tonight Sunday,” January 22, 1989.

131. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 73–74.

132. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 25; also see Gates, From the Shadows, 460; Oberdorfer, The Turn, 329, 332.

133. James Woolsey interview, UBIT A12010, “The Nuclear Age (MX),” Box 2, Copy 2, Vol. 5, WGBH Interviews Collection, National Security Archive, George Washington University, 11.

134. Robert Gates interview, BOHP, 23; Don Oberdorfer, The Turn: The Cold War to the New Era (New York: Poseidon Press, 1991), 244.

135. Scowcroft quoted in David Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft: Internationalism and Post-Vietnam War American Foreign Policy (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield: 2011), 94; Scowcroft interviews, October 6, 2010, and April 4, 2011.

136. Brent Scowcroft, “I. Soviet Dynamics: Rapporteur’s Summary,” Soviet-Dynamics—Political Economic Military (World Affairs Council of Pittsburgh, 1978), 2–8, 5; Lt. Gen. Brent Scowcroft, “American Attitudes Toward Foreign Policy,” Naval War College Review 32, no. 2 (1979), 11–19, 14.

137. General Brent Scowcroft, Der Spiegel, October 1988.

138. Scowcroft interview, October 6, 2010.

139. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 61.

140. Ibid., 37.

141. Ibid.; Michael Meyer, The Year That Changed the World (New York: Scribner, 2012), 60; Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011; Parmet, George Bush, 384.

142. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 38–39; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 36.

143. Priscilla Painton and Michael Duffy, “Brent Scowcroft: Mr. Behind-the-Scenes,” Time, October 7, 1991, 24; Gates interview, April 17, 2012; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 132–133; Gates, From the Shadows, 481.

144. “National Security Directive 23,” “The United States Relations with the Soviet Union,” September 22, 1989, BPR (online documents).

145. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 47; Meyer, The Year That Changed the World, 63; Oberdorfer, The Turn, 346–347; David E. Hoffman, The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy (New York: Anchor Books, 2009), 312–319; David E. Hoffman interview, June 11, 2009; “Russian Voices: A Fly on the Diplomatic Wall: Thursday, December 10, 1987: The White House,” (editorial) Los Angeles Times, March 21, 1993, http://articles.latimes.com/1993-03-21/books/bk-13220_1_white-house. See generally, Derek H. Chollet and James M. Goldgeier, “Once Burned, Twice Shy? The Pause of 1989,” in Cold War Endgame: Oral History, Analysis, Debates, ed. William C. Wohlforth (State College: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2003), 141–173.

146. Nicholas Burns interview, April 4, 2009.

147. Ibid.

148. Ibid.

149. Scowcroft interview, May 5, 2010.

150. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 39.

151. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 74; Scowcroft, interview, August 13, 2010; Schmitz, George Bush, 94–96.

152. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 47.

153. Ibid., 40–41.

154. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 36; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 44–45; Dennis Ross interview, BOHP, 9; Demarest interview, BOHP, 15.

155. Alfred Dregger quoted in Mary Elise Sarotte, 1989: The Struggle to Create Post–Cold War Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press 2009), 27.

156. Scowcroft interview, October 11, 2010; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 24.

157. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 22.

158. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 24.

159. Robert Hutchings, “American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War in Europe,” in Foreign Policy Breakthroughs: Case Studies in Successful Diplomacy, eds. Robert Hutchings and Jeremi Suri (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015, forthcoming), 2.

160. “Remarks to Citizens in Hamtramck, Michigan,” April 17, 1989, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush: 1989 (Washington, DC: US GPO, 1990), 1:430–433; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 53.

161. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 52–53.

162. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 80. Also see Sarotte, 1989, 25.

163. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 79; Gates, From the Shadows, 465.

164. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 100.

165. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 50–51.

166. “Remarks at the Boston University Commencement Ceremony in Massachusetts,” May 21, 1989, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush: 1989 (Washington, DC: US GPO, 1990), 1:582–585; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 54–55.

167. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 55–56; Oberdorfer, The Turn, 349.

168. “Remarks at the United States Coast Guard Commencement Ceremony in New London, Connecticut,” May 24, 1989, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush: 1989 (Washington, DC: US GPO, 1990), 1:600–604.

169. Ibid.

170. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 92–93, 96; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 83.

171. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 83.

172. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 92–93, 96; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 83; George Bush, “Remarks to the Citizens of Mainz, Federal Republic of Germany,” May 31, 1989, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush: 1989 (Washington, DC: US GPO, 1990), 1:650–654.

173. Bush, “Remarks to the Citizens of Mainz, Federal Republic of Germany.”

174. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 135.

175. Ibid., 136–137.

176. Kanter interview, March 24, 2009.

177. Gates, From the Shadows, 480–481; Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 156–158.

178. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 127–129.

179. “Russian Voices: A Fly on the Diplomatic Wall,” Los Angeles Times, March 21, 1993; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 128–129.

180. Gates, From the Shadows, 478–479; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed. 141–143; Timothy J. Colton, Yeltsin: A Life (New York: Basic Books, 2012), 171–172.

181. Gates, From the Shadows, 479; Gates interview, BOHP, 9.

182. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 479; Gates, BOHP, 9.

183. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 147; John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: Penguin, 2005), 247.

184. Gaddis, The Cold War, 245.

185. Memorandum of Telephone Conversation, The President, Helmut Kohl, October 23, 1989, 9:02–9:26 A.M. The Oval Office. Telcons 1989 (CD), BPR.

186. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 148–149.

187. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 83.

188. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 149–151.

189. “Document No. 15: Diary of Anatoly Chernyaev regarding the Collapse of the Berlin Wall,” November 10, 1989, National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 293, Posted—November 7, 2009. Svetlana Savaranskaya and Thomas Blanton, eds., National Security Archive, George Washington University.

190. Ibid., 161.

191. Marlin Fitzwater interview, February 27, 2008.

192. Fitzwater interview, February 27, 2008.

193. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 163.

194. Ibid., 173; Gates, From the Shadows, 482–483.

195. Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 513.

196. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 173–174.

197. Baker interview II, BOHP, 10.

198. Gorbachev, Memoirs, 537; Baker interview II, BOHP, 10.

199. Memorandum of Conversation, “First Expanded Bilateral Session with Chairman Gorbachev of the Soviet Union,” December 2, 1989, 10:00–11:55, Maxim Gorky [sic], Cruise Liner, Malta, “Summit at Malta December 1989: Malta Memcons [1],” CF00718-006, Soviet Union/USSR Subject Files, Condoleezza Rice Files, NSC Collection, BPR.

200. Memorandum of Conversation, “Second Expanded Bilateral Session with Chairman Gorbachev of the Soviet Union,” December 3, 1989, 4:35–6:45 P.M., Maxim Gorkii Cruise Liner, Malta, “Summit at Malta December 1989: Malta Memcons [1],” CF00718-006, Soviet Union/USSR Subject Files, Condoleezza Rice Files, NSC Collection, BPR.

201. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 51.

Chapter 19: Gardening in a Tempest

202. Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011; George Bush, “Remarks Upon Returning From a Trip to the Far East,” February 27, 1989, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush: 1989 (Washington, DC: US GPO, 1990), 150–151.

203. Ezra Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 618.

204. Chinese officials sought to downplay the number of casualties, and hospital and morgue figures ignored the bodies friends and family members took away as well as the bodies that had been burned on-site. The International Red Cross estimated twenty-six hundred deaths; the US government estimated at least seven hundred dead. See Timothy Brook, Quelling the People: The Military Suppression of the Beijing Democracy Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 161–162; James Lilley with Jeffrey Lilley, China Hands: Nine Decades of Adventure, Espionage, and Diplomacy in Asia (New York: PublicAffairs, 2004), 321–322; James Mann, About Face: A History of America’s Curious Relationship with China, from Nixon to Clinton (New York: Knopf, 1999), 192. But see Robert L Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of US-China Relations, 1989–2000 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), 61.

205. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 179; Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, 30, 31; Patrick Tyler, A Great Wall: Six Presidents and China: An Investigative History (New York: PublicAffairs, 1999), 371; Henry Kissinger, On China (New York: Penguin, 2010), 436; Cheng Chu-yuan, Behind the Tiananmen Massacre: Behind the Social, Political, and Economic Ferment in China (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990), 193–194; Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in Chinese Diplomacy (New York: HarperCollins, 2005), 143–144; Douglas Paal interview, March 5, 2009; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 654–655.

206. Kissinger, On China, 411–428; Paal interview, March 5, 2009; Stapleton Roy interview, March 27, 2009.

207. Paal interview, March 5, 2009.

208. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed; Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011, Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 55.

209. Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 91; Parmet, George Bush, 378; J. Stapleton Roy interview, March 27, 2009.

210. Memorandum of Conversation, “Meeting with Ambassador Han Xu,” January 28, 1989, Situation Room, Karl Jackson Files, “China 1989 [3],” CF00306-005, NSC Collection, BPR.

211. Cable, American Embassy, Beijing, to Sec. State, Wash. DC, “President’s Banquet—Chinese Guest List,” February 18, 1989, Department of State, DNSA, Parmet, George Bush, 378; Roy interview, March 27, 2009.

212. Kathy Wilhelm, “China Steps Up Criticism of United States over Fang Incident,” Associated Press, March 1, 1989; “China Again Assails U.S. over Dissident,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, March 2, 1989; Pei Minxin, “The Man Who Didn’t Come to Dinner,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, March 3, 1989.

213. Winston Lord interview, April 28, 1998, ADST; US Embassy Beijing Cable, “President’s Banquet—Chinese Guest List,” February 18. 1989, Department of State, “The US ‘Tiananmen Papers,’” in National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book, ed. Michael L. Evans, June 4, 2001; also see Mann, About Face, 180–181.

214. Nancy Bernkopf Tucker, China Confidential: American Diplomats and Sino-American Relations, 1945–1996 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 408; Winston Lord interview, April 18, 2011; Mann, About Face, 177–178; Roy interview, March 27, 2009.

215. “Banquet Incident Angers Beijing,” Sydney Morning Herald, March 2, 1989, 12; Roy interview, March 27, 2009.

216. R. W. Apple, “‘Blunder’ at Beijing Dinner: U.S. Chides Embassy,” March 3, 1989; Tucker, China Confidential, 408.

217. Tucker, China Confidential, 408.

218. Mann, About Face, 178.

219. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 91.

220. Scowcroft interview, June 24, 2011; Parmet, George Bush, 377.

221. Scowcroft interviews, April 12 and June 24, 2011; “China Again Assails U.S. over Dissident,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, March 2, 1989; Pei, “The Man Who Didn’t Come to Dinner”; interviews with Scowcroft, April 12 and June 24, 2011.

222. Scowcroft interview, December 2007; Lord interview, April 18, 2011; Roy interview, March 27, 2009; Paal interview, March 30, 2011; Barbara Bush, Barbara Bush: A Memoir (New York: Scribner, 1994), 270; Tucker, China Confidential, 407; Parmet, George Bush, 375–376.

223. Parmet, George Bush, 376–377.

224. Apple, “‘Blunder’ at Beijing Dinner”; Tucker, China Confidential, 408–409; Mann, About Face, 178–179; Kissinger, On China, 428; Lord oral history.

225. “China Again Assails U.S. Over Dissident,” St. Louis Post Dispatch, March 2, 1989, 18D; Pei, “The Man Who Didn’t Come to Dinner”; Mann, About Face, 179; Scowcroft interviews, April 12 and June 24, 2011.

226. Lord interview, April 18, 2011; Parmet, George Bush, 377–378.

227. Lord interview, April 18, 2011; Paal interview, March 30, 2011; Parmet, George Bush, 377–378.

228. Paal interview, March 30, 2011; Scowcroft interview, December 2007; Kissinger, On China, 430; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed; Tyler, A Great Wall, 346–347; David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989–2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Lord interview, April 18, 2011.

229. David Hoffman, “China’s Objection to Dissident Didn’t Reach Key Bush Officials, U.S. Says,” Washington Post, March 3, 1989; Apple, “‘Blunder’ at Beijing Dinner”; Lord interview, March 29, 2011; Paal interviews, March 5 and March 30, 2011; Scowcroft interviews, May 13, 2009, and April 12, 2011.

230. Lord interview, ADST; Lord interview, April 18, 2011; Roy interview, March 27, 2009; Tucker, China Confidential, 410. The lack of advance notice prevented the trip from reaching the status of an official state visit.

231. See Memorandum, Brent Scowcroft to POTUS, “Meeting with Asia Scholars,” February 17, 1989, Subject File—C. F. WHORM, BPR, OA/ID 00002-001, BPR; also see Mann, About Face, 178, and Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 61.

232. “White House On-the-Record Briefing,” Subject: President Bush’s Trip to Asia, Briefer: General Brent Scowcroft, February 21, 1989, Federal News Service; Lord interview, ADST; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 61.

233. Karl Jackson interview, June 23, 2011; Scowcroft interview, June 24, 2011; Roy interview, March 27, 2009; Barbara Bush, A Memoir, 270–271.

234. Kissinger, On China, 429.

235. Lord interview, March 29, 2011; Tucker, China Confidential, 410; Mann, About Face, 182.

236. Scowcroft interview, December 2007; Tyler, A Great Wall, 347.

237. Lord interviews, March 29 and April 18, 2011; Lord interview, ADST; Scowcroft interview, April 12, 2011; Tucker, China Confidential, 410; Mann, About Face, 183; Roy interview, March 27, 2009.

238. Winston Lord, “China and America: Beyond the Big Chill,” Foreign Affairs, Fall 1989; Lord, “Misguided Mission,” Washington Post, December 19, 1989.

239. Tucker, China Confidential, 453–455; Roy interview, April 9, 2009.

240. Scowcroft interview, June 24, 2011. Kissinger, in contrast, also very much disagreed with Lord’s political position—siding with Scowcroft and President Bush on how to handle the US-China relationship—but he remained socially close to Lord; both men were former colleagues and both lived in New York City (Lord interview, April 18, 2011).

241. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed; Lilley, China Hands; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping. But see Parmet, George Bush.

242. Kissinger, On China, 428.

243. Roy interview, March 27, 2009. On Bush’s year in Beijing, see The China Diary of George H. W. Bush: The Making of a Global President, ed. Jeffrey A. Engel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008).

244. “Memorandum of Conversation,” President Bush’s Meeting with Chairman Deng Xiaoping of the People’s Republic of China, Great Hall of the People, Beijing, China, February 26, 1989, MemCons, BPR.

245. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 649.

246. See, for example, Bette Bao Lord, Legacies: A Chinese Mosaic (New York: Knopf, 1990); Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011.

247. Scowcroft interview, April 12, 2011; Tucker, China Confidential, 403; Lord interview, ADST; Lord interview, April 18, 2011.

248. Memcons, Bush visit to China February 25, 26, 1989, BPR.

249. Scowcroft interview, December 2007.

250. Scowcroft interview, April 12, 2011; Lord interview, March 29, 2011; see Mann, About Face, 182–183.

251. Lord interview, ADST. Also see Tucker, China Confidential, 452–453.

252. On engagement vs. nonengagement, see, for example, Quayle, Standing Firm, 121–122; Lord interview. Also see Tucker, China Confidential, 452–453.

253. Elliott Abrams interview, October 6, 2010.

254. See Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 20–21; Lord interview, ADST; Zhao Ziyang, Prisoner of the State: The Secret Journal of Zhao Ziyang, ed. and trans. Bao Pi, Renee Chang, and Adi Ignatius (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009), 161–182; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 574–585.

255. Memorandum for Brent Scowcroft through Karl Jackson from Douglas Paal, “U.S. Posture During Current Unrest in China,” April 20, 1989, Karl Jackson Files, “China 1989 [3]” CF00306-005, NSC Collection, BPR.

256. Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen 12, 16–17; Tyler, A Great Wall, 347–348; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 599–603; Lord interview, ADST.

257. See Zhao, Prisoner of the State, 8–9; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 603–609.

258. “It Is Necessary to Take a Clear-Cut Stand Against Disturbances,” Foreign Broadcast Information Service, April 25, 23–24, cited in www.tsquare.tv/chronology-/April26ed.html; Roy interview, March 27, 2009; also see Brook, Quelling the People, 29; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 604–605.

259. Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 34; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 605;

260. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 611–612; Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 35–57.

261. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 614–615.

262. Ibid., 617.

263. Roy interview, March 27, 2009; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 618.

264. Lilley, China Hands, 316; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 620–621; Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 51.

265. US Embassy Beijing Cable, “PLA Ready to Strike,” May 21, 1989, Department of State, “The US ‘Tiananmen Papers’”; Mann, About Face, 190.

266. Letter from President Bush to Chairman Deng Xiaoping, May 27, 1989, from American Embassy in Beijing to Secretary of State, OA/ID CF00316-004, Doug Paal series, China-US, January–July 1989 [4], NSC Collection, BPR.