Chapter 20: Cold War Relics

267. Michael R. Gordon, “U.S. Troops Move in Panama in Effort to Seize Noriega: Gunfire Is Heard in Capital,” New York Times, December 20, 1989; Frederick Kempe, Divorcing the Dictator (New York: Putnam, 1990), 12. Also see Bob Woodward, The Commanders (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993), 119–131; Parmet, George Bush; Naftali, George H. W. Bush; Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy; Fitzwater, Call the Briefing!; and Colin Powell, My American Journey.

268. Rodman, Presidential Command, 170–180; Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 182.

269. Associated Press, “Bush and Noriega,” New York Times, September 28, 1988; Morton Abramowitz interview, ADST, 111–112f; see Robert A. Strong, “Tipping Point: George H. W. Bush and the Invasion of Panama,” George H. W. Bush Oral History Symposium, October 14–15, 2011, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia, 7–10; Kempe, Divorcing the Dictator.

270. Parmet, George Bush, 330; Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 184; Naftali, George H. W. Bush, 71.

271. “Statement for Television on Panama Election by Former President Jimmy Carter,” Telemundo, May 10, 1989, in Dyke, Nancy Bearg, Subject Files, “Panama,” OA/ID CF01076-010, BPR; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 43.

272. Memorandum for the Vice President et al. [from President George Bush], n.d [August 1989], Eric Melby Files, NSC Collection, BPR.

273. Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 184; Naftali, George H. W. Bush, 71; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 45.

274. Fitzwater, Call the Briefing!, 203.

275. Fitzwater, Call the Briefing!, 203; Panamanian Situation Update #2, “Situation Room Note,” October 3, 1989, 1300 EDT, William T. Pryce Files Latin American Directorate Staff Files, NSC Collection, BPR.

276. Fitzwater, Call the Briefing!, 207; Kempe, Divorcing the Dictator.

277. See Mark J. Rozell, The Press and the Bush Presidency (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1996), 51; Woodward, The Commanders, 127.

278. “World News Tonight Sunday—ABC,” ABC News Transcripts, October 8, 1989.

279. Ibid., David Boren interview, February 2, 2012.

280. Boren quoted in Bob Burke and Von Russell Creel, Oklahoma Statesman: The Life of David Boren (Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Heritage Association, 2009), 326; Boren interview, February 2, 2012.

281. Boren interview, February 2, 2012; Burke and Creel, Oklahoma Statesman, 327. The two accounts are not identical; in his interview with the author, Boren said Scowcroft wasn’t there and Cheney was; Burke and Creel report that Scowcroft was there and Cheney wasn’t.

282. Kempe, Divorcing the Dictator; Fitzwater, Call the Briefing, 203; Woodward, The Commanders, 121–122.

283. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 44.

284. Parmet, George Bush, 413; Powell, My American Journey, 419; Naftali, George Bush; Kempe, Divorcing the Dictator; Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 185–186.

285. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 48.

286. Kempe, Divorcing the Dictator; Woodward, The Commanders, 124; Morton Abramowitz interview, ADST, 112.

287. Popadiuk, The Leadership of George Bush, 122; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 44, 48, emphasis added.

288. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 48.

289. Woodward, The Commanders, 128–129; Kempe, Divorcing the Dictator, 386.

290. Fitzwater, Call the Briefing, 207, 210–211; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 48–50.

291. Burke and Creel, Oklahoma Statesman, 327; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 44; Memorandum for PCC Chairman Bernard Aronson et al. from William T. Price, Director for Latin America and the Caribbean, NSC, October 12, 1989, Eric Melby Files, NSC Collection, BPR; Baker cited in Parmet, George Bush, 414. Colin Powell gives Thurman and himself credit for deciding to plan an attack against Panama; he was right that they did the actual planning, wrong to suggest that he and Thurman originated the suggestion (Powell, My American Journey, 420). On the existing military plans, see “Operation Just Cause: The Incursion into Panama,” www.history.army.mil/brochures/JustCause/JustCause.htm, 5–6.

292. Cheney interview, BOHP, 124.

293. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 44; Powell, My American Journey, 418.

294. Robert Gates interview, April 17, 2009.

295. Daniel Poneman interview, April 10, 2012.

296. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 48–50; Cheney interview, BOHP, 132; also see Quayle, Standing Firm, 136–140.

297. Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 179–180; Strong, “Tipping Point”; Kempe, Divorcing the Dictator; James A. Baker interview II, BOHP, 25.

298. See Strong, “Tipping Point,” 2; also see Greene, The Presidency of George Bush, 101. Scowcroft interview, March 14, 2013; Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 179–180; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 42.

299. Lt. Gen. Carl W. Stiner, “Oral History Interview JCIT 24,” Joint Task Force South in Operation Just Cause, December 20, 1989–January 12, 1990, Department of the Army, XVIII Airborne Corps, www.history.army.mil/documents/panama/JCIT/JCIT24.htm; “Operation Just Cause: The Incursion into Panama,” 2.

300. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 62–63; Baker interview I, BOHP, 25; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 44.

301. Powell, My American Journey, 432.

302. Ibid.

303. Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 191.

304. Powell, My American Journey, 432; also see Cheney interview, BOHP, 128.

305. Powell, My American Journey, 432–433.

306. Ibid., 425.

307. Powell, My American Journey, 425.

308. Poneman interview, April 10, 2009; Colin Powell interview, March 24, 2009.

309. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 42–48; Thomas Pickering interview, BOHP, 27.

310. “Statement on the Bipartisan Accord on Central America,” March 24, 1989, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush: 1989, 309; “Bipartisan Accord on Central America,” March 24, 1989, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush: 1989 (Washington, DC: US GPO, 1990), 1:307.

311. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 42.

312. Sergii Plokhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York: Basic Books, 2014), 202–203; Kimmitt, personal communication, August 26, 2014.

313. Larry P. Goodson, Afghanistan’s Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise of the Taliban (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001).

314. The population figure is from the World Bank online database, which clusters the years 1989–1993. Also see Rizwan Hussain, Pakistan and the Emergence of Islamic Militancy in Afghanistan (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005), 147; United Nations statistics on refuges quoted by Selig Harrison, cited in Peter W. Rodman, More Precious than Peace: The Cold War and the Struggle for the Third World (New York: Scribner’s, 1994), 357.

315. Selig S. Harrison, “Afghanistan,” in Anthony Lake, After the Wars (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1990), 51; Rodman, More Precious than Peace, 336–340; Oberdorfer, The Turn, 239, 337; Abramowitz interview, ADST, 106–108; also see George Crile, Charlie Wilson’s War: The Extraordinary Story of the Largest Covert Operation in History (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2003).

316. Riaz M. Khan, Untying the Afghan Knot: Negotiating Soviet Withdrawal (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), 293–294.

317. Steve Coll, Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001 (New York: Penguin, 2004), 171; Dennis Kux, The United States and Pakistan 1947–2000: Disenchanted Allies (Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press; Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 297; Diego Cordovez and Selig S. Harrison, Out of Afghanistan: The Inside Story of the Soviet Withdrawal (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 339; Marvin Weinbaum interview, July 1, 2013; Harrison, “Afghanistan,” 51; Barnett Rubin, The Search for Peace in Afghanistan: From Buffer State to Failed State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 99.

318. Riaz Mohammad Khan, Afghanistan and Pakistan: Conflict, Extremism, and Resistance to Modernity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011), 3.

319. Robert Oakley interview, ADST, 152.

320. “National Security Review-1,” February 7, 1989, Haass Working Files, “Afghanistan 1989–1992 [2],” ID: 1304-011, NSC Collection, BPR.

321. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed; Oberdorfer, The Turn, 333; Robert Oakley interview, February 12, 2014.

322. Thomas Pickering interview, March 27, 2014; Pickering interview, BOHP, 12.

323. Riaz, Afghanistan and Pakistan, 22; Rubin, The Search for Peace in Afghanistan, 108–109, 111 (also generally 102–111); Robert Oakley interview, ADST, 133.

324. Cordovez and Harrison, Out of Afghanistan, 383.

325. Rubin, The Search for Peace in Afghanistan, 122; Marvin Weinbaum interview, July 1, 2013.

326. Edmund McWilliams interview, ADST, 69; Sandra Charles interview, July 1, 2013; the White House received letters from President Najibullah on March 19, March 16, and May 20, 1989, August 16, September 27, October 2, October 16, and November 20, 1991.

327. Coll, Ghost Wars, 179–180; Zia quoted in Hussain, Pakistan and the Emergence of Islamic Militancy in Afghanistan, 123; Rodman, More Precious than Peace, 352; Cordovez and Harrison, Out of Afghanistan, 258–259; Phyllis and Robert Oakley interview, January 28, 2014; McWilliams interview, ADST, 75; Weinbaum interview, July 1, 2013.

328. Cordovez and Harrison, Out of Afghanistan, 375–378.

329. Najibullah, President of the Republic of Afghanistan, to His Excellency, George Bush, March 10, 1989, CO 002-17185, WHORM files, BPR; Memcon, “Plenary Meeting with Prime Minister Bhutto of Pakistan,” June 6, 1989. When President Najibullah invited a US congressional delegation to visit to advance “the rehabilitation of Afghanistan and investment here” and “promote Afghan-US joint cooperation against narcotic drugs, education, and the resumption of the U.S. former projects,” for example, an NSC staff member jotted down “no action required” on the cover sheet of the written invitation (Mr. Abdul Ghafoor Jawshan, “Forwards an Excerpt of the Speech by His Excellency Najibullah, President of the Republic of Afghanistan, on the Occasion of the Afghan New Year,” March 27, 1991, CO 002-224315, WHORM files, BPR). Also see letter of Jimmy Carter to President Bush, January 25, 1990, writing that the United States could help promote peace by supporting a peace-keeping force under the UN Security Council and the response by President Bush on February 22, 1990, CO 002-108027, WHORM files, BPR).

330. Brent Scowcroft to Mr. Agha K. Saeed, September 2, 1989, CO 002-05242, WHORM files, BPR.

331. James A. Baker, “White House Meeting Agendas, 1989,” November 14, 1989, “1989 November,” folder 11, Box 108, Baker Papers, Princeton University; Rodman, More Precious than Peace, 354; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 134.

332. See “NSC and Deputies Committee meetings,” BPR, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/pdfs/nsc_meetings_1989-1992-declassified.pdf, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/pdfs/nsc_and_dc_meetings_1989-1992-declassified.pdf; Bruce Riedel, What We Won: America’s Secret War in Afghanistan, 1979–1989 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2014), 132. The Deputies Committee and the NSC sometimes met to discuss covert operations, and it’s very possible that Afghanistan or Pakistan may have been the subject of one of those meetings. The number of NSC and DC meetings in the text is not the same as those in the Bush Presidential Library, because the Bush Presidential Library website relies on the official number of the meetings, not on the actual number of times the committees met (sometimes on the same day). Neither do the numbers differentiate when the meetings addressed only one subject or when they addressed multiple subjects (such as both Afghanistan and Panama in the same meeting).

333. Scowcroft interview, June 20, 2013; Coll, Ghost Wars, 217.

334. Also see Parmet, George Bush; Naftali, George H. W. Bush; Popadiuk, The Leadership of George Bush; Gates, From the Shadows; Rothkopf, Running the World; John P. Burke, Honest Broker? (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2009); Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office.

335. Crile, Charlie Wilson’s War, 514; Rubin, The Search for Peace in Afghanistan, 110–111.

336. James A. Baker, “White House Meeting Agendas, 1989,” November 14, 1989, “1989 November,” folder 11, Box 108, Baker Papers; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 134; Coll, Ghost Wars, 190–195.

337. Coll, Ghost Wars, 190.

338. Peter Tomsen, The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Global Conflicts, and the Failures of Great Powers (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011); Coll, Ghost Wars, 198.

339. Memorandum of Conversation, “Meeting with Secretary General Javier Perez de Cuellar of the United Nations,” September 23, 1991, 1:15–2:30 P.M., The Indonesian Lounge at the United Nations, New York City, MemCon files, BPR.

340. Coll, Ghost Wars, 180.

341. Hussain, Pakistan and the Emergence of Islamic Militancy in Afghanistan, 180; Crile, Charlie Wilson’s War, 521.

342. Coll, Ghost Wars, 182–181, 206; McWilliams interview, ADST, 74–79; also see Larry Wright, The Looming Tower.

343. Crile, Charlie Wilson’s War, 518–519.

344. Christine Fair interview, May 21, 2013; Coll, Ghost Wars, 220; Robert A. Hathaway interview, July 24, 2013.

345. Kux, The United States and Pakistan 1947–2000, 299; Robert Oakley interview, ADST, 144; Robert Oakley interview, January 29, 2014.

346. Memorandum of Conversation, “Plenary Meeting with Prime Minister Bhutto of Pakistan,” June 6, 1989, Haass Working Files, “Presidential Visit with Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto, June 6–7, 1989,” OA/ID CF01404-020, NSC Collection, BPR; Feroz Hassan Khan, Eating Grass: The Making of the Pakistani Bomb (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012), 254; Robert Oakley interview, ADST, 144.

347. Kux, The United States and Pakistan 1947–2000, 306–308; Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 91.

348. Hussain, Pakistan and the Emergence of Islamic Militancy in Afghanistan, 145–146.

349. Kux, The United States and Pakistan 1947–2000, 308, 310; Haqqani, Magnificent Delusions, 280–281.

350. Ibid.

351. Bruce Riedel, Deadly Embrace: Pakistan, America, and the Future of Global Jihad (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2011), 28–35.

352. Rubin, The Search for Peace in Afghanistan, 111; John Holzman quoted in Kux, The United States and Pakistan 1947–2000, 317.

353. Harrison, “Afghanistan,” 45; Oberdorfer, The Turn, 337; McWilliams interview, ADST, 114; Rodman, More Precious than Peace, 340; Baker, “Proposed Agenda for meeting with the President, April 15, 1992,” White House Meeting Agendas, 1992, Box 115, Folder 9, Baker Papers.

354. Harrison, “Afghanistan,” 45; Oberdorfer, The Turn, 337; McWilliams interview, ADST, 114; Rodman, More Precious than Peace, 340; Baker, “Proposed Agenda for meeting with the president, April 15, 1992.

355. Scowcroft interview, 2013; Gates, From the Shadows, 485; McWilliams interview, ADST, December 1, 2005, 64.

356. Gates quoted in Andrew Spring, “Did the U.S. ‘Abandon’ Afghanistan in 1989?” The Atlantic, December 2009; Phyllis Oakley interview, ADST, 86.

357. McWilliams interview, ADST, 114.

358. Scowcroft interview, June 20, 2013; Zia quoted in Cordovez and Harrison, Out of Afghanistan, 259.

359. Kux, The United States and Pakistan 1947–2000, 311, 324–325.

360. Rubin, The Search for Peace in Afghanistan, 101; Barnett R. Rubin, The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the International System (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 251; Hussain, Pakistan and the Emergence of Islamic Militancy in Afghanistan, 141; Kux, The United States and Pakistan 1947–2000, 302–303; Robert Oakley interview, ADST, 149; Phyllis Oakley interview, ADST, 91.

361. Khan, Afghanistan and Pakistan, 54.

362. Haass, BOHP, 19–21, 63.

363. Haass, BOHP, 19.

Chapter 21: Blood on the Stones

364. Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 51, 60.

365. Cable from US Embassy Beijing, to: Department of State, Wash DC, “SITREP No. 32: The Morning of June 4,” “Tiananmen Square, 1989: The Declassified History,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book.

366. Secretary of State’s Morning Summary for June 5, 1989, “China after the Bloodbath,” “Tiananmen Square, 1989: The Declassified History,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book; Lord, Legacies, 229; Brook, Quelling the People; Tyler, A Great Wall, 358–359; Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 103.

367. Tyler, A Great Wall, 360–361; Lilley, China Hands, 322–323; Memorandum from US Embassy Beijing to Douglas Paal, “China and the U.S.A. Protracted Engagement,” July 11, 1989, OA/ID CF00316-002, Doug Paal Series, 1989–1990 China Files, “January–July 1989 [2],” NSC Collection, BPR.

368. Lilley, China Hands, 321–322; Lord, oral history, ADST; Brook, Quelling the People, 166–168; “Hearing of the Foreign Affairs Committee,” December 13, 1989, Federal News Service, 20.

369. Henry Kissinger, On China (New York: The Penguin Press, 2010), 410; Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011.

370. Kissinger, On China, 410.

371. Brook, Quelling the People; memorandum from Douglas Paal to Robert M. Gates, “Update on the Situation in China,” June 8, 1989, “China-US,” “January–July 1989 [4],” OA/ID: CF00316-004, Doug Paal Series, NSC Collection, BPR.

372. Brook, Quelling the People; Gates interview, BOHP, 28; Ezra Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011).

373. Tyler, A Great Wall, 354.

374. Lord, Legacies, 210; Bruce Gilley, Tiger on the Brink: Jiang Zemin and China’s New Elite (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 140–141; Nancy Bernkopf Tucker, China Confidential: American Diplomats and Sino-American Relations, 1945–1996 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 448–449; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 57. Also see Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 32–33.

375. Gilley, Tiger on the Brink, 145–146; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 622, 644–646.

376. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 627.

377. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 58.

378. Brook, Quelling the People, 196, 199; Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011; also see Michael Yahuda, “Deng Xiaoping: The Statesman,” in Deng Xiaoping: Portrait of a Chinese Statesman, ed. David Shambugh (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 143–164.

379. Brook, Quelling the People. As of June 8, however, the NSC found “no convincing evidence of serious dissension with the army or security forces, and the regime probably has no reason to fear imminent attack from renegade military units” (Memorandum from Douglas Paal to Robert M. Gates, “Update on the Situation in China,” June 8, 1989, “China-US,” “January–July 1989 [4],” OA/ID: CF00316-004, Doug Paal Series, NSC Collection, BPR).

380. Brook, Quelling the People, 188–191.

381. Ibid., 178–180.

382. Ibid., 198–199, 203; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 631.

383. Brook, Quelling the People, 203.

384. Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 55.

385. Bette Bao Lord quoted in Tyler, A Great Wall, 359. Also see Lord, Legacies, 229–231; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 617.

386. For inconsistent descriptions of the massacre, see Brook, Quelling the People, 108–169; Lilley, China Hands, 311–332; Tyler, A Great Wall, 356–359; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 624–632.

387. Tucker, China Confidential, 449.

388. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 59; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 184.

389. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 56; see Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 79.

390. George H. W. Bush interview, December 18, 2009.

391. Tyler, A Great Wall, 359; ABC News/ Washington Post Poll, February 1989; Los Angeles Times Poll, June 1989 (www.ropercenter.uconn.edu).

392. Scowcroft interview, May 13, 2009; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 99.

393. Richard Nixon letter to Brent Scowcroft, “China: Post-Tiananmen” (October 1990), Post-Tiananmen files, China Chronological files, Brent Scowcroft Collection, OA/ID 91133-003, BPR.

394. Douglas Mulholland to Secretary of State Baker, “Re: China’s Attitude Toward the U.S.,” July 1, 1989, “China-U.S.” files, “January–July 1989 [3],” Doug Paal series, NSC Collection, BPR; Scowcroft, BOHP, 63.

395. American Embassy, Beijing, to Sec. State Wash. DC, July 12, 1989, “January–July 1989 [2],” OA/ID CF00316-002, “1989–1990 China Files,” Doug Paal Series, NSC Collection, BPR; Lilley, China Hands, 352–358.

396. Leslie Gelb interview, April 9, 2014.

397. Mann, About Face, 201–204; Fang Lizhi, “My ‘Confession,’” New York Review of Books, June 23, 2011, 23.

398. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, 28; Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 90–91.

399. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 58.

400. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 58–59.

401. Memorandum for Brent Scowcroft through Karl Jackson from Douglas Paal, “State’s Views on Ambassador Lilley’s Recommendations on China,” June 5, 1989, OA/ID CF00316-004, Doug Paal Series, NSC Collection, BPR; Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 79; Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 109.

402. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 56; Qian, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy, 132; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 104–105.

403. Bush interview, December 18, 2009.

404. Mann, About Face, 206–207; Tucker, China Confidential, 446; Richard H. Solomon quoted in “China Policy and the National Security Council,” Oral History Roundtables, November 4, 1999, 22. Also see Douglas Paal, “Re: China’s Attitude Toward the U.S. (4 pp.),” June 27, 1989, OA/ID CF00316-003, Doug Paal Series, NSC Collection, BPR.

405. Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 79; Qian Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy, 131–132; Mann, About Face, 205–206; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed; Am. Embassy Beijing to Sec. State Wash. DC, July 12, 1989, “January–July 1989 [2],” OA/ID CF00316-002, Doug Paal Series, “1989–1990 China Files,” NSC Collection, BPR.

406. Qian, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy, 132–133.

407. Ibid., 133. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 105–106; Kissinger, On China, 418. Qian Qichen disputes Scowcroft’s claim that the Chinese military was not aware of the plane, saying that the Chinese knew of the time and route of the incoming aircraft (see Qian, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy, 133).

408. Qian, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy, 134–136; Kissinger, On China, 418–419; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 59; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 650; Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 110.

409. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 651.

410. Ibid.

411. Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 81; Qian, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy, 134.

412. Qian, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy, 136; Kissinger, On China, 418–420; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed; Mann, About Face, 207–208; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 59.

413. Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 56–57; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 650; Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 82–83.

414. Mann, About Face, 208–209.

415. Am. Embassy Beijing to SecState WashDC, July 12, 1989, “January–July 1989 [2],” OA/ID CF00316-002, Doug Paal Series, “1989–1990 China Files,” NSC Collection, BPR.

416. Kissinger, On China; Qichen, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy, 136–139; Mann, About Face, 408.

417. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 55.

418. “China’s Attitude Toward the U.S.,” May 27, 1989, OA/ID CF00316-003, Doug Paal Series, NSC Collection, BPR; Memorandum to Secretary of State Baker from Douglas Mulholland, July 1, 1989, OA/ID CF00316-003, Doug Paal Series, NSC Collection, BPR. Also see Memorandum for Paal from American Embassy Beijing, “China and the U.S.—A Protracted Engagement,” July 11, 1989, OA/ID CF00316-002, Doug Paal Series, 1989–1990 China Files, “January–July 1989 [2],” NSC Collection, BPR.

419. Am. Embassy Beijing to SecState WashDC, July 12, 1989, “January–July 1989 [2],” OA/ID CF00316-002, Doug Paal Series, “1989–1990 China Files,” NSC Collection, BPR.

420. Kissinger, On China; Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 62.

421. Walter Isaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), 750.

422. Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 97; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 653.

423. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 157; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 60.

424. Isaacson, Kissinger, 751–752.

425. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 99.

426. Ibid., 158; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping, 653; Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 97–98.

427. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 100–101; Tucker, China Confidential, 446–447, 453; Mann, About Face, 209. Also see Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 77; Richard H. Solomon quoted in “China Policy and the National Security Council,” Oral History Roundtables, November 4, 1999, 22.

428. Mann, About Face, 215; Kerry Dumbaugh, “China’s Most-Favored Nation (MFN) Status: Congressional Consideration,” CRS Report for Congress, August 1, 1998, 6.

429. Scowcroft, interview, October 2007; Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 95.

430. Chase Untermeyer interview, BOHP, July 27–28, 22–23.

431. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 60.

432. Qian, Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy, 140; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 158.

433. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed.

434. Tyler, A Great Wall, 370; Mann, About Face, 219.

435. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 60.

436. Kissinger, On China, 437; Douglas Paal interview, March 5, 2009.

437. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 174; Fang, “My ‘Confession,’” 23; Scowcroft interview, August 3, 2011.

438. See “Proposed Toast for Gen Scowcroft Banquet,” December 8, 1989, Department of State, DNSA, CH01242.

439. “Hearing of the International Economic Policy & Trade Subcommittee of the House Foreign Affairs Committee,” Subject: “Recent Administration Visit to China,” December 13, 1989, Federal News Service, 3, 4; Mitch McConnell quoted in The Congressional Quarterly, December 16, 1989, 3435, in Kerry Dumbaugh, “China’s Most-Favored Nation (MFN) Status: Congressional Consideration,” CRS Report for Congress, August 1, 1998, 6.

440. Mary McCrory, “Patting the Dragon,” Washington Post, December 12, 1989; “Back to Beijing, Head Bowed,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, December 12, 1989; “Disgrace at Beijing,” (editorial) St. Petersburg Times, December 12, 1989; A. M. Rosenthal, “On My Mind: Betrayal in Beijing,” New York Times, December 12, 1989; Richard Cohen, “China Card Too Dear to Bush, Scowcroft,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, December 13, 1989; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 61. Also see Jim Hoagland, “The Descent of American Diplomacy,” Washington Post, December 17, 1989.

441. “Toast by the Honorable Brent Scowcroft,” Beijing, December 9, 1989, CH01245, DNSA; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 65.

442. Fang, “My ‘Confession,’” 23; Scowcroft interview, May 5, 2010; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 65; also see Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 99–100.

443. Winston Lord, “Misguided Mission,” Washington Post, December 19, 1989; J. Stapleton Roy interview, March 27, 2009; Kathy Wilhelm, “China Steps Up Criticism of United States over Fang Incident,” Associated Press, March 1, 1989.

444. Roy interview, April 9, 2009; Robert Gates interview, April 17, 2012.

Chapter 22: One Germany

445. Letter from Richard Nixon to George Bush, November 17, 1989, folder 10, POTUS Notes, 1989–1992, Box 115 folder 10, Baker Papers, emphasis in original.

446. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 51; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed, 27.

447. Bush quoted in Arnaud de Borchgrave, “Bush Would Love ‘Reunited Germany,’” Washington Times, May 16, 1989, cited in Jeffrey Engel, “Bush, Germany, and the Power of Time,” Diplomatic History 37, no. 4 (September 2013), 639–663; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 28–29; also see Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 81.

448. Bozo, Mitterrand, the End of the Cold War, and German Reunification, 95; Sigal, Hang Separately, 47.

449. Gates interview, BOHP, 33.

450. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 154–155. On the Baker-Shevardnadze relationship see James A. Baker III, The Politics of Diplomacy (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1995).

451. Robert Kimmitt interview, March 2, 2010; Kimmitt personal communication, August 26, 2014; Elizabeth Pond, Beyond the Wall, 315n31.

452. Hutchings, “American Diplomacy,” 17; Stent, Russia and Germany Reborn, 99.

453. Memorandum of Conversation, “Second Expanded Bilateral Session,” December 3, 1989, 4:35–6:45 P.M., Maxim Gorkii Cruise Liner, Malta, “Summit at Malta December 1989: Malta Memcons [1], CF00718-006, Soviet Union/USSR Subject Files, Condoleezza Rice Files, NSC Collection, BPR.

454. Gates, From the Shadows, 484–485; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 130.

455. Gates, From the Shadows, 484–485; Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 81–82; Sarotte, 1989, 64, 79.

456. Baker, Meeting Notes, November 12, 1989, “1989 November,” folder 11, Box 108, Meeting Notes, Baker Papers; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 158–159.

457. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 241.

458. Ibid., 241; Sarotte, 1989, 121.

459. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 236–237; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 174–177.

460. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 236.

461. “National Security Directive 50,” October 12, 1990, “Decisions on START and CFE Issues,” 4, NSD online, BPR.

462. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 173, 527; Hutchings, American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War, 162, 194–195, 296–300; “The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe,” Icelandic Human Rights Centre, www.humanrights.is/the-human-rights-project/humanrightscasesandmaterials/humanrightsconceptsideasandfora/humanrightsfora/theorganizationforsecurityandcooperationineurope; Brent Scowcroft, Memorandum for the President, “Scope Paper—Helsinki Summit,” n.d., folder “Briefing Book—President’s Visit to Warsaw, Poland; Munich, Germany; and Helsinki, Finland” (Economic Summit/CSCE Summit) July 5–10, 1992 [4], [Helsinki, Finland—July 8–10, 1992],” Trip Files, Walter H. Kansteiner Files, NSC Collection, BPR, OA/ID CF015549. Also see Sarah Snyder, Human Rights Activism and the End of the Cold War.

463. Hutchings, American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War, 102–103.

464. Bozo, Mitterrand, the End of the Cold War, and German Reunification, 246.

465. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 233–234; Robert L. Hutchings, Memorandum for Brent Scowcroft, “Managing the German Question,” n.d., “German Reunification—2+4,” Hutchings, Robert file, NSC, OF/IF CF01414-007; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 154–155, 159; Sarotte, 1989, 80.

466. Gates, From the Shadows, 485; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 234.

467. Philip Zelikow interview, 2009; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 195; Scowcroft interview, January 27, 2009.

468. Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 194–195.

469. Scowcroft interview, February 23, 2010.

470. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 214; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 255; Sarotte, 1989, 197.

471. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 257; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 190.

472. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 259.

473. Memorandum from Brent Scowcroft to the President, “Preparing for the Six Power German Peace Conference,” Non-log item [February 19, 1990], [German Reunification 11/89–6/90] [1], Robert Blackwill series, NSC Collection, BPR.

474. Kimmitt interview, BOHP II, 35.

475. Manfred Woerner quoted in Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 243; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 169.

476. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 268; Sigal, Hang Separately, 38–40; Bozo, Mitterrand, the End of the Cold War, and German Reunification, 249–250; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 169.

477. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 268; Sigal, Hang Separately, 38–40; Bozo, Mitterrand, the End of the Cold War, and German Reunification, 249–250; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 169; Kimmitt interview, BOHP II, 37.

478. Hubert Védrine quoted in Sarotte, 1989, 210, italics in original.

479. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 82–84; also see Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 280–283; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 278–280.

480. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 82–84; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 288, 298; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 328–329.

481. Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 282–283.

482. Gorbachev, Memoirs; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 283–286.

483. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 288.

484. Dubcek, Sharansky, and Kashlev, quoted in Snyder, Human Rights Activism and the End of the Cold War, 242.

485. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 84; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 299; Hutchings, American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War, 137–138.

486. Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 187–188.

487. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 297–298; Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 335–337, 339.

488. “Notes from Jim Cicconi re: 7/3/90 pre-NATO Summit briefing at Kennebunkport,” “July 1990,” Folder 3, Box 109, Baker Papers.

489. Scowcroft letter to Teltschik, June 30, 1990, title, 1285.

490. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 237; Stent, Russia and Germany Transformed, 131.

491. Memorandum of Conversation, “Meeting with Manfred Woerner, Secretary-General of NATO,” June 25, 1991, 2:45–3:15, Oval Office, Memcons, BPR; Memorandum of Conversation, “Meeting with Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland of Norway,” September 24, 1991, 2:00–2:30 P.M., EST, Waldorf Astoria Hotel, New York City, MemCons, BPR; Memorandum of Conversation, “The President’s Meeting with Manfred Woerner, Secretary-General of NATO,” October 11, 1991, 11:30–12:00, The Oval Office, MemCons, BPR.

492. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 294; Sarotte, 1989, 175.

493. Scowcroft letter to Teltschik, June 30, 1990, Deutsche Einheit Sonderedition aus den Akten des Budeskanleramtes 1989/90, Dokumente zur Deutschlandpolitik, Hanns Jürgen Küsters und Daniel Hofman (München: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1998), 1285, trans. Edgar Walter.

494. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 258; Memorandum of Conversation, “Meeting with Manfred Woerner, Secretary-General of NATO,” June 25, 1991, 2:45–3:15, Oval Office, MemCons, Bush Library; Memorandum of Conversation, “The President’s Meeting with Manfred Woerner, Secretary-General of NATO,” October 11, 1991, 11:30–12:00, The Oval Office, MemCons, BPR.

495. Scowcroft interview, May 9, 2014; Scowcroft interview, November 28, 2012. The “prefab” image is from Sarotte, 1989.

496. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 261–262; Helmut Kohl letter to President Bush, June 28, 1989, 321. Hanns Jürgen Küsters, “Introduction,” Deutsche Einheit Sonderedition aus den Akten des Budeskanleramtes 1989/90, 91; Horst Teltschik, “Saturday, Feb. 3, 1990,” 329 Tage, trans. Edgar Walter; Stent, Russia and Germany Reborn, 118–119.

497. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 298–299; Sarotte, 1989, 178.

498. Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 353.

499. Memorandum from Robert D. Blackwill to Brent Scowcroft, “The Beginning of the Big Game,” February 7, 1990, “[German Reunification 11/89–6/90] [1],” Robert D. Blackwill Series, NSC Collection, BPR.

500. Stent, Russia and Germany Reborn, 102, 113.

501. James A. Baker notes from meetings on November 11, 1989, and November 12, 1989, emphasis in original, “1989 November,” folder 11, Box 108, Subseries 8c, Monthly notes, Baker Papers, emphasis in the original.

502. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 299.

503. Robert Hutchings, “American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War in Europe,” manuscript, 4–5; Pond, Beyond the Wall, 112–120.

504. See Sarotte, 1989, 199–200; Angela E. Stent, Russia and Germany Reborn (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 121, 212; Anatoly Dobryinin, In Confidence, 630–631.

505. Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, 329, 366–368; Sarotte, 1989, 200–201.

506. John Sununu interview, BOHP.

507. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 471; Andrew Bacevich, American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of U.S. Diplomacy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 57. For highly favorable judgments on Scowcroft as national security advisor see Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office; Rothkopf, Running the World; Burke, Honest Broker?.

508. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, xiii.

509. General Brent Scowcroft, Der Spiegel, October 1988, trans. Edgar Walter.

510. Alexander Moens, “American Diplomacy and German Unification,” Survival 33, no. 6 (November/December 1991): 531, cited in Robert Hutchings, “American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War in Europe,” in Foreign Policy Breakthroughs, 9.

511. Gates quoted in Sarotte, 1989, 203.

Chapter 23: On-Ramp

512. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 302–303.

513. David Lauter, “25% of Kuwaitis May Be Casualties, U.S. Believes,” Los Angeles Times, February 26, 1991.

514. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 302–303; Nicholas Rostow interview, April 29, 2009; Maureen Dowd, “The Guns of August Make a Dervish Bush Whirl Even Faster,” New York Times, August 7, 1990.

515. Jeffrey Goldberg also makes this point in “Breaking Ranks: What Turned Brent Scowcroft Against the Bush Administration,” New Yorker, October 31, 2005.

516. On the confidentiality of calls, see Presidential Call to Prime Minister Nawaz of Pakistan on February 2, 1991, 10:30–10:50 A.M., Camp David, 1991 Telcons, BPR; Telephone Conversation with King Hussein of Jordan, August 13, 1990, 6:18–6:20 P.M., Kennebunkport, 1990 Telcons, BPR.

517. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 302–304; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 131; Quayle, Standing Firm, 205.

518. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 304, 314; Quayle, Standing Firm, 205.

519. Rothkopf, Running the World, 294–295; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 314; Thomas Pickering interview, BOHP, 11; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 139.

520. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 315–317.

521. Gates interview, BOHP, 71; Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 61–62; Scowcroft quoted in Rothkopf, Running the World, 295–296; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 317–318; Robert Gates interview, April 17, 2012; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 140.

522. Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2009.

523. Lawrence Freedman and Efraim Karsh, The Gulf Conflict 1990–1991: Diplomacy and War in the New World Order (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 214–215; Scowcroft quoted in Karen DeYoung, Soldier: The Life of Colin Powell (New York: Knopf, 2006), 193. With respect to the worries over oil, also see Department of Energy, “Draft on Medium Term Measures to Mitigate the Energy Effects of the Middle East Situation,” September 7, 1990, Issues Files “Persian Gulf War 1991 [4],” John H. Sununu series, Office of the Chief of Staff to the President,” BPR.

524. Michael R. Gordon and General Bernard E. Trainor, The Generals’ War: The Inside Story of the Conflict in the Gulf (Boston: Little, Brown, 1995), 25.

525. Roman Popadiuk, The Leadership of George Bush: An Insider’s View of the Forty-First President (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2009), 82; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 317–318.

526. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 318–319; “Presidential Calls During Iraq-Kuwait Crisis,” August 1, 1990–August 7, 1990, “Kuwait-Iraq, Middle East [7]” folder, (1988-0099F) OA/ID CF00703-007, BPR; Telcon with King Hussein of Jordan and President Mubarak of Egypt, August 2, 1990, 12:17–12:31 P.M., Aboard Air Force One en route Aspen, Colorado, 1990 Telcons, BPR; Telcon with King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, August 2, 1990, 6:43–7:21 P.M., [Aspen, Colorado], 1990 Telecons, BPR.

527. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 319.

528. Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 77–79; Maureen Dowd, “Confrontation in the Gulf,” New York Times, August 9, 1990. Also see Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 307.

529. Memorandum from Brent Scowcroft to George Bush, August 2, 1990, cited in Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 322.

530. Minutes, National Security Council Meeting, August 3, 1990, “Iraq—August 2, 1990–December 1990 [8],” Richard N. Haass Working Files, NSC Collection, BPR.

531. Ibid.

532. Ibid.

533. Cheney interview, BOHP, 134.

534. Ibid.; Robert Gates, oral history, “The Gulf War,” Frontline, PBS, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/oral/gates/1.html.

535. Colin Powell with Joseph E. Persico, My American Journey (New York: Random House, 1999), 464, 465–466.

536. Scowcroft quoted in DeYoung, Soldier, 193.

537. Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 69–70; Kenneth R. Timmerman, The Death Lobby: How the West Armed Iraq (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991), 466.

538. Bob Woodward, The Commanders (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993), 261; also see Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 333.

539. Woodward, The Commanders, 237; Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 73; Popadiuk, The Leadership of George Bush, 82.

540. George H. W. Bush interview, December 18, 2009.

541. Woodward, The Commanders, 302.

542. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 330; Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 67; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 144–145; Memorandum for James A. Baker and Brent Scowcroft from Virginia Lampley, “Persian Gulf Legislative Issues,” September 20, 1990, OA/ID CF01361, Virginia Lampley Series, NSC Collection, BPR.

543. See Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 66, 72–73; Cheney interview, BOHP, 73; Gates interview, BOHP, 54–55; also see Telcon with King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, August 4, 1990, 1:50–2:42 P.M., Camp David, 1990 Telcons, BPR; Telcon with King Hassan of Jordan, August 7, 1990, 12:52–12:56 P.M., The Oval Office, 1990 Telcons, BPR.

544. George Bush, “National Security Directive 45,” August 10, 1990, DNSA; John E. Robson, “Memorandum for the Honorable Brent Scowcroft,” August 14, 1990, “Report of the Economic Analysis Group on the Oil Supply Situation,” “Persian Gulf War 1991 [4]” folder, John H. Sununu series, Office of the Chief of Staff to the president, BPR.

545. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 340–341; Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 63; David Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft: Internationalism and Post-Vietnam War American Foreign Policy (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), 146.

546. Scowcroft interview, July 25, 2013.

547. Burke, Honest Broker?, 175; Marlin Fitzwater interview, February 27, 2008; Colin Powell interview, March 26, 2009.

548. George Bush, “Remarks at the Presentation Ceremony for the Presidential Medals of Freedom and Presidential Citizen’s Medals,” July 3, 1991, Public Papers of the Presidents: George Bush: 1991 Book II (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1992), 816–819; Haass interview, March 16, 2009; Kimmitt personal communication, August 26, 2014; also see Haass, Wars of Necessity, Wars of Choice.

549. Haass quoted in Rothkopf, Running the World, 297–298.

550. See Woodward, The Commanders, 290–296; Richard Cheney with Liz Cheney, In My Time (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 196–197; DeYoung, Soldier, 243.

551. Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 205; Scowcroft interview, July 27, 2009; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 341; Lawrence Eagleburger interview, April 19, 2009.

552. DeYoung, Soldier, 199.

553. Gates interview, BOHP, 52.

554. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 431; Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 96–97.

555. “Janet Mullins,” folder 4, Box 173, [book notes],7–8, Baker Papers.

556. Dave Carney interview, June 15, 2009; Walter Kansteiner interview, May 18, 2009.

557. See, for example, “Background Briefing by Senior Administration Official,” August 9, 1990, OA/ID CF00703-015, “Middle East Gulf Crisis [6],” Roman Popadiuk files, NSC Collection, BPR.

558. David Lauter, “Brent Scowcroft,” in Fateful Decisions, 204.

559. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 147.

560. Steven Mufson, “The Privatization of Craig Fuller,” Washington Post Magazine, August 2, 1992; John R. MacArthur, Second Front: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War (New York: Hill & Wang, 1992), 49; Carney interview, June 15, 2009.

561. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 341.

562. See Michael Massing, “The Way to War,” New York Review of Books, March 28, 1991; Douglas Kellner, The Persian Gulf TV War (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), 68.

563. John Stauber and Sheldon Rampton, Toxic Sludge Is Good For You (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1995).

564. Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 155.

565. David Demarest interview, August 18, 2009; also see Memorandum from the President to John Sununu, Brent Scowcroft, November 23, 1990 (Cairo), Issues Files, “Persian Gulf Working Group,” John Sununu Files, OA/ID CF00472, BPR.

566. One of those on the Iraq Working Group, Deb Amend—whose surname is now Gullett—was “special assistant to the president for communications.” She reports: “When David Souter was nominated to the Supreme Court, we figured out which states I needed to work on to generate support in states where would matter for the senators voting on the nomination. We complemented the regular press office. Where senators were iffy or where we wanted to persuade them, that’s where we worked. We would look at media markets, usually in response to legislative initiatives, and figure out here are the six states (for example) we are worried about and we would focus on garnering support in those states and come up with a menu of things to focus on. Local media interviews, talk radio, not like today where everything is available by satellite hookup. . . . The Press Office do their thing, and we would give resonance, worked mostly with public affairs and congressional liaison shops. [The administration] had different working group, depend[ing]” (Deb Gullett interview, February 20, 2009).

567. Gullett interview, February 20, 2009; Demarest interview, February 29, 2009. Demarest said that the next five weeks were the most fun he ever had in the White House.

568. Memorandum for Sununu from Demarest, November 28, 1990, OA/ID CF006670, Issues file, “Persian Gulf Working Group,” John Sununu Series, BPR.

569. Memorandum for David Demarest from Deb Amend, “Working Group Report,” December 4, 1990, OA/ID CF006567, Issues Files, “Persian Gulf Working Group,” John Sununu Series, BPR.

570. Memorandum for David Demarest from Deb Amend, “Gulf Working Group Status Report,” December 5, 1990; Demarest interview, August 8, 2009. Like Vietnam, too, the administration tracked the antiwar protests both on and off campuses. See Memorandum for Deb Amend from Lisa Battaglia, “Student Activism Against U.S. Involvement in the Gulf,” December 20, 1990, OA/ID CF006573, Issues file, “Persian Gulf Working Group,” John Sununu Series, BPR.

571. Gullett interview, February 20, 2009. “General Scowcroft and his staff were consistently nice, pleasant, and this was a reflection of General Scowcroft,” she recalled. Demarest also attested to the fact that Scowcroft was “quietly effective.” He held his counsel, rarely tried to dominate conversations—indeed, as national security advisor he didn’t see it as his role to be outspoken—and “chose his battles wisely” (Demarest interview, August 8, 2009).

572. Memorandum for David Demarest, from Deb Amend, December 11, 1990, “Pending Projects,” OA/ID CF006677, Issues file, “Persian Gulf Working Group,” John Sununu Series, BPR.

573. Memorandum for Governor Sununu through David Demarest from Deb Amend, December 20, 1990, CF00468, John Sununu Series, “Communication (Demarest) (1991) [3],” BPR; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 426–427. Also see Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 105; Haass describes himself as conducting “public diplomacy” when he met with the New York Times editorial board, a group of prominent Jewish leaders, and the Council of Foreign Relations.

574. Scowcroft quoted in Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 152–153.

575. MacArthur, Second Front, 49–50.

576. Demarest interview, August 8, 2009.

577. Memorandum for David Demarest from Deb Amend, “Working Group Report,” December 4, 1990, OA/ID CF006567, Issues file, “Persian Gulf Working Group,” John Sununu Series, BPR.

578. See, for example, Memorandum for Governor Sununu from Ed Rogers, FYI, December 2, 1990, Issues Files, “Persian Gulf War 1991 [7],” Sununu Files, OA/ID CF00472, BPR. Attached to Rogers’ memorandum was a “National Tracking Summary,” Citizens for a Free Kuwait, November 27, 1990, Wirthlin Group, #5332-12. (Rogers was the deputy chief of staff.) Pickering interview, BOHP, 25.

579. Mufson, “The Privatization of Craig Fuller”; Kellner, The Persian Gulf TV War, 67–71; MacArthur, Second Front.

580. Mufson, “The Privatization of Craig Fuller.”

581. See Parmet, George Bush, 310–311; Woodward, The Commanders, 343–344. Neither does Woodward bring up Hill & Knowlton or its chairman, Robert Gray, who ran the Citizens for a Free Kuwait account and who cochaired Reagan’s inaugural committee in 1981, in his discussion of the incubator baby story or of Iraqi human rights violations—many of them atrocities, to be sure—in Kuwait.

582. Bob Schieffer interview, June 2009.

583. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 417–418; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 157.

584. Am. Embassy Muscat for USIA Ed Bernier, “Public Affairs Strategy for the Kuwait/Iraq Crisis,” 141258Z Aug 90, “File Kuwait Iraq-Middle East” file, OA/ID CF00703-005 [3], Popadiuk Papers, NSC Collection, BPR; “Three Scenarios to End the Gulf Crisis,” “Iraq-December 1990 [6],” Haass Working File, NSC Collection, BPR.

585. “Presidential Calls During Iraq-Kuwait Crisis,” “File Kuwait Iraq-Middle East [3]” file, OA/ID CF00703-005, Popadiuk Papers, NSC Collection, BPR.

586. Rothkopf, Running the World, 298; also see Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 303–304; US General Accounting Office, Report to the Chairman, Committee on Armed Forces, House of Representatives, “Persian Gulf Allied Burden Sharing Efforts,” December 1991, GAO/NSIAD-92-71.

587. Jean Edward Smith, George Bush’s War (New York: Henry Holt, 1992), 232–233.

588. Memorandum for James Cicconi from William F. Sittmann, “Changes to President’s Address to Jt. Session of Congress,” September 11, 1990, “Address to Joint Session of Congress 9/11/90, [2],” OA/ID 5376, “Speech Draft” file, David Snow records, Speechwriting Series, BPR,.

589. Bush and Gorbachev quoted in Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 146; Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 266.

590. Bush and Gorbachev quoted in Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 146.

591. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 147–148.

592. Jeffrey Engel, “The Gulf War at the End of the Cold War and Beyond,” in Into the Desert: Reflections on the Gulf War, ed. Jeffrey Engel (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 43. Cheney, BOHP, 149; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 338, 362.

593. Scowcroft cited in Sigal, Hang Separately, 99.

594. Sigal, Hang Separately, 100; Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 282–283, 292–293.

595. Bush interview, December 18, 2009.

596. Gates interview, BOHP, 71; Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 147–149; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 351–352; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 149.

597. Telcon with President Turgut Özal of Turkey, January 12, 1991, 6:55–6:59 P.M., Camp David, 1991 Telcons, BPR.

598. Gibbs and Duffy, The Presidents Club, 406–408.

599. Ibid..

600. Ibid..

601. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 348–353.

602. Kimmitt, personal communication, August 26, 2014; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 420.

603. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 353–354.

604. Friedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 236; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 437.

605. Friedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 241; Cheney interview, BOHP, 71.

606. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 442–443.

607. Philip Zelikow quoted in Cheney, BOHP, 70; Cheney interview, BOHP, 71.

608. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 154.

609. Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 224; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 420–421.

610. Scowcroft interview, February 23, 2010; Cheney interview, BOHP, 87.

611. Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 159.

612. “Janet Mullins,” folder 4, Box 173 [book notes], Baker Papers, 18–23.

613. Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 211; Cheney interview, BOHP, 88; Paul Nitze and Michael F. Stafford, “War Whether We Need It or Not? A Blockade—Plus Bombs—Can Win,” Washington Post, January 6, 1991.

614. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 444–446.

615. “Janet Mullins,” folder 4, Box 173 [book notes], Baker Papers, 18–23.

616. Cheney interview, BOHP, 88. Nunn later said that the Bush administration “could have done much better” and said he still thought it was the right decision (Nunn interview, April 24, 2012).

617. Friedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 202, 203–204; Smith, George Bush’s War, 187–188; Cheney interview, BOHP, 57.

618. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 437–438.

619. Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 224; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 433; Warren H. Donnelly, “Iraq and Nuclear Weapons,” Updated December 21, 1990, CRS Issue Brief, DNSA, IG 01607, 5, 8; also see Telcon with Prime Minister Felipe Gonzalez of Spain, January 21, 1991, 7:48–8:02 A.M., Camp David, 1991 Telcons, BPR; Richard L. Russell, “CIA’s Strategic Intelligence in Iraq,” in Strategic Intelligence: Windows into a Secret World, eds. Loch Johnson and James J. Wirtz (Los Angeles: Roxbury, 2004), 148.

620. Philip Zelikow quoted in Cheney interview, BOHP, 70.

621. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 447.

622. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 1546.

Chapter 24: War in the Gulf

623. Maureen Dowd, “Storm’s Eye: Bush Decides to Go to War,” New York Times, August 9, 1990, A16.

624. Cheney interview, BOHP, 143–144.

625. Gates interview, BOHP, 65; Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict 1990–1991, 333–341.

626. Telephone conversation with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney of Canada, January 18, 1991, 10:10 A.M.–10:20 A.M., Oval Office, Telcons 1991, BPR.

627. Gates interview, BOHP, 65; Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 333–341. Also see President’s Phone Call to King Fahd of Saudi Arabia on January 20, 1991, January 20, 1991; 3:45–4:05 P.M., Camp David, 1991 Telcons, BPR.

628. Telephone conversation with Prime Minister Brian Mulroney of Canada, January 18, 1991, 10:10 A.M.–10:20 A.M. Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR; Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 91–92.

629. President’s Phone Call to King Fahd of Saudi Arabia on January 20, 1991, January 20, 1001; 3:45–4:05 P.M., Camp David, 1991 Telcons, BPR.

630. Telecon to President François Mitterrand of France, October 11, 1990, 3:41–4:00 P.M., The Oval Office, Telcons 1990, BPR; Thomas Pickering interview, March 27, 2014.

631. Roger Hilsman, George Bush v. Saddam Hussein: Military Success! Political Failure? (Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1992), 98.

632. Telephone Conversation with President Mikhail Gorbachev of the Soviet Union, January 18, 1991, 9:23–10:34 A.M., The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR.

633. Israel: Foreign Assistance Facts, Congressional Research Service, March 15, 1990; www.meriporg/mer/mer164–165/us-aid-israel?ip_login_no_cache=9e640ef695ca7d615332202d37f47881.

634. Elliott Abrams interview, October 6, 2010; Nicholas Rostow interview, April 28, 2009; Leslie Gelb interview, April 9, 2014; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 163.

635. Thomas L. Friedman and Patrick E. Tyler, “After the War: A Reconstruction,” New York Times, March 2, 1991.

636. Brent Scowcroft, Memorandum for Philip Brady, “Talking Points for President’s Meeting with Jewish Leaders,” January 31, 1991, Chron file, BPR.

637. See “Telephone Call with President François Mitterrand of France,” February 16, [1991], 10:18–10:27 A.M., Kennebunkport, Maine, 1991 Telcons, BPR; Telcon with President Turgut Özal of Turkey on February 19, 1991, February 19, 1991, 5:03–5:16 P.M., The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR; Telcon with President Mikhail Gorbachev of the USSR on February 22, 1991, February 22, 1991, 11:31–12:43 P.M., The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR.

638. Telephone Conversation with President Mikhail Gorbachev of the Soviet Union,” February 22, 1991, 11:31 A.M.–12:43 P.M., The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR; also see Telephone Conversation with President Mikhail Gorbachev of the Soviet Union,” February 22, 1991, 11:31 A.M.–12:43 P.M., The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR.

639. “Telephone Conversation with President Mikhail Gorbachev of the Soviet Union,” January 18, 1991, 9:23–10:34 A.M., The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR (there was a ten-minute interruption of the call at 10:10 to 10:20 (at which time Bush spoke to Prime Minister Mulroney), so it was sixty-one, not seventy-one, minutes in length; Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 382–383.

640. “US-USSR and the Persian Gulf,” US Department of State Dispatch, 2, no. 5 (February 4, 1991).

641. Gates interview, BOHP, 63; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 432; Dick Cheney interview, May 13, 2009.

642. Gates interview, BOHP, 63; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 432.

643. Cheney interview, BOHP, 142; Scowcroft interview, June 30, 2013; Russell, “CIA’s Strategic Intelligence in Iraq,” 149.

644. Brent Scowcroft, February 23, 1991, “Handwritten Notes (of meetings/calls, etc.) 1991 [3],” Handwritten Meeting Notes Files, Meetings files, Brent Scowcroft Collection, BPR.

645. See President’s Call to the King of Saudi Arabia, February 2, 1991, 3:03–3:35, Camp David, 1991 Telcons, BPR; Scowcroft interview, March 20, 2014.

646. “America’s Wars,” Department of Veterans Affairs, May 2013, www.va.gov/opa/publications/factsheets/fs_americas_wars.pdf (August 28, 2014).

647. Gates interview, BOHP, 61. Scowcroft quoted in Rothkopf, Running the World, 299.

648. Powell, My American Journey, 521, 522.

649. Scowcroft interview, August 12, 2009; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 150–151.

650. Cheney interview, BOHP, 66.

651. Gates interview, BOHP, 34.

652. Richard Haass, “US (Coalition) War Objectives and War Termination Working Paper,” January 1991, cited in Michael R. Gordon, “The Last War Syndrome: How the United States and Iraq Learned the Wrong Lessons from Desert Storm,” in Into the Desert: Reflections on the Gulf War, ed. Jeffrey Engel (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 128–129; Scowcroft interview, January 27, 2010. Also see Telcon with Helmut Kohl, March 21, 1991, 3:02–3:23 P.M., The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 166.

653. Powell, My American Journey, 527; Rothkopf, Running the World, 299.

654. Telephone Conversation with President Turgut Ozal of Turkey, February 5, 1991, 10:02–10:17 A.M., The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR; Telephone Call with Prime Minister Gonzalez of Spain, February 9, 1991, 7:20–7:40 A.M., Camp David, 1991 Telcons, BPR; also see Ricks, Fiasco, 5–6; Thomas E. Ricks, The Generals: American Military Command from World War II to Today (New York: Penguin, 2012), 374–385; Hilsman, Saddam Hussein v. George Bush, 103.

655. Thomas G. Mahnken, “A Squandered Opportunity? The Decision to End the Gulf War,” in The Gulf War of 1991 Reconsidered, eds. Andrew J. Bacevich and Efraim Inbar (London: Frank Cass, 2003), 126–136; also see Michael Sterner, “Closing the Gate: The Persian Gulf War Revisited,” Current History 96, no. 606 (January 1997): 13–19; Gordon and Trainor, The General’s War, 412–416, 419–420.

656. Powell, My American Journey, 527; Rothkopf, Running the World, 299.

657. Hilsman, Saddam Hussein vs. George Bush, 209, 211–212.

658. Michael Gordon, “The Last War Syndrome,” Into the Desert, 136–137.

659. Rostow interview, April 28, 2009.

660. Cheney interview, BOHP, 145; Gates interview, BOHP, 64.

661. Scowcroft interview, December 2007.

662. Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 166; Joseph Trento, Prelude to Terror (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2005), 349–350; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 463–464.

663. Kimmitt interview, March 2, 2010; Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 135–137; Scowcroft interviews, December, 2007. Also see William J. Crowe Jr. The Line of Fire: From Washington to the Gulf, the Politics and Battles of the New Military (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993), 322, 339.

664. John Podhoretz, “Beyond Bush 41,” New York Post, August 20, 2002; William Kristol, “Interviews—William Kristol,” Frontline, PBS, January 14, 2003, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/iraq/interviews/kristol.html.

665. Gordon and Trainor, The Generals’ War, xiii.

666. “National Security Directive 26: Subject: U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf,” October 2, 1989, www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsd/nsd26.pdf.

667. Michael Massing, “The Way to War,” New York Review of Books, March 28, 1991.

668. Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 133.

669. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 309, 312; Jeffrey Engel, “The Gulf War at the End of the Cold War and Beyond,” in Into the Desert, 31–33; Gates interview, BOHP, 48.

670. Tutwiler quoted in Martin Yant, Desert Mirage (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991), 85.

671. Gordon and Trainor, The General’s War, 85.

672. J. Stapleton Roy, Executive Secretary, Department of State, “Memorandum for Brent Scowcroft,” May 16, 1990, IG01379, DNSA; Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 36–37.

673. Gordon, “The Last War Syndrome,” 122–123.

674. Kaleem Omar, “Is the State Department Still Keeping April Glaspie Under Wraps?” News International (Pakistan), www.informationclearinghouse.info/article11376.html; Robert Gates, “The Gulf War,” Oral History, Frontline, PBS, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/oral/gates/1.html.

675. Gordon, “The Last War Syndrome,” 127, 139–140; Bob Zoellick, 1993, Folder 8, Box 173, Baker Papers; Robert Gates, “The Gulf War,” Frontline.

676. John E. Robson to Brent Scowcroft, “Report to the Economic Analysis Group and the Oil Supply Situation,” OA/ID CF00472, “Persian Gulf War 1991 [4], August 14, 1990, John Sununu Series, Office of the Chief of Staff, BPR; “Loss of Iraqi Crude,” “Persian Gulf War 1991 [6],” n.d., John Sununu Series, Office of the Chief of Staff, BPR

677. Toryali Hemat quoted in Roy Gutman, How We Missed the Story: Osama bin Laden, the Taliban, and the Hijacking of Afghanistan (Sterling, VA: Potomac Books, 2007), 15.

678. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy; Telcon with Turgut Özal, President of Turkey on April 2, 1991, 11:49–11:56 A.M., Islamorada Island, Florida, 1991 Telcons, BPR; Telephone Conversation with President François Mitterrand of France, April 11, 1991, 1:45–2:00 P.M., The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR.

679. Haass, Wars of Necessity, Wars of Choice; Studs Terkel, The Good War (New York: Vintage Books, 1984); Ryan C. Crocker, foreword, in Into the Desert: Reflections on the Gulf War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), xii. The wording “war of necessity” and “war of choice” was previously used by Anthony Lewis in the New York Times in a column of 1983 in reference to Israel’s wars (William Safire, “On Language,” New York Times, May 10, 2009).

680. Telephone conversation with F. W. de Klerk of South Africa on February 4, 1991, 9:45–10:05 A.M., 1991 Telcons, BPR; Telcon with President Mubarak of Egypt on February 22, 1991, The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR.

681. See President George Bush 1990 Telcons, 1991 Telcons, BPR, http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/memcons_telcons.php.

682. Maureen Dowd, “Washington Goes to War, Besieging the TV Set,” New York Times, January 29, 1991, A13.

683. Zelikow quoted in Cheney interview, BOHP, 68–69.

684. Phillip D. Brady interview, BOHP, 33.

685. Goldberg, “Breaking Ranks”; Freedman and Karsh, The Gulf Conflict.

686. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 162.

687. Bobbie Kilberg interview, March 9, 2009. Kilberg headed the Office of Public Liaison, and was ranked as a “deputy assistant to the president,” the same as Demarest; Scowcroft and Sununu were “assistants to the president.”

688. Gates, From the Shadows, 458.

689. “Presidential Medal Ceremony White House State Floor,” White House Briefing, Federal News Service, July 3, 1991.

690. Goldberg, “Breaking Ranks.”

691. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 505.

692. “To White House via Cabinet Office Channels Only,” “Personal for General Scowcroft from Prime Minister Thatcher,” September 29, 1990.

693. Gates interview, BOHP, 11; also see Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 68.

694. Gates interview, BOHP, 11.

695. Dowd, “Washington Goes to War, Besieging the TV Set.”

696. Jack Brennan interview, February 24, 2009; Dave Carney interview, June 15, 2009.

697. Schmitz, Brent Scowcroft, 162; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 487.

698. Haass, War of Necessity, War of Choice, 83.

699. Virginia Mulberger interview, July 8, 2013.

Chapter 25: End of Empire

700. John Sununu interview, BOHP, 101; also see Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 286; Quayle, Standing Firm, 167.

701. “Mikhail Gorbachev Reflects on Working Toward Peace,” Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, Santa Clara University, www.scu.edu/ethics/architects-of-peace/Gorbachev/essay.html.

702. “Meeting with Eduard Shevardnadze, Foreign Minister of the Soviet Union,” September 21, 2:00 P.M.–3:05 P.M., The Oval Office,” Memcons, BPR.

703. John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: Penguin, 2005), 257.

704. “Telcon with Brian Mulroney, Prime Minister of Canada,” May 15, 1991, 9:39 A.M.–9:46 A.M., The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR.

705. Popadiuk interview, BOHP, 29; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 563.

706. James M. Goldgeier and Michael McFaul, Power and Purpose: U.S. Policy Toward Russia After the Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003), 21. Also see Sigal, Hang Separately, 181.

707. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 85.

708. “The Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty and the Adapted CFE Treaty at a Glance,” Arms Control Organization, August 2012, www.armscontrol.org/print/4458.

709. “Treaty Between the United States of America and the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics on Strategic Offensive Reductions (START I),” Nuclear Threat Initiative, www.nti.org/treaties-and-regimes/treaties-between-united-states-america-and-union-soviet-socialist-republics-strategic-offensive-reductions-start-i-start-ii.

710. Memorandum Scowcroft to Secretary of State et al., “The U.S. Economic Relation with the Soviet Union,” May 31, 1991, “Meeting with General Scowcroft, Situation Room, re: U.S. Economic Relationship with Soviet Union,” A/ID CF01113-051, Michael Boskin files, Council of Economic Advisers, BPR; James Woolsey interview, May 7, 2009; “A Deal for You,” Washington Times, March 26, 1992; “Soviet Noncompliance with Arms Control Agreements,” March 16, 1992, “Report to Congress, Soviet Non-Compliance, March 1992 [1],” CFO1639-006, John A. Gordon Files, NSC Collection, BPR.

711. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 395.

712. Hutchings, American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War, 329; Marlin Fitzwater interview, February 27, 2008; Naftali, George H. W. Bush, 138–139.

713. Hutchings, American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War, 329.

714. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 516.

715. Kitty Kelley, The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty (New York: Doubleday, 2004), 485.

716. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 518–536; Scowcroft interview, December 2007; Duffy and Goodgame, Marching in Place, 173; Brent Scowcroft interview with Timothy Naftali, Director, Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, “HBO History Maker Series: Brent Scowcroft,” October 3, 2007. Also see Quayle, Standing Firm, 174; Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 422–441; Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 514–523; Naftali, George H. W. Bush, 137; Hutchings, American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War, 329–330.

717. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 430–433.

718. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 75.

719. Scowcroft interview, September 1, 2009.

720. “Telephone Conversation with President Boris Yeltsin of Russia,” December 17, 1991; 10:45–11:15 A.M., Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR; Hutchings, American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War, 336.

721. “Telephone Conversation with President Boris Yeltsin of Russia,” December 17, 1991; 10:45–11:15 A.M. Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR; Hutchings, American Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War, 336; Plokhy, The Last Empire, 263.

722. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 563.

723. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 448–449; Sigal, Hang Separately, 252–256.

724. Memorandum of Conversation, “NATO Summit,” November 7, 1991, 5:35–6:00 P.M., Sheraton Hotel, Conference Center, Rome, Memcons, BPR.

725. Memorandum of Conversation, “Luncheon Meeting with President Gorbachev,” October 29, 1991, Memcons, BPR.

726. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 412–413, 441, 444.

727. Ann Devroy, quoted in Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 438–444; Plokhy, The Last Empire, 145.

728. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 542, 543–544.

729. Popadiuk, BOHP, 29; also see Goldgeier and McFaul, Power and Purpose, 35; Plokhy, The Last Empire, 199–201.

730. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 447, 455.

731. Ibid., 455.

732. National Security Council, October 22, 1991, 12:13 EDT, “USSR Contingency Papers (Past),” Burns, R. Nicholas, NSC, OA/ID CF01498-008, BPR; Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 556–557.

733. “Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 402–405; Scowcroft interview, December 2007; Naftali, George H. W. Bush, 136.

734. Sam Nunn interview, April 23, 2012; Susan Koch interview, August 31, 2014.

735. Kanter interview, March 24, 2009; Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 188–190.

736. Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 188–189; Kanter interview, March 24, 2009.

737. Kanter quoted in Daalder and Destler, In the Shadow of the Oval Office, 189; Kanter interview, March 24, 2009.

738. Scowcroft interview, April 25, 2013; Kanter interview, March 24 and 27, 2009; Brent Scowcroft, Memorandum for D. Allan Bromley, February 22, 1992, “International Fund to Aid Basic Science in Russia,” Russia files, WHORM 325472 CO165, Bush Library; Brent Scowcroft, “Meeting with President of the Russian Federation Boris Yeltsin,” February 1, 1992, Camp David, 10:00 A.M., Russia files, WHORM 324647 CO165; John A. Gordon, “Concrete Progress on Nuclear Initiatives,” February 2, 1992, “June 1992 [U.S.-Russian] Summit—March 1992], John A. Gordon Files, NSC Collection, BPR. Also see Brent Scowcroft to George Bush, “Re: Foreign Minister Kozyrev’s Appeal to Secretary Baker to Help Save Russian Science,” January 31, 1992, OA/ID CF01939, “Brain Drain—February 1992 [2 of 2],” John Gordon Files, NSC Collection, BPR.

739. See, for example, Ray S. Cline, “Technology Proliferation from the Soviet Republics: Threat and Opportunity,” United States Global Strategy Council, n.d., [circa October 25, 1991], OA/ID CF01343, “CIS-Folder #1 [3 of 3] Daniel Poneman Files,” NSC Collection, BPR; Memorandum, Graham Allison to General Brent Scowcroft, November 21, 1991, OA/ID CF01343, “CIS-Folder #1 [3 of 3],” Daniel Poneman Files, NSC Collection, BPR, Daniel Poneman Memorandum for Jonathan Howe, “Combating the Spread of Militarily-Useful Technology from the Former Soviet Union,” March 16, 1992, “Brain Drain—March 1992,” John A. Gordon files, NSC Collection, BPR.

740. Susan Koch interview, personal communication, September 4, 2014; also see Sigal, Hang Separately, 232–233.

741. Susan Koch interview, February 2009; Kanter interview, March 24, 2009; Kimmitt personal communication, August 25, 2014.

742. See “Nunn-Lugar Revisited,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 447, Tom Blanton and Svetlana Savranskaya with Ann Melyakova, November 23, 2013, www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB447.

743. Goldgeier and McFaul, Power and Purpose, 51.

744. Gates, From the Shadows, 525–527; Brent Scowcroft, Memorandum for the President, “Turmoil in the Soviet Union and U.S. Policy,” August 18, 1990, NSC PA Files, Document Number 9006249, NSC Collection, BPR.

745. Scowcroft quoted in Goldgeier and McFaul, Power and Purpose, 42–43; see Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 543–545; also see Sigal, Hang Separately, 232–233.

746. Memo from Daniel Poneman to Jonathan Howe, “Re: DC Meeting on the Spread of Militarily-Useful Technologies from the Former Soviet Union,” March 16, 1992, OA/ID CFO1637-005, “Brain Drain—March 1992,” John A. Gordon series, NSC Collection, BPR.

747. Memorandum from Ed A. Hewett for Brent Scowcroft, “Discussion at the B-C-S Breakfast on Planning for Soviet Contingencies,” November 25, 1991, OA/ID CFO 1656-006, “Contingency Group, December 1991,” John A. Gordon records, NSC Collection, BPR; also see Memorandum for the Record from Daniel Poneman, “FSU Hemorrhage Working Group,” December 18, 1991, OA/ID CF01656-002, “Brain Drain,” John A. Gordon records, NSC Collection, BPR.

748. Susan J. Koch, “The Presidential Nuclear Initiatives of 1991–1992,” Center for the Study of Weapons of Mass Destruction Case Study 5 (Washington, DC: National Defense University Press, September 2012), 14–15. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 542, 544–546; Cheney interview, BOHP, 115.

749. Susan J. Koch, “The Presidential Nuclear Initiatives of 1991–1992,” 19.

750. Koch, “The Presidential Nuclear Initiatives of 1991–1992,” 19–20.

751. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 669–671.

752. “START II and Its Extension Protocol at a Glance,” Arms Control Association, January 2003, www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/start2; Susan J. Koch, personal communication, September 4, 2014.

753. Nicholas F. Brady, Memorandum for the President, “Visit to the Soviet Union, September 18–20, 1991,” OA/ID CFO1498-010, “USSR Economic Assistance [2],” subject file, R. Nicholas Burns and Ed Hewitt Series, NSC Collection, BPR.

754. Scheid interview, January 26, 2009.

755. Scowcroft interview, February 23, 2010; Kanter interview, March 24, 2009; Andrew Futter, Ballistic Missile Defence and US National Security Policy: Normalisation and Acceptance after the Cold War (New York: Routledge, 2013), 15. See John Newhouse, War and Peace in the Nuclear Age (New York: Knopf, 1989).

756. US Mission US NATO to US Secretary of State, “Intervention by Secretary Baker at the NAC Ministerial, December 19, 1991,” file “Commonwealth, December 1991,” OA/ID CF01956-005, John A. Gordon Series, NSC Collection, BPR.

757. “The President’s News Conference Following the North Atlantic Treaty Organization Summit in London, United Kingdom,” Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush: 1990, Book II, 972.

758. Brent Scowcroft to President Bush, “Proposed Presidential Letters to the London Summit Participants Concerning the Meeting with Gorbachev,” n.d., “USSR Chron File: July 1991,” OA/ID CF01407-006, Chronological Files, R. Nicholas Burns and Ed Hewett Series, NCS Collection, BPR; Brent Scowcroft, “Meeting on Soviet Economic Issues and the London Economic Summit,” June 21, 1991, Cabinet Room, 8:30–9:30 A.M., “G-7,” OA/ID CFO1486-019, R. Nicholas Burns and Ed Hewitt Series, NSC Collection, BPR.

759. Timothy Deal interview, June 9, 2009; Scowcroft interview, November 4, 2010; Plokhy, The Last Empire, 330–332. See also Brent Scowcroft, “Meeting on Soviet Economic Issues and the London Economic Summit,” June 21, 1991, Cabinet Room, 8:30–9:30 A.M., “G-7,” OA/ID CFO1486-019, R. Nicholas Burns and Ed Hewitt Series, NSC Collection, BPR.

760. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 381–392; Sigal, Hang Separately, 220–224.

761. Timothy Deal interview, June 9, 2009; Scowcroft interview, November 4, 2010.

762. Scowcroft, May 2, 1991, “Handwritten Notes (of meetings/calls, etc.) 1991 [3],” “Handwritten Meeting Notes Files,” Meetings files, Brent Scowcroft Collection, BPR; Memo Brent Scowcroft to Secretary of State, et al., “The U.S. Economic Relation with the Soviet Union,” May 31, 1991, “Meeting with General Scowcroft, Situation Room, re: U.S. Economic Relationship with Soviet Union,” OA/ID CF01113-051, Michael Boskin files, Council of Economic Advisers, BPR,.

763. Ibid.; Goldgeier and McFaul, Power and Purpose, 61; Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 75.

764. Gates, From the Shadows, 504; Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 407.

765. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 407; Sigal, Hang Separately, 225.

766. See Daniel L. Bond, “The Role of Export Credit Agencies in the ‘New East,’” 384–386, and Patricia A. Wertman, “The External Financial Position of the Former Soviet Union: From Riches to Rags?” 398–400, in Joint Economic Committee, The Former Soviet Union in Transition, Vol. 1, US 103d Congress, 1st Session, S. Print 103–111 (Washington, DC.: US GPO, 1993).

767. Goldgeier and McFaul, Power and Purpose, 61; Michael Parks, “Soviet Union Granted Billions in Debt Relief,” Los Angeles Times, November 22, 1991, http://articles.latimes.com/1991–11–22/news/mn-47_1_soviet-union; Toby Gati interview, May 12, 2014. Also see Memorandum from Under Secretary Mulford to Secretary Brady, “Preparing Russia’s Rescheduling,” August 31, 1992, in Paul Wonnacott files, Council of Economic Advisers, “USSR(CIS & NIS)” OA/ID CF01111012, BPR; Memorandum David Mulford (Treasury), Robert Green (Agriculture), Paul Wonnacott (CEA) to General Scowcroft, September 4, 1992, OA/ID CF01111012, Paul Wonnacott files, Council of Economic Advisers, “USSR (CIS & NIS)” BPR.

768. “U.S. Assistance to Russia,” June 17, 1992, Press Release, The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, OA/ID CF01339, in “[Bush/Yeltsin Washington] Summit [2], [June 15–16] 1992, Susan Koch files, NSC Collection, BPR; Goldgeier and McFaul, Power and Purpose, 77–78; Plokhy, The Last Empire, 237.

769. Brent Scowcroft, “Meeting with President of the Russian Federation Boris Yeltsin,” February 1, 1992, Camp David, 10:00 A.M., OA/ID CO165 324647, “Russia” file, WHORM, BPR.

770. Goldgeier and McFaul, Power and Purpose, 79, 81. Also see Gates, From the Shadows, 504.

771. See Monica Crowley, Nixon in Winter (New York: Random House, 1998). Crowley recounts the frequent contact Nixon had with his former military assistant and deputy national security advisor.

772. “Statement on Signing the FREEDOM Support Act,” October 24, 1992, Administration of George Bush, 1992 (Washington: GPO 1993), 1973–1974 “FREEDOM” stood for the “Freedom for Russia and Emerging Eurasian Democracies and Open Markets.”

773. Memorandum of Conversation, “Lunch with President Mikhail Gorbachev of the USSR,” July 30, 1991, 1:28–2:07 P.M., Official Residence Dining Hall, Kremlin, Memcons, BPR.

774. “Role of the American Private Sector in the Economic and Democratic Development of the Soviet Union and Its Constituent Republics” [n.a.], October 21, 1991, “USSR Economic Assistance [2],” Nick Burns, Ed Hewitt,” CFO1498-010, NSC, BPR.

775. Memcon, “Private Plenary Session, 1992 Munich Economic Summit, July 7, 1992, 10:20 A.M.–12:30 P.M.,” Residencz—Vierschlimmelsaal, Munich, OA/ID CF00971, “Munich Economic Summit [1],” Economic Summit Files, Eric Melby Files, NSC Collection, BPR,.

776. Memcon, “Joint Plenary Session, 1992 Munich Economic Summit,” Wednesday July 8, 1992, Munich, OA/ID CF00971, “Munich Economic Summit [1],” Economic Summit Files, Eric Melby Files, NSC Collection, BPR; Sigal, Hang Separately, 229.

777. Baker, The Politics of Diplomacy, 635; Bush, quoted in Frances Fitzgerald, Way Out in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 464; Scowcroft interview, December 2007.

778. “Private Plenary Session, 1992 Munich Economic Summit, July 7, 1992, 10:20 A.M.–12:30 P.M.,” Residencz—Vierschlimmelsaal, Munich, OA/ID CF00971, “Munich Economic Summit [1],” Economic Summit Files, Eric Melby Files, NSC Collection, BPR,; Goldgeier and McFaul, Power and Purpose, 84–86. Also see Sigal, Hang Separately.

779. Beschloss and Talbott, At the Highest Levels, 447; Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 583; Goldgeier and McFaul, Power and Purpose, 49; Gates, From the Shadows, 536. Also see “Telcon with President Boris Yeltsin of the Republic of Russia, USSR,” August 20, 1991, 8:18–8:15 A.M., The Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR; “Memorandum of Telephone Conversation with President Boris Yeltsin of the Russian Republic, USSR,” August 21, 1991, 8:30–9:05 A.M, Kennebunkport, 1991 Telcons, Bush Library; Memorandum of Telephone Conversation, Telcon with Boris Yeltsin, President of the Republic of Russia, USSR,” September 27, 1991, 12:30–12:36 P.M, Oval Office, 1991 Telcons, BPR.

780. Bush and Scowcroft, A World Transformed, 563–564.

781. “Welcome Back Professor Rice,” Interview with Condoleezza Rice, Newsletter, Spring 1991, Center for Russian & Eastern European Studies, Stanford University, 8.

782. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 84.

783. Ibid.

784. Scowcroft interview, BOHP, 85.

785. Richard Holbrooke, To End a War (New York: Random House, 1998), 26–28.

786. Central Intelligence Agency, “NIE 15-90: Yugoslavia Transformed, 18 Oct. 1990,” 656–659, in Patrick S. Roberts and Robert P. Saldin, “On a Need to Know Basis: The President’s Desire for Intelligence Opacity,” manuscript, Policy History Conference, June 4–7, 2014.

787. See Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 81–84, 127; Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 643.

788. Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 94.

789. Lenard J. Cohen, Broken Bonds: Yugoslavia’s Disintegration and Balkan Politics in Transition, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999), 219.

790. Ibid., 221.

791. Memorandum of Conversation, “Meeting with Manfred Woerner, Secretary-General of NATO,” June 25, 1991, 2:45–3:15 P.M., Oval Office, MemCons, BPR.

792. Ibid.

793. Ibid., 228–230.

794. Memorandum of Conversation, “NATO Summit,” November 7, 1991, 5:35–6:00 P.M., Sheraton Hotel, Conference Center, Rome, 1991 MemCons, BPR.

795. Arnold Kanter, in Oral History Roundtables, “The Bush Administration National Security Council,” April 29, 1999.

796. Kimmitt II, BOHP, 23–24.

797. David C. Gompert, “The United States and Yugoslavia’s Wars,” in The World and Yugoslavia’s Wars, ed. Richard H. Ullman (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1996).

798. Phyllis E. Oakley interview, ADST, 98; Holbrooke, To End a War, 22–23.

799. Lawrence Eagleburger interview, April 9, 2009; Kanter and Haass quoted in “The Bush Administration National Security Council,” 26–27; Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 148.

800. Warren Zimmermann, Origins of a Catastrophe: Yugoslavia and Its Destroyers—America’s Last Ambassador Tells What Happened and Why (New York: Times Books, 1996), 215; Baker, Politics of Diplomacy, 648–650.

801. Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 125; Thomas G. Weiss, “Collective Spinelessness: U.N. Actions in the Former Yugoslavia,” in The World and Yugoslavia’s Wars, ed. Richard H. Ullman (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1996), 59–96, 59–60.

802. Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 133–135; William Safire, “On Language,” New York Times, March 14, 1993.

803. Louis Sell, Slobodan Milosevic and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 265.

804. Ibid., 264.

805. Ibid.

806. Ibid., 266–267; Cheney interview, BOHP, 154; Richard H. Ullman, “The Wars in Yugoslavia and the International System After the Cold War,” in The World and Yugoslavia’s Wars, 9–41.

807. See, for example, Gorbachev, Memoirs, 548–549.

808. David Gompert, “The United States and Yugoslavia’s Wars,” in The World and Yugoslavia’s Wars, 128.

809. Zimmermann, Origins of a Catastrophe, 217–218, 237–239.

810. Scowcroft interview, December 2007 (n.d.).

811. “The United States Army in Somalia 1992–1994,” Prepared by Richard W. Stewart, U.S. Army Center of Military History, CMH Pub 70-81-1, 8, www.history.army.mil/brochures/Somalia/Somalia.htm.

812. John L. Hersh and Robert B. Oakley, Somalia and Operation Restore Hope: Reflections on Peacemaking and Peacekeeping (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1995), 25.

813. Valerie J. Lofland, “Somalia: U.S. Intervention and Operation Restore Hope,” 54, 57–58, www.au.af.mil/au/awd/awcgate/navy/pmi/somalia1.pdf, accessed June 20, 2014.

814. Ibid., 56.

815. Marianne K. Cusimano, “Operation Restore Hope: The Bush Administration’s Decision to Intervene in Somalia,” Case 463, Pew Case Studies in International Affairs (Washington, DC: The Institute for the Study of Diplomacy), 8.

816. Walter S. Poole, The Effort to Save Somalia, August 1992–March 1994 (Washington, DC: Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2005), 10; Don Oberdorfer, “The Path to Intervention; A Massive Tragedy ‘We Could Do Something About,’” Washington Post, December 6, 1992; Jonathan Howe interviews, June 20 and June 27, 2014.

817. Poole, The Effort to Save Somalia, 10; John L. Hersh and Robert B. Oakley, Somalia and Operation Restore Hope: Reflections on Peacemaking and Peacekeeping (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1995) 43; Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 251; Howe interview, June 20, 2014.

818. Lofland, “Somalia,” 60.

819. Poole, The Effort to Save Somalia, 20–21; Colin Powell with Joseph E. Persico, My American Journey (New York: Random House, 1999), 565; Howe interview, June 20, 2014; Oberdorfer, “The Path to Intervention.”

820. Oberdorfer, “The Path to Intervention”; “Appendix A, UN Security Council Resolution 794,” December 3, 1992, in Hersh and Oakley, Somalia and Operation Restore Hope, 177–181 (also see 45); Robert Baumann and Lawrence A. Yates with Versaille F. Washington, “My Clan Against the World”: US and Coalition Forces in Somalia 1992–1994 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2011), 30.

821. Poole, The Effort to Save Somalia, 23.

822. James L. Woods, “U.S. Decisionmaking During Operations in Somalia,” in Learning from Somalia: The Lessons of Armed Humanitarianism, eds. Walter S. Clarke and Jeffrey Herbst (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997), 159; Baumann and Yates, “My Clan Against the World,” 18.

823. Howe interview, June 27, 2014.

824. Hersh and Oakley, Somalia and Operation Restore Hope, x–xiii, 19; Halberstam, War in a Time of Peace, 254.

825. Poole, The Effort to Save Somalia, 70.

826. Lofland, “Somalia,” 53.