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Baal   A West Semitic weather and warrior deity. There is evidence that “Baal,” meaning “lord,” was a proper name for a deity as early as the third millennium BC and may have been identified with the god Hadad.

Excavations from the city of Ugarit have uncovered second-millennium BC texts dealing with the cult and mythology of Baal. These texts depict Baal as a god of weather and storm whose provision of precipitation ensures the seasonal cycles of crops. The Baal Cycle from Ugarit also depicts him defeating Yamm, the god of the sea, and Mot, the god of death. Some of these associations shed light on polemics against Baal in the OT. Yahweh’s withholding rain at Elijah’s request (1 Kings 17:1), for example, undermines Baal’s claim to control the weather. Further, descriptions of Yahweh as a storm god, such as Ps. 29, may be understood as polemical statements that Yahweh, not Baal, is the one who really controls the storm.

The worship of Baal alongside Yahweh received official sponsorship in Israel under Ahab (1 Kings 16:31–33) and in Judah under Manasseh (2 Kings 10:18–27). The worship of this deity was grounds for the exile of Israel (2 Kings 17:16).

Baal throwing lightning, on a stele from Ras Shamra

Baalah   (1) The town where the ark of the covenant was kept before moving it to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6:2). Sometimes referred to as “Baalah of Judah” (1 Chron. 13:6), it is also known as Kiriath Jearim (Josh. 15:9–11). The city is located on the northern border of Judah, modern Deir el-Azar, eight miles west of Jerusalem. (See also Kiriath Jearim.) (2) A town on the southern border of Judah (Josh. 15:29). This city may be the same as Balah (Josh. 19:3) and Bilhah (1 Chron. 4:29). It was occupied by the tribe of Simeon. Its location is unknown.

Baalah of Judah   See Baalah.

Baalath   A city allotted to Dan (Josh. 19:44). Its probable location is in the coastal plain, about twenty-seven miles west of Jerusalem. Solomon built up this and other cities by using forced labor (1 Kings 9:18; 2 Chron. 8:6). The Hebrew name of this city (ba’alah) is spelled differently from the name of the city referred to in 1 Chron. 4:33 (ba’al [some LXX manuscripts supply Balat or Balaad]), and it is unlikely that they are identical.

Baalath Beer   This city, also known as Ramah in the Negev, was part of the allotment of Simeon (Josh. 19:8) and is located in the south of Israel. Archaeologists have proposed Tel Malhata as a possible location. It is likely that it is the city referred to as Ramoth Negev, where David sent some of the plunder from his defeat of the Amalekites (1 Sam. 30:27).

Baalbek   See Heliopolis.

Baal-Berith   Meaning “Baal/Lord of the covenant,” this was Shechem’s local manifestation of the Canaanite deity Baal. Like the Baal worshiped at Ugarit, Baal-Berith was likely associated with fertility and vegetation (Judg. 9:27). Soon after the death of Gideon, the Israelites began to worship Baal-Berith (Judg. 8:33), and money from his temple at Shechem was given by the Shechemites to Abimelek (Judg. 9:4). The significance of “covenant” in this name and the relationship to El-Berith of Judg. 9:46 remain uncertain.

Baale, Baale-Judah   See Baalah.

Baal Gad   A place whose precise location has not been identified with certainty but is situated somewhere north of the Sea of Galilee below Mount Hermon. It is possible that it corresponds to the modern Banias. Baal Gad was a part of the territory of Og, king of Bashan, and it marked the northern limit of Joshua’s conquest (Josh. 11:17; 12:7; 13:5).

Baal Hamon   The location of a vineyard belonging to Solomon (Song 8:11). It might be identical to Hammon of Asher (Josh. 19:28).

Baal-Hanan   (1) A king of Edom (Gen. 36:38). (2) A man in charge of the olive and sycamore trees in the Shephelah during the reign of David (1 Chron. 27:28).

Baal Hazor   A city located near the border of Ephraim and Benjamin where Absalom held a feast and invited his brother Amnon in order to assassinate him for the rape of his sister Tamar (2 Sam. 13). It is possible that this city is identical to the Hazor that was resettled in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 11:33).

Baal Hermon   Also known as Seir, Mount Hermon, and Mount Baal Hermon, this is part of the territory of the half-tribe of Manasseh east of the Jordan (1 Chron. 5:23; cf. Josh. 13:11), which was taken by the Israelites under Moses from Og, king of Bashan (Deut. 3:8–9). Located northeast of Dan, it is the highest mountain in the traditional territory of Israel. According to Judg. 3:3, the Hivites remained in this region following the conquest.

Baali   A Hebrew name (meaning either “my husband/lord” or “my Baal”) that occurs only in Hos. 2:16. Apparently, Israelites had been using this name for Yahweh. On the one hand, since ba’al can mean “lord” or “husband,” this can be construed as an appropriate name for God. Since “Baal,” however, is also the name of one of the Canaanite deities whose worship plagued the history of both Israel and Judah, Hosea saw this name as inappropriate for the God of Israel.

Baalim   A transliteration of the Hebrew plural for “Baal,” appearing primarily in the KJV (e.g., Judg. 2:11; 10:10). Most modern translations use the plural form “Baals.” The plurality probably refers to various local Canaanite manifestations of a single deity.

Baalis   The king of Ammon at the beginning of the exile of Judah. He conspired with Ishmael to assassinate Gedaliah, the governor of Judah installed by the Babylonians after the destruction of Jerusalem (Jer. 40:14).

Baal Meon   A Transjordanian city allotted to the tribe of Reuben, also known as Beth Meon and Beth Baal Meon (Num. 32:38; Josh. 13:17; 1 Chron. 5:8). Ezekiel 25:9 identifies Baal Meon as a frontier town of Moab, indicating that at some point the Moabites, who bordered Reuben’s territory on the south, expanded their borders into the territory of Reuben. Jeremiah also includes this city in the list of cities belonging to Moab that would be destroyed by the Babylonians (Jer. 48:23). This city may be identified with the modern Ma’in, which is about three miles southeast of Heshbon.

Baal Peor   A Moabite deity, sometimes translated as “Baal of Peor” (see Num. 25), who was a local manifestation of the West Semitic god Baal. While the Israelites were staying in the region of Mount Peor in Moab, they were seduced by the Moabites into sexual immorality and the worship of Baal Peor. This incident is referenced in biblical literature several times as a paradigm of Israel’s sin and God’s judgment (Deut. 4:3; Josh. 22:17; Ps. 106:28; Hos. 9:10 [where Baal Peor is treated as a place name]).

Baal Perazim   The location of David’s defeat of the Philistine army (2 Sam. 5:20; 1 Chron. 14:11), about five miles southwest of Jerusalem. The name means “Baal/Lord who breaks out.” While “Baal” is also the proper name of a Canaanite deity, David’s statement after the defeat of the Philistines clearly intends the title to refer to the God of Israel.

Baal Shalishah   A city whose precise location is uncertain; it may border the region of Ephraim (see 1 Sam. 9:4). It could be identified with Khirbet Marjameh, a site located near Mount Baal Hazor. The Bible mentions this city as the hometown of a man who brought bread to Elisha (2 Kings 4:42). It may be the same as Shalisha, an area that Saul passed through when he was searching for lost donkeys (1 Sam. 9:4).

Baal Tamar   An unidentified location in the territory of Benjamin where the army of Israel took battle positions in their fight against the Benjamites during the period of the judges (Judg. 20:33). The name means “Baal/Lord of the palm tree.” It is to be distinguished from the location of the same name that lies on the southern border of Palestine.

Baal-Zebub   A deity of the Philistine city Ekron who appears only in 2 Kings 1:2, 3, 6, 16. “Baal-Zebub” probably means “Baal/Lord of the flies,” but it is possible that the original name of this deity was “Baal-Zebul,” perhaps meaning “Baal the prince.” This possibility finds support in the appearance of a similar name for a god in Ugaritic texts, the presence of the root zbl in the titles of other gods, and in the NT references to Beelzeboul as the name of a demon or prince of the demons (Matt. 10:25; 12:24, 27; Mark 3:22; Luke 11:15, 18–19). It is likely, therefore, that the author of 2 Kings intentionally changed the name “Baal-Zebul” to the similarly sounding pejorative “Baal-Zebub” for polemical reasons, and that by oral or another textual tradition the original name was remembered in the NT. Not much is known about this specific deity other than that it is one of the many local manifestations of the god Baal.

Baal Zephon   (1) A location near where the Israelites camped before they crossed the Red Sea (Exod. 14:2, 9; Num. 33:7). The exact location of this site is unknown. (2) One of the most important gods in the pantheon of Ugarit, who appears throughout the poetic and ritual texts uncovered in that city in the twentieth century.

Baana, Baanah   (1) Son of Rimmon, brother of Rekab, a Benjamite who was a leader of one of Ish-Bosheth’s raiding bands during his kingship. Along with his brother, he assassinated Ish-Bosheth, David’s rival, and brought his head to David. David rewarded him and Rekab with execution (2 Sam. 4). (2) One of the leaders who returned to Israel with Zerubbabel after the exile (Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7). It is possible that this is the same individual mentioned in Neh. 3:4 as the father of Zadok. (3) Son of Ahilud, and one of the twelve district governors appointed by King Solomon to supply provisions for the king and the royal household one month each year (1 Kings 4:12). (4) Son of Hushai, and one of the twelve district governors appointed by King Solomon to supply provisions for the king and the royal household one month each year (1 Kings 4:16). (5) A signer of the covenant to keep the law of Moses at the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 10:27). (6) The father of Heled, one of the mighty men of David’s army (1 Chron. 11:30).

Baara   One of the wives of Shaharaim the Benjamite (1 Chron. 8:8).

Baaseiah   Son of Malkijah, a Levite, included in the genealogy of the temple musician Asaph (1 Chron. 6:40).

Baasha   A king of Israel (906–883 BC) who gained ascendancy to the throne by means of a violent takeover, resulting in the death of his predecessor, Nadab (1 Kings 15:27–28). At the beginning of his reign Baasha killed the entire family of Jeroboam I, thus fulfilling Ahijah’s prophecy concerning the future of the wicked king’s line (14:10–11). Due to Baasha’s wickedness, however, his own family would suffer the same fate, as prophesied by Jehu (16:2–4). Baasha’s evil reign, characterized by continual war against Asa the king of Judah, lasted twenty-four years.

Babbler   A pejorative term used of Paul by a group of Epicurean and Stoic philosophers (Acts 17:18). The Greek term that it translates (spermologos) originally applied to birds pecking at grain. It became an expression used negatively for a person whose argument lacked sophistication and simply scavenged parts of several arguments together in order to pass them off with pretense. Thus, the argument would be viewed as worthless. The group of philosophers applied it to Paul because they believed him to be proclaiming both monotheism and the worship of Jesus, which they understood as a contradiction.

Babel   The Hebrew name for Babylon. In standard English translations this name is consistently translated as “Babel” only in Gen. 11:9 and sometimes in 10:10 (NRSV, NET). Although all its other occurrences are translated as “Babylon,” there is no distinction in the Hebrew. In the Babylonian language (Akkadian) the name means “Gate of God”; in Gen. 11:9 the Hebrew author connects the name “Babel” (babel ) to the similar-sounding Hebrew word for “confused” (balal ). This connection is best understood as a wordplay rather than an actual etymology.

Located on the Euphrates River about fifty-five miles south of modern Baghdad, the city was a major political and economic power throughout Mesopotamian history. Most significantly in Israel’s history, it was the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, which arose in the seventh century BC and brought Judah into exile.

According to Genesis, this city was founded by Nimrod (10:10) and was the site of the division of languages (11:1–9). The tower described in 11:1–9 was most likely a ziggurat, a Mesopotamian temple structure in the shape of a staircase. The intent to build a tower “that reaches to the heavens” (11:4) fits well with the Babylonian view that ziggurats joined heaven and earth. See also Tower of Babel.

Baboon   A proposed translation of tukki, an animal in 1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chron. 9:21. Some prefer the translation “baboon” because of its proximity in those verses to the term translated as “ape” as well as its close relationship to an Egyptian term translated as “ape.” Another suggestion is “peacock” because of its close relationship to the Tamil term for “peacock.” The exact meaning remains uncertain. See also Ape.

Babylon, Babylonia   Babylon was the capital city of Babylonia, an ancient kingdom located in Mesopotamia, the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers, an area now in the modern country of Iraq. The city of Babylon was located on the banks of the Euphrates River, about fifty-five miles from the modern city of Baghdad. Babylon plays a major role in the Bible, especially during the time of the OT prophets. Babylon or the Babylonians are mentioned in the books of 2 Kings, 1–2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Psalms, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Micah, Habakkuk, and Zechariah. Babylon also appears at the very beginning of the biblical story (Gen. 10–11) as well as at the very end (Rev. 14; 16–18; cf. 1 Pet. 5:13).

HISTORY

The Sumerian and Akkadian period. Around 3000 BC one of the earliest civilizations of the ancient world developed in the southernmost region of Mesopotamia. The Sumerians developed several innovations that nurtured and contributed to the rise of large, complex, urban civilizations. These developments included irrigation, writing (especially in regard to government documentation), the city-state, the accumulation of capital, the wheel, the potter’s wheel, monumental architecture, the number system based on the number sixty (we still use this for time as well as for geometry—e.g., sixty minutes in an hour, 360 degrees in a circle), schools, and the cylinder seal.

The Akkadian king Sargon conquered most of Mesopotamia around 2350 BC. He built his capital at Akkad and established Akkadian as the main language of Mesopotamia, a feature that was to remain characteristic for many centuries. The city of Babylon first appears in nonbiblical literary documents during this time, but only as a minor provincial city.

The Old Babylonian period. At about the same time, a group of people called “Amorites” (lit., “those from the west”) started migrating in fairly large numbers eastward into southern Mesopotamia. Embracing much of the old Sumerian-related culture as well as the Akkadian language, these Amorites soon became a regional power, and they built the city of Babylon into one of the most important cities in Mesopotamia. One of the most famous kings to rise to power during this “Old Babylonian” era was Hammurabi (c. 1728–1686 BC [many scholars now refer to him as Hammurapi]). It was his extensive diplomatic and military skill that enabled Babylon to rise to power so quickly and in such a spectacular fashion. Hammurabi’s actual empire lasted only a brief time, but his legacy was long-lasting, and the entire central-southern region of Mesopotamia continued to be known as Babylonia for over a thousand years.

After Hammurabi died, Babylon declined in power. For the next few hundred years Mesopotamia was characterized by chaos and power struggles. Then around 800 BC the Assyrians (from the northern end of Mesopotamia) rose to power and dominated the entire region. The Assyrians also played a major role in the Bible, appearing frequently in the books of 2 Kings and Isaiah.

Reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate of Babylon (Pergamon Museum, Berlin)

The Neo-Babylonian Empire. In the last quarter of the seventh century BC, however, the Babylonians steadily grew in power. A large migration of Arameans into Babylonia had taken place, and the people in Babylonia had replaced Akkadian with Aramaic as their spoken language. The Chaldeans, a large and powerful group living in the Babylonian region, intermarried with the descendants of these migrating Arameans to develop a civilization now known as Neo-Babylonia. Once again the city of Babylon rose to splendor and prominence. Eventually this new Babylonia wrested control of much of the ancient Near East from the Assyrians and their Egyptian allies, decisively defeating them in 612 BC to become the new superpower empire of the ancient Near East. A powerful dynasty was started by Nabopolassar (626–605 BC) and continued by Nebuchadnezzar (604–562 BC), the most powerful and prominent of Babylon’s kings.

Babylon controlled most of the ancient Near East at a critical time in biblical history. Nebuchadnezzar, the most famous Babylonian king of this era, besieged Jerusalem and destroyed it completely in 587/586 BC. Nebuchadnezzar appears in the Bible numerous times, especially in the books of 2 Kings, Jeremiah, and Daniel. He was the one responsible for taking the leadership of Judah into exile in Babylonia after the destruction of Jerusalem.

Surprisingly, this powerful empire did not last very long. As discussed below, several of the OT prophets prophesied the end of Babylon, and indeed Babylon crumbled quickly and eventually disappeared from history. How did this happen?

Persian and Greek rule. First of all, Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon (555–539 BC), tried to revise the religion of the people away from the worship of their main god, Marduk, but he only alienated himself from the powerful nobles of Babylon as well as from the general population. Leaving his son Belshazzar in charge, Nabonidus moved to Arabia for ten years. When he finally returned, the Persians were threatening Babylon, and Nabonidus had little power to stop them. Sealing the Persian victory was the defection of Ugbaru, one of the most powerful Babylonian princes. Thus, Cyrus, king of Persia, conquered Babylon without meeting any substantial resistance from the city (539 BC). Apparently, the Babylonians greeted Cyrus more as a liberator than as a conqueror. Babylon thus became a city within the Persian Empire.

About fifty years later the city of Babylon revolted against the Persians, and the Persian king Xerxes recaptured it (482 BC), sacked it, demolished its spectacular fortifications, burned the great temple of the Babylonian god Marduk, and even carried away the statue of Marduk as a spoil of war. However, the Greek historian Herodotus, writing around 450 BC, indicates that Babylon had not been completely destroyed.

In the next century Alexander the Great conquered the entire region, defeating the Persians in 331 BC. Alexander was welcomed warmly by the remaining citizens of Babylon, and thus he treated the city favorably at first. However, in 324 BC a close friend of Alexander’s died, and Alexander tore down part of the city wall east of the royal palace to build a funeral pyre platform in his friend’s honor, thus destroying a significant part of the city.

The fall of Babylon. After Alexander died, Seleucus, one of his four generals, seized Babylon (312 BC) and plundered the city and the surrounding area. The next Seleucid king, Antiochus I (281–261 BC), dealt the death blow to the city of Babylon. He built a new capital for the region fifty-five miles to the north and then moved the entire civilian population of Babylon to the new city. The once great city of Babylon, now depopulated and seriously damaged physically by the Seleucid kings, fell into oblivion. Although Antiochus IV (173 BC) tried for a brief period to revive the city, Babylon, for all practical purposes, had ceased to exist.

The ruined site is mentioned a few other times in history. The Roman emperor Trajan spent the winter of AD 116 in Babylon, finding nothing there except ruins. The spectacular fall of Babylon and the city’s state of terrible desolation then became proverbial. In the second century AD Lucian wrote that Nineveh vanished without a trace, and that soon people will search in vain for Babylon. In fulfillment of biblical prophecy (e.g., Jer. 50–51), the city of Babylon went from being the most important and most spectacular city in the world to being a desolate, insignificant pile of rubble.

THE SPLENDOR OF BABYLON

During the time of Nebuchadnezzar the city of Babylon was developed into a spectacular city, certainly one of the most impressive cities in the ancient Near East. The city was built on the banks of the Euphrates River with a large, imposing bridge connecting the two banks. Huge public buildings, palaces, and temples lined the banks of the river. The city was enclosed by two walls. The gates of the outer walls have not yet been located, but archaeologists have identified nine large, impressive gates of the inner wall. The most famous of these is the Ishtar Gate, which has been dismantled and reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. The walls of this gate are lined with bright blue glazed ceramic tile and decorated with numerous reliefs of lions and dragons. A major structure in the city was the great temple of Marduk, the central Babylonian deity, but the city also had temples dedicated to numerous other gods. Connected to the great temple was a spectacular processional street running through the heart of the city. The city also contained large residential homes as well as three immense royal palaces.

A fourth-century BC Greek historian mentions that Nebuchadnezzar built an amazing garden for one of his wives. This garden, commonly known as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, was designated by the ancient Greeks as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Archaeologists, however, have been unable to locate such a garden in the excavations of Babylon, and some scholars doubt its existence.

BABYLON IN THE BIBLE

The terms “Babylon” and “Babylonian,” in addition to the related terms “Chaldea” and “Chaldean,” appear over three hundred times in the Bible, indicating the important role that Babylon plays in Israel’s history.

Old Testament. Genesis 10:10 states that Babylon was one of the first centers of the kingdom of the mighty warrior Nimrod, but the puzzling nature of Nimrod and the difficulties encountered in interpreting Gen. 10 make it difficult to state much about this reference with certainty.

The better-known incident in Genesis regarding Babylon is the story about the tower of Babel (Gen. 11:1–9). Note that in Gen. 9:1–7 God commands Noah and his family to scatter over the earth and replenish its population. The builders of the tower of Babel are doing just the opposite of the divine injunction, trying to stop the scattering.

Genesis 11:2 locates the tower of Babel on “a plain in Shinar” (cf. 10:10; 14:1), the broad, alluvial plain of the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers south of modern Baghdad. Most scholars suspect that the tower of Babel was a ziggurat, an elevated temple tower. Common in Mesopotamia, these were worship centers where priests climbed up extensive stairways to offer their sacrifices to the gods. A temple shrine usually capped the top of the ziggurat. This elevated shrine was understood to be the “gateway to the gods,” a place where human priests and their deities supposedly met. The tower of Babel story in Genesis, however, introduces a humorous wordplay regarding this tradition. “Babel” (as well as “Babylon”) means “gateway to the gods” or “gate of the gods” in the local Mesopotamian languages. Ironically, however, in Hebrew the word babel is related to balal, meaning “to confuse.” Thus, Gen. 11:9 presents a colorful wordplay or parody on the name of Babel. In a humorous criticism of the future great city, that verse suggests ironically that the name “Babel” does not really refer to the “gate of the gods” as the Mesopotamians intended, but rather to the judgmental confusion that God brought against them.

Thus, the city of Babel/Babylon carried negative connotations from the very beginning of the biblical story. Genesis 11 introduces Babel as a symbol of human arrogance and rebellion against God. Later in Israel’s history the city of Babylon will continue to have negative associations, and once again it becomes a powerful symbol of human arrogance and rebellion against God.

The books of 1–2 Kings tell the tragic story of how Israel and Judah turn away from God to worship idols, ignoring the warnings that God gives them through the prophets. As foretold, the northern kingdom, Israel, is thus destroyed by the Assyrians in 722 BC. However, the southern kingdom, Judah, also fails to take heed and continues to worship pagan gods in spite of repeated warnings and calls to repentance from the prophets. Prophets such as Jeremiah repeatedly proclaim that if Judah and Jerusalem do not repent and turn from their idolatry and acts of injustice, then God will send the Babylonians to destroy them (see esp. Jer. 20–39). Jeremiah refers to the Babylonians 198 times, and the prophet personally experiences the terrible Babylonian siege and destruction of Jerusalem. Jeremiah 39 and 52 describe the actual fall of Jerusalem to Nebuchadnezzar and his Babylonian army. This same tragic story is recounted in 2 Kings 24–25. Thus, in 586 BC Nebuchadnezzar and his army completely destroy Jerusalem, burning the city and the temple to the ground and carrying off most of the population into exile in Babylonia.

Babylon appears in the OT prophetic literature in another context as well. Because of the apostasy of Israel and Judah, the prophets preach judgment on them. But the prophets also preach judgment on the enemies of Israel and Judah for exploiting or attacking and destroying God’s people. Jeremiah, for example, prophesies against numerous nations and cities (Jer. 46–49), but he focuses especially upon Babylon (Jer. 50:1–51:58). Likewise, judgment on Babylon is a central theme in Isa. 13; 14; 21; 47. In the OT, no other foe brought such terrible destruction on Jerusalem. In later literature this particular event thus becomes the prototypical picture of horrendous death and destruction, and Babylon becomes the literary symbol epitomizing all of Israel’s enemies.

New Testament. Babylon appears again at the end of the biblical story. In Rev. 17–18 John describes the enemy of God’s kingdom as a harlot dressed in scarlet and riding on a beast. One of the titles written on her head is “Babylon the Great” (17:5). Some commentators believe that John is describing a literal resurrected city of Babylon. That is, they propose that Babylon will be rebuilt on its original site and become the center of government for the antichrist. Many other scholars, however, maintain that the harlot of Rev. 17–18 symbolizes ancient Rome, not a modern rebuilt Babylon. They argue that the term “Babylon” is used symbolically in Revelation. Supporting this view is the apostle Peter’s apparent use of the term “Babylon” to refer to Rome in 1 Pet. 5:13 (“she who is in Babylon . . . sends you her greetings”). Most NT scholars conclude that in this verse “she” is a reference to the church and that “Babylon” is a coded or symbolic reference to Rome.

Baca   See Baka, Valley of.

Bachrite   See Bekerites.

Backsliding   A deliberate turning away from and rejection of God. This language is found most frequently in the OT, especially in Jeremiah, where warnings are often accompanied by God’s invitations to his people to repent and return to him from their sinful ways (e.g., Jer. 3:11–12, 22).

Badger   The word “badger” is not found in the NIV but occurs in other translations: in the KJV as a (mis)translation of takhash, which the NIV renders as “durable leather” (e.g., Exod. 25:5); and where shapan is translated as “rock badger” (NRSV, NET) rather than, as in the NIV, “hyrax” (e.g., Lev. 11:5). The word shapan refers to the Syrian hyrax, which fits the description of a vegetarian rock dweller that appears to chew constantly. See also Hyrax; Leather.

Badger Skins   See Leather.

Bag   Various Hebrew and Greek words are rendered as “bag,” representing a flexible container used to carry provisions, money, measuring weights, or spices and other valuables. A bag could be made of animal skins, leather, or cloth. A small bag might be fastened to a belt, while a traveler’s bag large enough to carry several days’ provisions would be slung over the shoulder. Its construction could range from a simple bundle of cloth tied with string to a more fabricated carrying case. In the OT, Joseph put grain in his brothers’ traveling bags (Gen. 42:25); later the brothers were advised to present Joseph with gifts of spices and nuts to be toted in their bags (43:11). David carried a shepherd’s provision bag and used it to hold the stones that he chose for his sling when he killed Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40, 49). Bags were used to hold currency or precious metals (2 Kings 5:23; 12:10; Isa. 46:6). Merchants carried measuring weights of metal or stone in a bag. The Bible stresses the importance of carrying honest measuring standards in those bags (Deut. 25:13; Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11). Job pours out his hopelessness to God, longing for his sins to be metaphorically tied up in a bag (14:17).

In the Gospels, two kinds of bags are mentioned. One is the traveler’s bag used to carry food and clothing while on a journey. Jesus tells his disciples not to take such a bag when he sends them out as apostles to preach, heal, and drive out demons (Matt. 10:10; Mark 6:8; Luke 9:3; 10:4). Just before his arrest, Jesus reverses that advice, instructing his disciples to take not only a bag (for provisions) and purse (for money) but a sword as well (Luke 22:35–36). A different Greek word is used for the moneybag or box that Judas is in charge of and from which he pilfers (John 12:6).

Bagpipe   An aerophone (a musical instrument that produces sound by vibration of air), this instrument pushes air, held in a bag, past reeds. In the NASB it is listed as one of the instruments in Nebuchadnezzar’s band that initiated worship of his golden statue (Dan. 3:5, 10, 15). Most versions, however, understand this instrument to be the dulcimer (KJV) or double-pipe (cf. NIV). See also Dulcimer.

Baharumite   A resident of Bahurim (1 Chron. 11:33; cf. “Barhumite” in 2 Sam. 23:31). See also Bahurim.

Bahurim   A village to the northeast of Jerusalem, probably located in Benjamin near Anathoth, it came to prominence during David’s reign. After Abner had come over to him, David demanded that Ish-Bosheth arrange for his wife, Michal, to be returned to him, since Saul had taken her and given her to Paltiel (1 Sam. 25:44). Paltiel followed her as far as Bahurim on her return before being dismissed by Abner (2 Sam. 3:16). Later, when David was fleeing from Absalom, he was cursed at Bahurim by Shimei, a member of Saul’s family (2 Sam. 16:5–13). On David’s return, Shimei was among the first to meet him (19:16–23), but although David promised not to kill him and prevented Abishai from doing so, he later directed Solomon to execute him (1 Kings 2:8). Others in the town remained loyal, including an unnamed householder who hid two of David’s spies in a well while they were escaping from Absalom’s men, and whose wife misled Absalom’s men as to their location (2 Sam. 17:17–20).

Bajith   The KJV rendering of bayit as the name of a worship site in Moab (Isa. 15:2). Other versions translate the word in this verse as “house” or “temple.”

Baka, Valley of   A valley mentioned in Ps. 84:6. Worshipers are said to pass through this valley on the way to worship in Zion. The translation and significance of the name are debated. The Hebrew word baka’ may mean “balsam tree,” thus “Valley of the Balsam.” In 2 Sam. 5:22–24; 1 Chron. 14:13–16, David was to wait until he heard the sound of marching in the balsam trees (NIV: “poplar trees”) (signifying the advance of the heavenly army) before he attacked the Philistines. The word baka’ also is similar to the Hebrew word for “weeping,” thus “Valley of Weeping.” Perhaps the name of the valley alludes to both words.

Bakbakkar   A Levite descendant of Asaph who returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chron. 9:15).

Bakbuk   Listed in Ezra 2:51; Neh. 7:53 as an ancestor of temple servants (Nethinim) who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel (in 539 BC or soon after). The fact that many of the names in the list are foreign has led to the belief that they were originally prisoners of war who were pressed into service for menial tasks as they assisted the Levites.

Bakbukiah   A Levite chosen to return and serve in Jerusalem following the exile. Bakbukiah served as a leader of thanksgiving and prayer (Neh. 11:17; 12:9) and as a gatekeeper to the storerooms (12:25).

Bakemeats   The KJV translation of the Hebrew word ma’akhal in Gen. 40:17 (NIV: “baked goods”; NRSV: “baked food”).

Bakers’ Street   Street in Jerusalem during the time of King Zedekiah (Jer. 37:21; NIV: “street of the bakers”). This street is most likely where the majority of the bakers were located in Jerusalem, as it was common to group trades together in one area. Jeremiah was promised bread from the bakers’ street during his imprisonment.

Baking   Usually of bread, a daily household chore typically done by women (Lev. 26:26; 1 Sam. 8:13; 28:24) and an indispensable element of biblical hospitality (Gen. 18:6). Abigail provides two hundred loaves of bread to David (1 Sam. 25:18) to welcome the servants of God. Three methods of baking are over fire-heated coals (1 Kings 19:6), on a griddle over a fire (Lev. 2:5), and in an oven (Lev. 2:4) providing uniform heat (Hos. 7:4).

Balaam   Toward the end of the forty years of wandering in the wilderness, Moses led the people of Israel to the plains of Moab, across the Jordan from Jericho (Num. 22:1). From this place, Israel would soon cross into the promised land. However, Israel had just defeated Sihon and Og (Num. 21:21–35), two Transjordanian kings, putting fear in the minds of the Moabites and their king, Balak.

To counteract the threat, Balak tried to enlist the aid of a well-known diviner, Balaam, who lived in Pethor, a site in northwest Mesopotamia (Num. 22:5). The king wanted to weaken Israel by having Balaam curse the Israelites. However, God made it clear to Balaam that he would not endorse any action against his people. Balaam at first refused to go with the Moabite messengers, but after being enticed by an even bigger payment, he left for Moab. God allowed him to go, but with a warning that Balaam could do only what God himself commanded him to do. God emphasized this last point by famously putting an invisible angel in the path of Balaam’s donkey so that it could not pass. In frustration, Balaam whipped the donkey until God gave the animal voice to object to the beating, and then the Lord opened the diviner’s eyes to the angel’s presence. The episode puts Balaam in a negative light, having his donkey alert him, the diviner, to the angel’s presence.

A portion of the Deir ‘Alla inscription, which mentions Balaam

Nonetheless, Balaam continues on his journey, but due to God’s command, he could only bless and not curse Israel. At Balak’s urging, he tries to curse Israel four times, but each time he delivers an oracle of blessing. The final oracle directed to Israel (Num. 23:15–19) contains the most memorable words of Balaam as he predicts, “A star will come out of Jacob; a scepter will rise out of Israel” (24:17), which comes to fulfillment in the rise of the Davidic dynasty.

Thus, Balak of Moab’s attempt to thwart Israel by prophetic curse fails. However, Num. 25 reports that a different tactic does succeed in bringing harm, though not utter ruin, to the people of God. Some Israelites start sleeping with women of Moab and Midian and worshiping their gods. The damage is stopped by the swift action of Phinehas the priest. Although Balaam is not named in this chapter, Num. 31:16 reports that he was the one who originated the plot. Apparently, Balaam was determined to get the payment. Later Scripture holds him up as a negative example of a false teacher who cares only about money (Judg. 11; 2 Pet. 2:15; Rev. 2:14). The Israelites kill him along with many other Midianites (Num. 31:8).

Interestingly, archaeologists have uncovered an inscription on a plaster wall at Deir ’Alla, a site eight miles east of the Jordan River in the country of Jordan, that mentions Balaam the diviner and states that he had night visions. Thus, we have a rare instance of a biblical character attested in an extrabiblical text. The inscription has been dated to the eighth century BC.

Balac   See Balak.

Baladan   The father of the Babylonian king Marduk-Baladan (2 Kings 20:12; Isa. 39:1). Marduk-Baladan reigned during the time of Hezekiah, king of Judah (727–698 BC).

Balah   A town allotted to the tribe of Simeon, whose territory was within the tribal boundary of Judah (Josh. 19:3). Also called “Bilhah” (1 Chron. 4:29) and “Baalah” (Josh. 15:29). See also Baalah.

Balak   The Moabite king who, after witnessing the Israelite destruction of the Amorites, sent for Balaam the prophet to curse the Israelites (Num. 22:1–24:25). Balak’s actions are recalled throughout the Bible (Josh. 24:9; Judg. 11:25; Mic. 6:5; Rev. 2:14).

Balances   Three different Hebrew words and one Greek word are translated in the NIV as “balances” or “scales,” and all probably signify the same basic instrument. Balances in the ancient world consisted of two plates or pans suspended from the ends of a horizontal bar that itself was suspended by a cord or rested on a fulcrum. The object to be weighed was placed in one of the pans, and an object of already-known weight, usually a stone, was placed in the other. Economic transactions depended on the use of proper balances and accurate weights. Standards for weights varied, and it was relatively easy for a merchant or trader to cheat by using substandard weights (Lev. 19:36; Prov. 11:1; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10; Hos. 12:7; Amos 8:5; Mic. 6:11).

Most references to balances in the Bible are figurative. Job complains that his misery could be weighed on scales (Job 6:2), and he declares that if God weighed him with honest scales, God would find him blameless (31:6). Belshazzar, on the other hand, was “weighed on the scales and found wanting” (Dan. 5:27). Isaiah declares that God “weighed the mountains on the scales and the hills in a balance” (40:12), and that God regards the nations as “dust on the scales” (40:15). The psalmist asserts that if humans, whether of low or high degree, were placed on scales, they would actually cause the pan into which they were placed to rise (Ps. 62:9; cf. ESV, NRSB, NASB)! The rider on the black horse in the book of Revelation is portrayed as weighing out vengeance against the earth on a pair of scales (6:5; cf. Ezek. 5:1–12).

Baldness   When done deliberately through shaving the head, baldness is a physical expression of mourning in the OT. In Scripture, most instances of baldness are self-imposed. Often a corporate act, baldness is accompanied by wearing sackcloth, sprinkling dust on one’s head, weeping, and rolling in ashes (Ezek. 27:30–31). The prophets declare that God’s people will exhibit baldness as their prosperity turns into mourning (Isa. 3:24; Mic. 1:16). Sometimes God commands against baldness and all mourning when he himself has brought the devastation as punishment (Jer. 16:6), or when it is inappropriate for his priests (Lev. 21:5). Apart from an act of mourning, baldness is named as an outcome of extreme exertion in battle (Ezek. 29:18). Baldness is ceremonially clean unless accompanied by leprous-like spots (Lev. 13:40–46). A memorable story concerning baldness occurs when the prophet Elisha curses a group of youths for ridiculing his baldness, leading to the dismembering of forty-two of them by two bears (2 Kings 2:23–25).

Balm   Probably the aromatic resin of the terebinth tree, this substance was used as a remedy (Jer. 46:11; 51:8). From centers of production, it was exported throughout the Levant and Egypt (Gen. 37:25; 43:11; Ezek. 27:17). Several biblical texts associate balm production with the region east of the Jordan, including Gilead. Jeremiah’s sarcastic question attests to the origin and use of balm: “Is there no balm in Gilead? Is there no physician there? Why then is there no healing for the wound of my people?” (Jer. 8:22).

Balm of Gilead   See Balm.

Balsam   A type of shrub producing a fragrant, valuable oil that the ancients refined for use as a perfuming agent. Not native to Israel, balsam had to be imported from Abyssinia (ancient Ethiopia) or Arabia. The NASB translates the Hebrew term bosem as “balsam” in Song 5:1, 13; 6:2, although the term is most often translated “perfume” or “spice” (e.g., Exod. 25:6; 1 Kings 10:2; 2 Chron. 9:24 NIV). Balsam served as a perfume in Esther (2:12 GNT) and was counted among the royal treasures of Judah (2 Kings 20:13 GW). See also Spices.

Bamah   Hebrew word meaning “height” or “elevation.” It is transliterated once in Ezek. 20:29 to refer to a particular high place of unknown location. When translated, the word is used to refer to high places in general, in either a literal or a metaphorical sense. The term can also refer to Canaanite places of worship. Usually, if not always, the bamah was condemned as a false place of worship.

Bamoth   Literally, “high places,” this is one of the stops along the Israelite journey from Egypt (Num. 21:19–20). It is located north of the Arnon River near Mount Nebo (Pisgah). This place may be identical to Bamoth Baal (Num. 22:41; Josh. 13:17).

Bamoth Baal   The place where Balak, king of Moab, took Balaam to curse Israel (Num. 22:41). This city was part of the inheritance given to the tribe of Reuben by Moses; it was one of the cities surrounding Heshbon (Josh. 13:17). Bamoth Baal may be identical to Bamoth (Num. 21:19–20), given the similarity of names and geographical location. Although the exact location is unknown, both names are placed in the same region.

Ban   See Accursed; Anathema; Holy War.

Band   See Battalion; Cohort.

Band, Magic   See Magic Charm.

Bangles   See Anklet.

Bani   (1) An ancestor of Ethan, one of the musicians appointed by David (1 Chron. 6:46). (2) An ancestor of Uthai, a Judahite who resettled in Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chron. 9:4). (3) An ancestor of men who returned to the land with Zerubbabel and Joshua after the exile (Ezra 2:10). Another group of returnees from the family of Bani came with Ezra (8:10). These families are possibly referred to again in the list of men who had taken foreign wives in the time of Ezra (10:29, 34). (4) The father of Rehum, who supervised repairs in Jerusalem in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 3:17). (5) Two Levites who attended Ezra during the reading of the law (Neh. 8:7), led worship (9:4–5), and signed the covenant along with Nehemiah (10:13). Both are mentioned in Neh. 9:4. It is not clear how the various mentions of Bani in this section of Nehemiah should be distinguished. (6) A leader of the people who signed the covenant along with Nehemiah (Neh. 10:14). (7) The father of Uzzi, a Levite descended from Asaph (Neh. 11:22). See also Binnui.

Banking   The basic activities of banking include amassing capital and deposits, extending credit, and brokering the transmission of funds. The Bible describes and comments on such practices in both Testaments but ascribes them to bankers only in the NT.

In ancient Israel trading and mercantilism were facilitated by the use of silver, gold, and livestock as stores of value, media of exchange, and means of payment (Gen. 13:2; 17:12; 23:15). Buying and selling among individuals with payment in silver was particularly common (Gen. 37:28; 1 Sam. 13:21), as was exporting and importing among nations (1 Kings 10:28–29; 2 Chron. 1:16–17; Neh. 13:16). However, livestock was acceptable currency in the settlement of taxes, sacrifices, and other obligations (Num. 31:28–40). What it lacked in portability it made up for in practicality; unlike precious metals, herds grew and multiplied.

By the time of the monarchy, not only was there a treasury of wealth dedicated to God and funded through offerings (Josh. 6:19, 24; 1 Kings 7:51), but also the king maintained his own treasury (1 Kings 15:18; 2 Kings 12:18; 14:14; 16:8; 18:15; 20:13). From both, Judah paid tributes and fines. In times of subjugation both were plundered.

Relief of a money changer (third century AD)

The OT stresses honesty in commercial dealings, which requires both fair scales (Lev. 19:36; Prov. 11:1; 16:11; Hos. 12:7; Amos 8:4–6) and an established system of weights and measures. The basic unit of weight for precious metals was the sanctuary shekel, which equaled twenty gerahs, about ten grams (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25). The largest unit of measurement was the talent, which equaled three thousand shekels (Exod. 38:24–26; Ezra 7:22; 8:26).

The law regulated lending practices primarily to protect the poor against exploitation. It did not permit the charging of interest by Israelite lenders to fellow Israelites, and it set up rules regarding the taking, holding, and return of collateral (Exod. 22:25; Deut. 23:19; 24:6, 10–13, 17; Neh. 5:1–13; Ezek. 33:15). Every seven years creditors were required to release obligors from their debts (Deut. 15:1–3). However, these rules did not apply when the borrowers were foreigners.

By NT times, banking activities were more developed and formalized. The NT describes the depositing of money for interest (Matt. 25:27; Luke 19:23). Coins were in widespread use in the Roman Empire, but locally minted and diverse. For example, the denarius was Roman, and the drachma Greek (Luke 20:24; Matt. 17:24). Thus, the services of money changers were commonplace. They usually set up their distinctive, grid-marked tables in and around temples and public buildings. The NT Greek word for “banker,” trapezitēs, comes from the word for “table,” trapeza. At the Jerusalem temple, the practices of the money changers famously provoked the righteous anger of Jesus, causing him to overturn their tables (Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15).

Bankruptcy   A person enters bankruptcy upon legally declaring inability to repay debts. God commanded that obligations be repaid, but he also established a type of bankruptcy procedure for Israel’s poorest debtors. They could render six years of life in servitude, but creditors had to release their servants every seventh year (Exod. 21:2). Additionally, the liberation at Jubilee (Lev. 25:10) gave the poor some protection against oppressive terms of service (cf. Neh. 5:3–5).

A key biblical theme concerns the kinsman-redeemer, who could buy back close relatives from slavery and restore their land to the family (Lev. 25:25, 47–48). The book of Ruth tells how Boaz redeemed Ruth from poverty and alienation back to Naomi’s ancestral land. This theme continues with Jesus Christ, who came as a “ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). With his blood he purchased the freedom of a spiritually bankrupt people, sold into bondage to sin (1 Pet. 1:18–19).

Banner   A flag, streamer, emblem, or carved object raised on a pole. On the ancient battle field, raised banners and blown trumpets served as the primary tools for mass communication. They could indicate troop movements and serve as rallying points (Isa. 18:3). Once the battle was won, banners proclaimed victory. Cloth banners usually were colored and carried symbols to represent a particular group, whether it was a military unit, clan, tribe, or nation (Num. 2:2; Ps. 60:4). The actual appearance of Israelite banners is unknown, but the images of banners from other nations have been found carved into ancient reliefs. For example, the Narmer Palette (c. 3000 BC) shows three different kinds of banners raised above the heads of soldiers.

The earliest reference to a banner in the Bible occurs after the Israelites defeated the Amalekites at Rephidim near Mount Sinai. To commemorate the victory, Moses built an altar and named it Yahweh nissi, “The LORD is my banner” (Exod. 17:15). In a sense, Moses’ raised hands served as banners to encourage the Israelites by assuring God’s presence and victory (17:11–13).

When Moses placed the bronze serpent on a pole, he raised it as a banner for the Israelites to look upon it and be healed (Num. 21:8). Jesus drew a parallel between the raised serpent and the raising up of the Son of Man (John 3:14). Metaphorically, Jesus was a banner lifted up to proclaim salvation for the world.

An interesting use of banner is in Song 6:4, where the woman is described as “majestic as troops with banners.” The man is so in awe of his beloved that it mesmerizes him and causes his heart to race. The NIV renders Song 2:4 as “let his banner over me be love,” the idea being that the man would make his love for his beloved public.

Banquet   A banquet is a joyful celebration, usually involving wine, abundant food, music, and dancing. Banquets celebrated special occasions such as the forging of a relationship (Gen. 26:26–30), the coronation of a king (1 Chron. 12:28–40), the completion of the temple (2 Chron. 7:8), victory over one’s enemies (Gen. 14:18–19; Ps. 23:5), weddings (Gen. 29:22; John 2:1–11; Rev. 19:9), birthdays of royals (Mark 6:21), and the reunion of estranged relatives (Luke 15:23–24). Banquets also symbolized one’s status, since they were by invitation only. One’s seating arrangement corresponded to one’s social status in the group, since there were “higher” and “lower” positions (Luke 14:8–9). During the meal, people reclined on bedlike seats.

In the OT, the image of a banquet anticipates a future occasion when God will remove the reproach of his people (Isa. 25:6). It also becomes a metaphor for special access to God, who protects, blesses, and honors his people (Ps. 23:5).

The plot of the book of Esther revolves around banquets. The book opens with two big banquets held by Ahasuerus (Esther 1) that conclude with the removal of Vashti as queen, soon replaced by Esther. Esther invites the king and Haman to a banquet in order to expose the insidious plot of the latter (Esther 7). The book culminates with a great banquet that is the prototype for an annual banquet celebrating the Jews’ victory over their enemies, Purim (9:2–32).

Jesus uses the banquet as a metaphor for the presence of the kingdom (cf. Matt. 9:14–17). He tells a parable of a king who has planned a wedding banquet for his son. Those who were invited have refused to attend (i.e., the Jewish leaders), so the king commands his servants to go out into the streets and gather as many people as they can find, both good and bad (Matt. 22:1–10).

Jesus also uses the imagery of a banquet to describe the final future manifestation of the kingdom. He exhorts his disciples to be prepared for the unexpected return of the bridegroom, lest they be excluded from the wedding banquet (Matt. 25:1–13). At the Last Supper, he commands the disciples to continue the practice of sharing bread and wine after his departure, to remember his atoning death and to anticipate his future coming (Matt. 26:26–29). This future banquet will celebrate Christ’s final union with his bride, the church (Rev. 19:6–9).

Baptism   The initiatory ritual of Christianity. This rite is of great significance in connecting the individual both to Christ and to the greater community of believers. Baptism carries an equal measure of symbolism and tradition, evoking a connection between OT covenantal circumcision and ritual cleansing and NT regeneration and redemption. It is the visible response to the gospel, reflecting the internal response to the gospel: the climactic moment in the journey of reconciliation of the believer with God.

The word “baptism” (Gk. baptisma) carries with it the sense of washing by dipping (Gk. baptizō); the word can also carry the sense of being overtaken or subsumed, or of joining or entering into a new way of life. In either sense, a distinct change in the recipient is envisioned. Through baptism, Christians both demonstrate their desire for and symbolize their understanding of being washed clean of sin; they also proclaim their surrender to and subjugation by Christ. All this intellectual underpinning occurs in what can be a deeply emotional ceremony.

BAPTISM IN THE BIBLE

The immediate precursor of Christian baptism was the baptism of John the Baptist (Mark 1:4 pars.), a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins, preparing the hearts of the people for the coming Messiah. But when Jesus himself was baptized by John to “fulfill all righteousness” (Matt. 3:15) and to allow Jesus to identify with sinful humanity, he became the firstfruits of the new covenant. John emphasized that his baptism with water was inferior to the baptism “with the Holy Spirit and fire” that Jesus would bring (Matt. 3:11). Jesus’ disciples continued John’s baptism during his earthly ministry (John 4:1–2).

Baptism was immediately important in the early church. Jesus commanded the disciples to “make disciples . . . , baptizing them” (Matt. 28:19). The disciples replaced Judas from among those “who have been with us the whole time . . . from John’s baptism” (Acts 1:21–22). Peter’s first sermon proclaims, “Repent and be baptized” (2:38). The apostles baptized new believers in Christ immediately (8:12–13; 8:38; 9:18; 10:48; 16:15, 33; 18:8; 19:5; 22:16).

For the apostle Paul, baptism represents a participation in the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Paul writes, “Don’t you know that all of us who were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? We were therefore buried with him through baptism into death” (Rom. 6:3–4); “In him you were . . . buried with him in baptism, in which you were also raised with him through your faith in the working of God, who raised him from the dead” (Col. 2:11–12).

Though the NT does not explicitly command baptism (the command in Acts 2:38 is understood to be directed toward a specific group), it assumes that all believers will be baptized (Acts 19:2–3). The expectation of baptism is as good as a command, and Christians should understand baptism as a matter of obedience. Accounts of baptism in Acts are always preceded by reports of belief, and new believers are immediately baptized. Baptism also carries the idea of conveyance: no one self-baptizes; rather, believers baptize others as an initiation into the family of believers.

BAPTISMAL PRACTICES

Historically in the church, the manner of baptism involves the application of water to the recipient by pouring, sprinkling, or immersion. These practices vary among Christians, but no one practice has a clear biblical warrant above the others. Paul, however, appeals to symbolism in his discussions of baptism. He describes those baptized “into Christ Jesus” as being “baptized into his death,” “buried with him through baptism into death” that they might be raised to a new life “just as Christ was raised from the dead” (Rom. 6:3–4; see also Col. 2:12). Immersion may be the best vehicle to retain this striking symbolism of Paul.

The timing of baptism has caused controversy within the church. Some churches (especially Baptist) believe that baptism is for those who have made a conscious decision for Christ—believer’s baptism. Baptism is an expression of both the change in one’s life and one’s devotion. With this act, the person unites with the church as well as with Jesus himself. This is a deeply moving experience for the celebrant, one to be remembered forever. The celebrant metaphorically is buried with Christ in order to be raised up with him. Baptism does not of itself convey salvation but rather is an act of obedience, and obedience indicates active affirmation of the gospel.

Some churches (e.g., Reformed, Presbyterian) practice infant baptism (paedobaptism). Baptism is at least partly a covenant act similar to circumcision; by this act the child’s parents announce their own membership in the body of Christ and their desire that the child be considered a member as well. Baptism does not convey salvation, but it does convey a type of grace. Entering early adulthood, the child will be given a chance to affirm his or her faith through confirmation. Obviously, the child will have no conscious memory of the original baptism, but the child will grow from infancy with the knowledge of having been entered conditionally into the church by his or her parents. Infant baptism is an act of faith by the parents that the child must claim later, at which time some church traditions have a ritual of confirmation. The warrant for infant baptism is the passages where a “household” or other unspecified group is baptized (see Acts 2:38; 16:15, 31, 34). Also, Paul seems to relate Christian baptism to OT circumcision (Col. 2:11–12), an event for the child performed at the parents’ request (Lev. 12:3). (See also Infant Baptism)

Advocates of believer’s baptism also see value in the ceremonial incorporation of infants into the church. These churches offer child dedication, a similar ceremony but without the water component.

Another source of debate is the concept of rebaptism. Some churches require that prospective members who were baptized as infants be baptized anew as believing adults. It is claimed that the previous baptism is invalid, since an infant cannot possess the proper faith. For other churches, rebaptism is strictly forbidden as unscriptural.

Notably, while most Christian groups see baptism as fundamental to their fellowship, many groups also make allowances for baptism received in extraordinary ways. For instance, the Catholic Church allows for “baptism by blood” and “baptism by desire,” where in extreme cases baptism is credited though having never been performed. Catholic doctrine also allows for “extraordinary ministers” who may not even be Christians to perform baptism, as long as the intended goal is a valid Christian baptism.

THE FUNCTION OF BAPTISM

Baptism should not be seen as a saving act; Paul tells a jailer, “Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved—you and your household” (Acts 16:31). It is later, after the jailer has washed Paul’s and Silas’s wounds, that the family is baptized. Paul does write to Titus about salvation, saying, “He saved us through the washing of rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit” (Titus 3:5). But here Paul is invoking OT imagery rather than NT baptism, as he nowhere uses these terms to refer to baptism. Peter writes, “And this water symbolizes baptism that now saves you also—not the removal of dirt from the body but the pledge of a clear conscience toward God” (1 Pet. 3:21). It is not the baptism that saves, nor the washing, but rather the working of faith in relationship with God.

It is a shame that baptism has become a source of division in today’s churches. Paul emphasizes that “we were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body—whether Jews or Gentiles, slave or free—and we were all given the one Spirit to drink” (1 Cor. 12:13). Having been baptized into Jesus Christ should be a unifying element among Christians, not a source of contention.

Baptism for the Dead   Baptism for the dead is a mysterious practice mentioned in Paul’s argument for the reality of the resurrection in 1 Cor. 15:29–34. There is no mention of this elsewhere in Scripture. Although a number of different explanations have been offered for this practice, the usual understanding is that some people in Corinth had been baptized on behalf of those who had already died. There is nothing in Paul’s argument suggesting that he supported or approved of this practice, or even that believers themselves were necessarily involved in this practice (note that in this passage he speaks of “those,” not “we”). Paul simply used this illustration as another logical argument against those who denied the bodily resurrection. In essence, Paul argued, “If you do not believe in the resurrection, why are you so concerned about the dead?”

Baptism for the dead has been practiced by a few splinter groups throughout history and since 1840 by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons). The goal of this practice is to provide a means for making a public profession of faith for a friend or loved one who has died without being baptized in order to make possible that person’s salvation. Yet this practice is built on a serious misunderstanding of both salvation and baptism. The standard Christian understanding is that one’s eternal destiny is set at the time of death (see Luke 16:26).

Baptism in/with the Spirit   The outpouring of the Spirit that was prophesied in the OT to take place in the last days, in connection with the arrival of the Messiah.

Spirit baptism in the Bible. The OT prophets had spoken of both the Spirit of God coming upon the Messiah (e.g., Isa. 11:2; 42:1; 61:1) and a giving or pouring out of the Spirit in the last days (e.g., Isa. 32:15; 44:3; Ezek. 36:27; 37:14; 39:29; Joel 2:28). Peter connects the giving of the Spirit with Jesus’ being received by the Father and being granted messianic authority (Acts 2:33–38). The experience of Cornelius in particular associates the pouring out of the Spirit (Acts 10:45) with a baptism with the Spirit (11:16).

Seven passages in the NT directly speak of someone being baptized in/with the Spirit. Four of these passages refer to John the Baptist’s prediction that Jesus will baptize people in/with the Spirit in contrast to his own water baptism (Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:8; Luke 3:16; John 1:33). In Matthew and Luke, Jesus’ baptism is referred to as a baptism with the Holy Spirit and with fire. Two passages refer to Jesus’ prediction that the disciples would receive Spirit baptism, which occurred at Pentecost. As recorded in Acts 2, tongues of fire came to rest on each of them, they were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other tongues. As the disciples spoke to the Jews who had gathered in Jerusalem for the festival, three thousand were converted. Acts 1:5 contains Jesus’ prediction of this baptism with the Spirit, which Peter recounts in 11:16.

The final reference occurs in 1 Cor. 12:13, where Paul says, “For we were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body—whether Jews or Gentiles, slave or free—and we were all given the one Spirit to drink.” Thus, Christians form one body through their common experience of immersion in the one Spirit.

A second baptism? While in 1 Cor. 12 Paul seems to refer to an experience that all Christians undergo at conversion, there are several incidents in Acts where the reception of the Spirit occurs after conversion. The question then arises as to whether there is a separate “baptism in/with the Holy Spirit” distinct from the Spirit’s initial work of regeneration and incorporation into the body of Christ at conversion and whether this two-stage process is normative for the church. This belief in a second baptism is particularly prominent in Pentecostal traditions.

Examples such as Acts 2; 8; 10; 19 are commonly used to support the view of a second and subsequent experience of Spirit baptism. In Acts 2 the disciples are already converted and wait for the Spirit, who comes to them at Pentecost. In Acts 8 the Samaritans first respond to Philip’s preaching and receive water baptism. However, they receive the Spirit only after Peter and John come from Jerusalem and pray for them to receive the Holy Spirit. In Acts 10 Cornelius is a God-fearing Gentile, and after Peter visits him, the Spirit falls on his household. In Acts 19 Paul finds some disciples in Ephesus. After he lays hands on them, the Holy Spirit comes upon them, and they begin to speak in tongues and prophesy.

In understanding these experiences, it must be remembered that Acts describes a transitional period for the church. Acts 2 in particular recounts the initial giving of the Spirit under the new covenant. It is possible, then, to see the events in Acts 8; 10 as the coming of the Spirit upon two other people groups, the Samaritans and the Gentiles. Acts 2:38 and 5:32 indicate that the apostles expected the reception of the Spirit to accompany conversion, and this appears to be the case in the rest of the book. Acts 19 narrates an incomplete conversion, where the people had only experienced John’s baptism and receive the Spirit after Paul baptizes them “in the name of the Lord Jesus.”

Reproduction of the painting Pentecost by Duccio di Buoninsegna of Siena

Filled with the Spirit. Although the NT does not support a theology of a second Spirit baptism, it does commonly mention an experience of being “filled” with the Spirit. The concept of being “filled with the Spirit” frequently occurs in contexts referring to spiritual growth, such as in Eph. 5:18, where Paul exhorts, “Do not get drunk on wine, which leads to debauchery. Instead, be filled with the Spirit.” Apparently, this filling can occur numerous times. It can lead to worship of and thanksgiving to God (Eph. 5:19–20). It can also result in empowerment for ministry.

The immediate consequence of the disciples’ filling in Acts 2:4 is speaking in tongues to the various Jews gathered in Jerusalem, and in 4:31 they are empowered to speak “the word of God boldly.” Fullness of the Spirit can also be a characteristic of a believer’s life, such as in Acts 6:3, where the seven men chosen to look after the widows were to be men “known to be full of the Spirit.”

Baptism of Fire   John the Baptist announces that one more powerful than he will “baptize . . . with the Holy Spirit and fire” (Matt. 3:11; Luke 3:16). A baptism of fire connotes judgment, yet Luke characterizes this as “good news” (Luke 3:17–18), for judgment signals the arrival of God’s eschatological kingdom in Jesus (cf. 12:49). John’s words evoke Isa. 4:4, which announces that Jerusalem/Zion will be cleansed “by a spirit of judgment and a spirit of fire.” They also resonate with numerous OT and intertestamental texts that predict God’s fiery judgment (e.g., Zeph. 1:18; Mal. 4:1). As a sign of the end times (Joel 2:28; Acts 2), God’s eschatological community, the church, experiences the baptism (1 Cor. 12:23) and fire (1 Thess. 5:19) of the Spirit.

Bar   (1) Usually occurs in English Bibles as a translation of a Hebrew word (beriach) that can refer either to part of the frame of a structure such as the tabernacle (Exod. 26:28; 36:33 [NIV: “crossbar”]) or to a beam used to lock a gate in place (e.g., Judg. 16:3; Job 38:10; Ps. 147:13). Gate bars were made sometimes of wood (Nah. 3:13) and sometimes of metal (1 Kings 4:13; Ps. 107:16; Isa. 45:2). (2) Bar is Aramaic for “son.” When it appears in names, often in a hyphenated or combined form, it means “son of”; for example, Acts 4:36 explains that “Barnabas” means “son of encouragement.”

Barabbas   A prisoner mentioned in all four Gospels. Barabbas is a prisoner of particular note according to Matthew (27:16), an insurrectionist and murderer according to Mark (15:7) and Luke (23:19), a rebel according to John (18:40). His mention in all four Gospel accounts is significant. Barabbas was being held in prison when the Jewish chief priests and elders brought Jesus before Pilate following Judas’s betrayal in the garden of Gethsemane. After witnessing Jesus’ silence before those who were accusing him, Pilate asked the crowd whether they would rather he release to them Barabbas or Jesus. The practice of releasing a prisoner is described as either Pilate’s custom (Mark 15:8) or a Jewish Passover custom (John 18:39). Persuaded by the chief priests and elders, the crowd demanded the release of Barabbas and the crucifixion of Jesus.

Barachel   See Barakel.

Barachiah, Barachias   See Berekiah.

Barak   A military commander of Israel during the time of the judges, commanded by God through the prophetess Deborah to lead an army in battle against Sisera, commander of the Canaanite forces. Barak agrees on the condition that Deborah accompany him, which she does, but only after passing the honor of killing Sisera from Barak to a woman, the wife of Heber the Kenite (Judg. 4:6–24). Deborah praises the victory (5:19–22). Barak is listed as a hero in 1 Sam. 12:11; Heb. 11:32.

Barakel   The father of Elihu, one of Job’s four friends who argue with him about the reason for his suffering (Job 32:2, 6).

Barbarian   An epithet used by Luke and Paul to signify someone who speaks a foreign, unintelligible language (Acts 28:2, 4 [NIV: “islanders”]; 1 Cor. 14:11; cf. Ps. 113:1 LXX [114:1 MT]). The Greek term, barbaros, occurs six times in the NT, all of them rendered as “barbarian” by the KJV, whereas more-recent versions tend to use terms such as “foreigner” (though see Rom. 1:14 NRSV; Col. 3:11 NRSV, NIV). However, such terms perhaps miss the negative connotation. The word itself is onomatopoeic, representing the unintelligible sound of a language foreign to the hearer: bar-bar-bar. The basis for such a distinction was partly overcome at Pentecost (Acts 2:1–36). The term could also be used more generally for a member of another nation, which, before Christ, had not been included in God’s covenant (Rom. 1:14). Paul also mentions, as a class of barbarian, the Scythians (Col. 3:11), who had a bad reputation among Romans and Jews (2 Macc. 4:47; 3 Macc. 7:5). Their depiction by Herodotus is particularly terrifying: a nomadic people north of the Black Sea (and therefore not far from the Colossians in Asia Minor) who never washed and who drank the blood of the first enemy killed in battle, making napkins of the scalps and drinking bowls from skulls of the vanquished (Hist. 4.19, 46, 64–65, 75). Paul maintains that deeply engrained cultural evil can be overcome in Christ (Col. 3:1–11; see also Gal. 3:28). In subsequent centuries, missionaries were phenomenally successful in reaching the barbarian tribes.

Barhumite   See Baharumite.

Bar-Jesus   A Jewish sorcerer (Semitic “Elymas,” meaning “wise magician”) in the service of the proconsul of Paphos. As Paul predicted, Bar-Jesus became blind as a consequence of his opposition to Paul and Barnabas as they proclaimed the gospel to the proconsul (Acts 13:6).

Bar-Jonah   Aramaic for “son of Jonah” (see NIV). This is the surname of Simon Peter, identifying his father as Jonah (Matt. 16:17) or John (John 1:42).

Bar Kokhba   Reputed to have led the Second Jewish Revolt against Rome in Judea, AD 132–135. Originally named “Bar Kosiba,” supporters called him “Bar Kokhba” (“son of the star”), giving him a messianic association in connection with Num. 24:17, a text understood in many ancient Jewish sources as referring to one or two messianic deliverer figures. Detractors manipulated his name as “Bar Koziba” (“son of the lie”).

We have few sources for Bar Kokhba and his revolt. Evidence indicates that he enjoyed the title nasi (“prince”) among his followers. The revolt remained confined to a relatively small area in Judea, and though debate continues, it is unlikely that Bar Kokhba captured Jerusalem. A ban on circumcision and Hadrian’s desire to reestablish Jerusalem as a pagan city perhaps contributed to unrest leading to the revolt. Ultimately, the Romans crushed the revolt, banned Jews from Jerusalem, and reestablished the city as a pagan city, Aelia Capitolina. Bar Kokhba’s fate remains unknown.

Barkos   Listed in Ezra 2:53 and Neh. 7:55 as an ancestor of temple servants (Nethinim) who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel (in 539 BC or soon after). The fact that many of the names in the list are foreign (“Barkos” may be Aramaic for “son of the god Kos”) has led to the belief that they were originally prisoners of war who were pressed into service to do menial tasks as they assisted the Levites.

Barley   An annual cereal grass (genus Hordeum). Barley was considered one of the blessings of the promised land (Deut. 8:8), but when the barley crop failed, it produced devastating results (Exod. 9:31; Joel 1:11). Barley was among the grain offerings (Num. 5:15; cf. Ezek. 45:13) and was used for livestock feed (1 Kings 4:28), eaten raw, or made into bread (2 Kings 4:42). Gideon’s surprise attack against the Midianites was symbolized in a dream by barley bread (Judg. 7:13), and Hosea used barley to purchase his wife (Hos. 3:2). Jesus used barley bread to feed the multitude (John 6:9, 13).

Barley Harvest   Barley harvest began in the spring, prior to wheat harvest (cf. Exod. 9:31–32). The firstfruits of the harvest were offered to God before the grain was eaten (Lev. 23:9–14). Ruth gleaned in the field of Boaz throughout the barley and the wheat harvests (Ruth 1:22; 2:23).

Partially cut barley field at harvesttime

Barn   A storehouse, usually used to store grain. It is better rendered as “granary.” In biblical times it was often underground, a place to keep grain safe from the elements and concealed from tax collectors. In the NT, sometimes buildings were built and used to store grain (Luke 12:18).

Barnabas   A name given by the apostles to Joseph, a Levite from Cyprus, missionary companion of Paul, and cousin of John Mark (Acts 4:36). Luke interprets the name “Barnabas” to mean (in Aramaic) “son of encouragement,” although this etymology is debated. Barnabas was known in the early church for his generosity and reconciling spirit.

Barnabas first appears in the book of Acts as a model of generosity for the Jerusalem church when he sells a piece of property to support the poor in the church (4:36–37). His example contrasts sharply with Ananias and Sapphira, who are judged by God for lying to the Holy Spirit concerning their own gift to the church. Barnabas next appears as the member of the Jerusalem church courageous enough to bring Saul, the former persecutor, to the leaders of the Jerusalem church (9:26–27). Later, when reports of Gentile conversions in Antioch were received in Jerusalem, Barnabas was sent to Antioch to supervise the work there. Barnabas went to Tarsus and brought Saul with him to Antioch (11:22–26). There they ministered together, at one point delivering famine relief to Jerusalem (11:30).

The church in Antioch received a revelation from the Holy Spirit to send Barnabas and Saul on the first missionary outreach (Acts 13:2). Accompanied by Barnabas’s cousin John Mark, they traveled to Barnabas’s home island of Cyprus and then to the Roman province of Galatia. Mark deserted the group in Perga and returned to Jerusalem, but Paul and Barnabas established churches in Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (Acts 13–14). After returning to Antioch, Barnabas accompanied Paul to the Jerusalem council to settle the Judaizing controversy concerning whether Gentiles must keep the law and be circumcised to be saved (Acts 15).

Upon returning to Antioch, Paul suggested a return to the churches in Galatia. Barnabas proposed taking John Mark, but Paul refused, and the ensuing conflict resulted in Paul’s departure to Galatia with Silas, with Barnabas taking John Mark to Cyprus (Acts 15:36–41). This is the last we hear of Barnabas in Acts.

Paul mentions Barnabas five times in his letters (1 Cor. 9:6; Gal. 2:1, 9, 13; Col. 4:10). He refers to Mark as Barnabas’s cousin (Col. 4:10), speaks of their Jerusalem famine visit (Gal. 2:1, 9), and relates an episode of apparent hypocrisy when Barnabas withdrew from Gentile table fellowship under pressure from Jewish Christians (Gal. 2:13).

Later church writings attributed additional traditions to Barnabas. Clement of Alexandria claimed that Barnabas was one of the seventy sent out by Jesus in Luke 10 and also identified him as the author of the Epistle of Barnabas. Tertullian said that Barnabas wrote Hebrews, and the fifth or sixth century Acts of Barnabas describes his later ministry and martyrdom in Cyprus. None of these later traditions have sufficient evidence to confirm their historicity.

Barrel   The KJV rendering of a Hebrew word (kad ) referring to the container (NIV: “jar”) in which the widow of Zarephath had a handful of flour (1 Kings 17:12, 14, 16). Miraculously, the contents of this container did not run out.

Barren, Barrenness   A barren woman is one who is infertile and without children. The biblical world placed great value on the blessing of having children. This value and the division of labor between the genders in an ancient agricultural society affected how society esteemed women and how a woman viewed her own identity. Being without children brought despair. This can be seen in Rachel’s despondent plea (Gen. 30:1) and in the fact that wives would offer a servant in their place to bear a child (16:3; 30:3, 9).

In most of the stories about women and infertility, God reversed their circumstances: Sarah (Gen. 11:30), Rebekah (25:21), Rachel (30:22), Samson’s mother (Judg. 13:2–3), Hannah (1 Sam. 1:2), the Shunammite (2 Kings 4:16), Elizabeth (Luke 1:7). For Michal, barrenness appears as a punishment (2 Sam. 6:23).

Caring for the barren is part of God’s praiseworthy caring for the needy (Ps. 113:5–9).

Barsabbas   (1) Joseph, having the necessary qualifications, was the unsuccessful candidate when lots were cast to replace Judas Iscariot as one of the twelve apostles (Acts 1:21–26). (2) Judas, a leading Christian and prophet (Acts 15:32), was commissioned along with Silas to convey to the newly planted churches (13:1–14:28) the decision of the Jerusalem council not to require circumcision of Gentile believers (15:22).

Bartholomew   A disciple of Jesus, and one of the twelve apostles. His name appears in the Synoptic lists of apostles (Matt. 10:2–4; Mark 3:16–19; Luke 6:13–16) and as a witness to Jesus’ ascension (Acts 1:13). Nothing else is known of him unless, as suggested by a ninth-century tradition, his other name was “Nathanael,” a disciple mentioned in John’s Gospel (1:45). The evidence is not conclusive, but Nathanael was closely associated with the apostles before and after the resurrection (John 1:35–51; 21:1–2); Jesus promised him divine revelation, which would accord well with apostolic status (1:50–51); and he is connected to Philip in John’s Gospel (1:45) just as Bartholomew is in the Synoptic lists of the apostles (Matt. 10:3).

Bartimaeus   Mark 10:46–52 tells of this blind beggar who properly identifies Jesus as the “Son of David” (cf. Matt. 20:29–34; Luke 18:35–43). Because blindness can be a symbol of unbelief (Isa. 43:8), restoring sight was a sign of the coming Messiah (Isa. 29:18; Matt. 11:2–6). The Bartimaeus story is part of a larger unit (Mark 8:22–10:52), framed by Jesus’ healing of another blind person (8:22–26). Seeing and believing, Bartimaeus is cast as an ideal disciple, “following” Jesus (10:52). Mark’s use of the name implies a well-known disciple (cf. Jairus in 5:22).

Baruch   (1) The secretary of Jeremiah the prophet. Baruch performed several services for Jeremiah. He recorded a deed of purchase that was central to a message about return after exile (Jer. 32:12). The transaction process involved two copies signed by witnesses and stored in an earthen jar for preservation. He recorded Jeremiah’s dictated messages (36:18). Baruch also read Jeremiah’s words of warning to officials and to the people at the temple on a fasting day, when visitors would be coming to Jerusalem (36:10, 14). For this service he had to go into temporary hiding with Jeremiah (36:19, 36). Baruch was also blamed as the supposed source of Jeremiah’s oracle telling Judah not to go to Egypt (43:1–3). When he became discontent, he was rebuked but promised basic safety (45:1–5).

Baruch may have edited the arrangement of the material in Jeremiah or other books. His name was also associated with subsequent Jewish and Christian books of pseudepigrapha. Two clay impressions of a seal, similar to others of the sixth century BC, purport to belong to “Berekyahu son of Neriyahu the scribe.” These are the long forms of the biblical names “Baruch son of Neriah.” Based on the way the letters in “the scribe” were written, these bullae (seal impressions) appear to be modern forgeries.

(2) A Levite who worked to repair the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:20).

(3) The father of a Judahite, Maaseiah, who lived in Jerusalem after the return from exile (Neh. 11:5).

Barzillai   (1) An old man from Rogelim in Gilead who was one of a group of wealthy men from the Transjordan who provided David and his troops with food and equipment when they reached Mahanaim while fleeing from Absalom (2 Sam. 17:27–29). Barzillai’s loyalty was recognized when David invited him to join him in Jerusalem on his return, though this was tactfully declined on the grounds of advanced age but with the request that David take his son Kimham instead (19:31–39). This loyalty was further recognized when David instructed Solomon to deal loyally with Barzillai’s descendants (1 Kings 2:7).

(2) The father of Merab’s husband, Adriel, from Abel Meholah (2 Sam. 21:7–9).

(3) A priestly figure among the returning exiles. Although his wife was descended from Barzillai the Gileadite, he could not prove his identity and was excluded from the priesthood as unclean (Ezra 2:61–63; Neh. 7:63–65).

Basemath   (1) According to Gen. 26:34, the wife of Esau, daughter of Elon the Hittite. However, according to Gen. 36:2, the daughter of Elon who was married to Esau was named “Adah.” Also, 36:3–4 claims that Esau had a wife named “Basemath” who was the daughter of Ishmael and the sister of Nebaioth. This Basemath was the mother of Reuel. However, 28:9 makes the claim that the daughter of Ishmael married to Esau was Mahalath. In light of these differences, two possibilities arise. First, “Basemath” may have been a nickname used to describe both Adah and Mahalath (who were “sweet smelling”). Second, a scribal error may be involved here.

(2) The daughter of King Solomon married to Ahimaaz, one of Solomon’s twelve district governors over Israel, who presided over Naphtali (1 Kings 4:15).

Bashan   Bashan lay in the Transjordan, to the east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee, and north of Gilead. It was a high plateau (Ps. 68:15), proverbial for oak forests (Isa. 2:13; 33:9; Ezek. 27:6; Zech. 11:2) and fat livestock (Deut. 32:14; Ps. 22:12; Ezek. 39:18; Amos 4:1). After Israel’s defeat of King Og of Bashan (Num. 21:31–35; Deut. 3:1–11), Bashan was allocated to Manasseh (Num. 32:33). Israel retained Bashan until Solomon’s time (1 Kings 4:13), but later it became disputed territory (2 Kings 10:32–33). The prophets longed for a permanent return to its pasturelands (Ps. 68:22; Jer. 5:19; Mic. 7:14).

Bashan Havvoth Jair   See Havvoth Jair.

Bashemath   See Basemath.

Basin   Various kinds and sizes of hollow bowls were used in biblical times. Common vessels were made of clay, but more luxurious basins were made from brass (Exod. 27:3), silver (Num. 7:13), or gold (1 Kings 7:38). Basins were used for food and wine (Judg. 5:25; Prov. 23:30), for washing (Exod. 30:18; John 13:5), and for collecting the blood from sacrificed animals (Exod. 12:22). The basins in the temple were large vessels that could hold around four hundred liters of water (1 Kings 7:38), whereas the sprinkling bowls were much smaller so that they could be used by a single person (Num. 7:13).

In the apocalyptic literature, bowls indicate something stored up to be distributed later. The twenty-four elders hold golden bowls of incense in the presence of the Lamb, which represent the prayers of believers (Rev. 5:8). The seven angels have golden bowls of God’s wrath, which will be plagues poured out on the earth (16:1; 21:9).

Basket   A woven vessel of various materials and sizes. Of the five OT uses, the most common cane basket carried foodstuffs: baked goods (Gen. 40:16–18), unleavened bread, oiled cakes and wafers, the Nazirite’s offering (Exod. 29:3, 23, 32; Lev. 8:2, 26, 31; Num. 6:15, 17, 19), or meat (Judg. 6:19). A tapered basket was used for carrying field products home (Deut. 28:5, 17) or firstfruits to the priest (Deut. 26:2, 4). A different tapered basket was used for figs (Jer. 24:1–2), clay (Ps. 81:6), and for the heads of Ahab’s sons (2 Kings 10:7). The grape-gathering basket (Jer. 6:9) was differentiated from a loosely woven fruit basket (Amos 8:1), which with a cover could be used to carry captive fowl (Jer. 5:27).

The twelve baskets used after feeding the five thousand (Matt. 14:20; Mark 6:43; Luke 9:17; John 6:13) are distinct from the larger type used after the feeding of the four thousand (Matt. 15:37; 16:10; Mark 8:8). This larger basket could also be the kind in which Paul escaped (Acts 9:25; 2 Cor. 11:33).

Basmath   See Basemath.

Bastard   A person of uncertain or questionable parentage (used figuratively in Zech. 9:6 to speak of foreigners as “a mongrel people” [NIV, NRSV]). Bastards were excluded from the assembly of the Lord, even to the tenth generation of descendants (Deut. 23:2 KJV, RSV). They were therefore marginalized and often considered to be under divine condemnation (1 En. 10:9). The unusual circumstances behind Jesus’ birth perhaps made him vulnerable to this accusation (Mark 6:3; John 8:41), which opponents of Christianity made later (Origen, Cels. 1.28, 32; Gos. Thom. 105). The author of Hebrews appropriates the concept to explain why God disciplines his legitimate children (Heb. 12:8).

Bat   In ancient times the bat was classified with birds (as a “flying thing”) rather than with mammals. In the OT food laws, bats were designated unclean (Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18). It is thus appropriate that Israel’s idols should be abandoned to bats when the nation flees to the cavernous places in which bats lived (Isa. 2:20–21). Over thirty different species of bat are found in Israel, some eating insects and others fruit, but the Hebrew word (’atallep) does not distinguish between them.

Bath   A measurement used to determine the volume of liquid. According to Ezek. 45:11, 14, a bath is the equivalent of an ephah (a dry measure of 10–20 liters). Also, it was one-tenth of a homer (a dry measure of 100–200 liters). It was used to measure water (1 Kings 7:26) as well as wine and oil (2 Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Bathing   Bathing was built into the very structure of the culture of the biblical world. Jewish ritual baths, miqwa’ot, were found throughout the Mediterranean world in both private homes and public places. Likewise, bathhouses were common in the Greco-Roman landscape of urban life. Ancient literary and archaeological sources attest to the traditions of curative bathing throughout the Mediterranean basin.

Homer wrote of bathing in warm water as a luxury and part of a hero’s welcome. Greek philosophers describe taking a hot bath as reserved for the aristocracy. In contrast, the Spartans bathed only in cold water. The Greeks incorporated full bathing facilities into their gymnasium programs. It was customary in the Roman Empire for men and women to bathe separately. Some of Rome’s extant public baths have inscriptions indicating separate spaces for the sexes. Some of the emperors, however, tolerated mixed bathing.

In the OT, bathing is often part of purification rituals. The Israelites had cleansing rituals that included bathing in running water (Lev. 15:13). In the NT, washing or bathing (baptizing) can be either literal or metaphorical (Luke 12:50; Rom. 6:3–4; 1 Cor. 10:2; 12:13; Col. 2:12; Rev. 7:14; 22:14). Baptizing is presented as a symbol of purification from sin (Acts 22:16) or spiritual pollution, and water baptism became the initiation rite for the early Christian community. Early Jewish Christian communities had a preference for using the Jewish ritual baths or pools for their baptisms because their water was channeled in from natural sources. See also Baptism.

The caldarium section of the bathhouse at ancient Beth Shan, Israel

Bath Rabbim   Song of Songs 7:4 compares the female protagonist’s eyes to “the pools of Heshbon by the gate of Bath Rabbim.” Heshbon (modern Tell Hisban in Jordan) was a Transjordanian site in traditionally Moabite territory. Presumably, the gate of Bath Rabbim was a prominent landmark, of comparable fame and beauty to the otherwise unknown “tower of Lebanon” (Song 7:4). Excavations in the 1960s and 1970s uncovered a large pool at Tell Hisban, dated to the ninth or eighth century BC. “Bath Rabbim” means “daughter of the great,” and the epithet may have been applied more broadly to the city of Heshbon itself.

Bathsheba   Originally the wife of one of David’s senior soldiers, Uriah the Hittite (2 Sam. 11:3), she married David after they committed adultery and he arranged for Uriah’s murder (11:6–27). Bathsheba had become pregnant by David, but the sin’s punishment included the child’s death (12:10). After this, she bore Solomon to David (12:24). In David’s latter days she played a part in Solomon’s succession (1 Kings 1:11–27) and Adonijah’s demise (2:13–25). She is listed in Jesus’ genealogy (Matt. 1:6).

Bathshua   (1) The Canaanite wife of Judah son of Jacob, and mother of Er, Onan, and Shelah (1 Chron. 2:3 NLT [NIV: “daughter of Shua”]; see Gen. 38:1–12). “Bath-shua” literally means “daughter of Shua” (see Gen. 38:2) and is translated as such in Gen. 38:12. (2) A variant appearing in 1 Chron. 3:5 (KJV; see NIV mg.) for the name “Bathsheba,” wife of King David and mother of Solomon.

Battalion   The RSV rendering in Matt. 27:27 and Mark 15:16 of the Greek word speira, referring to a division of Roman soldiers (NIV: “company”; NRSV, NASB: “cohort”; KJV: “band”; NKJV: “garrison”). This grouping of approximately six hundred soldiers was one-tenth of a Roman legion. In these two texts, they are gathered in the Praetorium, the governor’s official residence in Jerusalem, on the occasion of Jesus’ arrest.

Bavai   In the KJV, one of the Levites who helped rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. Bavai (NIV, NRSV: “Binnui”; NASB: “Bavvai”) was the son of Henadad and governed half the region of Keilah, eighteen miles southwest of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:18). Some textual evidence suggests that Binnui in Neh. 3:24 is the same person. See also Binnui.

Bay   The KJV translation in Zech. 6:3, 7 of the Hebrew term ’amots. The KJV understands the word to refer to the color of the fourth set of horses and translates it “bay” in both verses. Modern translations link the word to a Hebrew root meaning “to be strong” and translate it as “powerful” (NIV, referring to all the horses) or “strong” (NASB, referring to the fourth set of horses).

Bay Tree   The KJV translation in Ps. 37:35 of the Hebrew term ’ezrakh, meaning “native.” Although the bay tree (Laurus nobilis) is native to the Mediterranean region, there is no indication in the text that it is referring to that tree specifically. The NRSV follows the LXX by reading “cedar,” a word spelled similarly to “native” in Hebrew. The NASB translation, “tree in its native soil,” accurately represents the Hebrew text.

Bazaar   A street converted to a marketplace. The market was divided into various sections, where similar merchants (basket weavers, tanners, etc.) were side by side. Stores generally had an open front, though stalls were clearly distinguishable.

Bazlith   See Bazluth.

Bazluth   Listed in Ezra 2:52; Neh. 7:54 (KJV: “Bazlith”) as an ancestor of temple servants (Nethinim) who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel (in 539 BC or soon after). The fact that many of the names in the list are foreign has led to the belief that they were originally prisoners of war who were pressed into service to do menial tasks as they assisted the Levites.

Bdellium   A common translation of the Hebrew word bedolakh (see esp. KJV, ESV, NASB; NIV: “resin”), which occurs twice in the OT, both times in the Pentateuch. In Gen. 2:12 bdellium is identified as a stone, and it is named in conjunction with gold and onyx as provided in the land of Havilah. In Num. 11:7 bdellium’s color is used to describe the color of wilderness manna.

Beads   A form of jewelry, most likely made of gold or silver, apparently small enough to adorn larger pieces (Num. 31:50; Song 1:11) or to tie together to make a necklace (Song 1:10; NIV: “strings of jewels”).

Bealiah   One of the Benjamite mighty men who came to David’s aid at Ziklag when he was oppressed by Saul (1 Chron. 12:5). Generically, these men are described as ambidextrous and as armed with bows (1 Chron. 12:1–2).

Bealoth   (1) A town in southern Judah in the Negev on the border of Edom (Josh. 15:24). The location is unknown. (2) A town in the ninth of Solomon’s administrative districts under the authority of Baana son of Hushai (1 Kings 4:16). Some translations render this instance “Aloth” (NIV, NET, KJV). This may or may not be a location different from the city in the Negev. See also Aloth.

Beam   A large segment of wood cut from logs (Hab. 2:11) for, among other purposes, roofing and upper floors (2 Chron. 3:7; Song 1:17), a weaver’s shuttle (Job 7:6), and a spear shaft (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:7; 2 Sam. 21:19; 1 Chron. 11:23; 20:5). The psalmist depicts God laying beams for the upstairs of heaven (Ps. 104:3). Jesus teaches that people often focus on the speck in the eye of another while ignoring the roof beam in their own (Matt. 7:3–5; Luke 6:41–42).

Beans   See Plants.

Bear   The only Hebrew term used for this animal in the Bible is dob. It refers to the Syrian brown bear (Ursus syriacus), which was last seen in the land of Israel in the early twentieth century AD. In the Bible, the bear is often paired with the lion (1 Sam. 17:34–37; Prov. 28:15; Lam. 3:10; Hos. 13:8; Amos 5:19) and is thought to be dangerous especially when bereft of its cubs (2 Sam. 17:8; Prov. 17:12; Hos. 13:8). “Bear” imagery is also employed in apocalyptic visions (Dan. 7:5; Rev. 13:2) and in descriptions of God himself (Lam. 3:10–11; Hos. 13:8; cf. Amos 5:19). The bear is also ironically paired with the cow in Isa. 11:7, and it functions as an agent of divine judgment in 2 Kings 2:24.

Beard   Israelite men, like most of their ancient Near Eastern neighbors, wore full beards, as is plain from casual references to bearded faces (e.g., 1 Sam. 21:13; 2 Sam. 20:9; Ps. 133:2; Jer. 41:5). A way of shaming a man was to forcibly shave him (e.g., 2 Sam. 10:4–5), and Isaiah’s threat of an Assyrian invasion of Judah comes in the form of the imagery of shaving the head and pubic hair (lit., “the hair of your legs”; Isa. 7:20). This divinely wrought judgment (“the Lord will use a razor hired from beyond the Euphrates River”) will also include the shaving off of the beard. The beards of captives of war were shaved as a sign of disgrace (Isa. 3:17; 15:2; Jer. 48:37); Ezekiel, in one of his prophetic signs, shaved his head and his beard in imitation of what will happen to the inhabitants of Jerusalem when taken captive (5:1–4). The suffering of God’s servant included his opponents pulling out his beard (Isa. 50:6). On the other hand, the voluntary shaving off of the beard was one of several traditional signs of mourning and sorrow (Jer. 41:5), as was pulling out hair from the beard (Ezra 9:3). These customs apparently do not come under the ban in Lev. 19:27; 21:5 (the latter especially applied to priests) against clipping the beard in conformity with Canaanite religious practice.

Panel from the Black Obelisk showing three bearded Israelites carrying tribute

Beast   An animal in both the OT and the NT (Gen. 1:24), usually distinct from fish, birds, and insects (Deut. 4:17–18), including domesticated (Num. 31:47) and wild animals (Gen. 37:20; Mark 1:13). Paul uses “beast” as a pejorative for persons (Titus 1:12 KJV, ESV). The figurative use of “beast” appears most prominently in Daniel and Revelation (in the NT, the majority of occurrences of “beast” are in Revelation). In these instances “beast(s)” embody evil kings/kingdoms that oppose God and his people. The “beast” of Rev. 13 has been suggested to represent Nero/Rome, any religious/political ruler in history, the pope/papacy, or the antichrist—the embodiment of a final king/kingdom that persecutes God’s people.

Beaten Gold   See Hammered Gold.

Beaten Oil   See Oil.

Beaten Silver   See Hammered Silver.

Beating   See Scourge.

Beatitudes   The Beatitudes are a series of “blessings” announced by Jesus in Matthew’s Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:3–10) and Luke’s parallel Sermon on the Plain (Luke 6:20–22). Matthew’s version contains eight beatitudes, with a ninth (5:11–12) expanding on the eighth. Luke has four beatitudes but balances these with “woes” against the rich and powerful. Each beatitude has two parts. The first begins with a statement of blessing followed by the identity of the one being blessed (e.g., “blessed are the poor in spirit”). The second part explains why the person is blessed (e.g., “for theirs is the kingdom of heaven”). In Matthew, the phrase “for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” appears in vv. 3, 10, serving as an inclusio for the central message of the Beatitudes: the kingdom of heaven is present and powerful to those who are in relationship with Jesus.

The Beatitudes introduce a new reality to those who respond to the kingdom offered by Jesus. They present a radical reversal for the downtrodden: the poor in spirit, those who mourn, the meek, and the persecuted. From society’s perspective, they are weak and disadvantaged, but Jesus calls them “blessed.” The beatitudes in Matt. 5:6–10 reveal attitudes and actions that are pleasing to God: “those who hunger and thirst for righteousness” (v. 6), “the merciful” (v. 7), “the pure in heart” (v. 8), and “the peacemakers” (v. 9).

Luke’s beatitudes are shorter and less spiritualized than Matthew’s. For example, Luke has “blessed are you who are poor” instead of Matthew’s “poor in spirit,” and “blessed are you who hunger now” instead of Matthew’s “hunger and thirst for righteousness.” This is in line with Luke’s greater emphasis throughout his Gospel on the danger of riches, the plight of the poor, and issues of social justice.

Beautiful Gate   A gate of Herod’s temple where John and Peter healed a lame man (Acts 3:2, 10; NIV: “gate called Beautiful”). This name is used only in the NT, and so its identification and location must be surmised by other names for it. Two temple gates known from other historical sources are the likely candidates for the Beautiful Gate: the Golden Gate or the Nicanor Gate. Josephus describes a beautiful gate located in the east of the temple, known to this day as the Golden Gate. The Nicanor Gate is probably the gate described in the book of Acts. Its construction was funded by a wealthy Alexandrian Jew. It is located either on the east side of the court of women leading from the court of the Gentiles or on the western side of the court of women at the entrance to that court.

Bebai   The head of a clan that was part of the early return to Judah from Babylonian captivity in 539 BC or soon after (Ezra 2:11; Neh. 7:16). The same clan sent Zechariah and twenty-eight men at the time of Ezra, around 458 BC (Ezra 8:11). Four members of this clan were later found guilty of intermarriage (Ezra 10:28). Bebai is also listed as one who sealed the covenant renewal led by Ezra (Neh. 10:15).

Becher   See Beker.

Becherites   See Bekerites.

Becorath   See Bekorath.

Bed   A surface to recline on for the purpose of sleep, convalescence, contemplation, and sexual activity. Construction ranged from a portable straw mat (Mark 6:55; Acts 9:34) to raised frames crafted of wood, metal, or stone inlaid with precious metals and jewels (Deut. 3:11; Amos 6:4) and topped with luxurious coverings (Prov. 7:16, 17; 31:22). The mats of poor people might be rolled up and stowed away during the day to save space when they slept in a common room (Luke 11:7). The rich reclined on permanent structures in rooms designated for sleeping (Exod. 8:3; 2 Kings 6:12), but people of more modest means also had bedrooms (2 Kings 4:10).

The most commonly cited use of a bed is not for sleeping (Ps. 132:3; Luke 11:7) but for convalescing (Gen. 48:2; Exod. 21:18; 2 Sam. 13:5; Ps. 41:3; Matt. 8:14; Acts 28:8) or dying (Gen. 49:33; 2 Kings 1:4, 6, 16). Elijah restores life to a boy after placing him on a bed (1 Kings 17:19; cf. Elisha in 2 Kings 4:21, 34, 35). Murder is attempted (1 Sam. 19:13, 15, 16) or accomplished in bed (2 Sam. 4:7, 11; 2 Chron. 24:25).

The bed is for sexual activity, whether honorable (Song 1:16; Heb. 13:4) or not (Gen. 39:7, 10, 12; 49:4; 2 Sam. 13:11). People mope and mourn on beds (1 Kings 21:4; Ps. 6:6; Song 3:1; Hos. 7:14), loaf (Prov. 26:14), plot evil (Ps. 36:4; Mic. 2:1), meditate and rejoice (Pss. 4:4; 63:6; 149:5), and experience visions (Dan. 2:28; 4:5; 7:1). The bed is a metaphor for the grave (Job 7:13; 17:13; Ezek. 32:25).

Bedad   The father of the Edomite king Hadad. Hadad succeeded Husham and defeated the Moabite city of Midian (Gen. 36:35; 1 Chron. 1:46).

Bedan   (1) A judge listed in a speech by Samuel in a catalog of judges sent by God to deliver Israel (1 Sam. 12:11). His name comes between those of Jerub-baal (= Gideon) and Jephthah. Presumably because a judge by this name is not found elsewhere in the OT, the LXX and the Syriac Peshitta read “Barak” (so also NIV, NRSV). Since the name means “in Dan,” Jewish tradition understood it as an alternate name for Samson (from the tribe of Dan). He may be an otherwise unknown judge. (2) Son of Ulam, a descendant of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:17).

Bedeiah   An Israelite from the sons of Bani who was forced to send away his foreign wife according to the instruction of Ezra (Ezra 10:35). The name is perhaps a shortened form of Obadiah.

Beeliada   See Eliada.

Beelzebub, Beelzebul   Occurs seven times in the Gospels (Gk. Beelzeboul ), designating “the prince of demons” (possibly Satan himself) (Matt. 12:24). It derives from “Baal-Zebub,” the name of a Philistine deity (2 Kings 1), meaning “Baal/Lord of the flies” (a deliberate Hebrew distortion of the name “Baal-Zebul”). See also Baal-Zebub.

Beer   (1) The Hebrew word be’er means “well” and occurs in compound names for key places, for instance, Beer Lahai Roi (“the well of the Living One who sees me” [Gen. 16:14]) and Beersheba (“well of the oath/seven” [Gen. 21:31]). In Israel’s wanderings, the nation came to Beer (Num. 21:16), north of the Arnon River. The name “Beer” commemorates the joyous occasion when God gave the people water in the desert. In celebration, the people sang the so-called Song of the Well (Num. 21:17–18). The site may be Wadi eth-Themed in northeastern Moab and possibly linked with Beer Elim (Isa. 15:8).

(2) An alcoholic beverage produced from grains, such as wheat or barley, through a fermentation process. Beer is mentioned in the Bible only a handful of times (in the NIV, see 1 Sam. 1:15; Prov. 20:1; 31:4, 6; Isa. 24:9; 28:7; 29:9; 56:12; Mic. 2:11; many other versions use terms such as “strong drink” or “liquor”), but it was prevalent in some ancient Near Eastern cultures, especially Egypt. See also Strong Drink.

Beera   Son of Zophah of the tribe of Asher (1 Chron. 7:37).

Beerah   A Reubenite leader exiled by Tiglath-pileser III (1 Chron. 5:6).

Beer Elim   A city in Moab (Isa. 15:8). The name means “well of the terebinths.” It is often associated with Beer (Num. 21:16), one of the places where the Israelites stopped during their wilderness journey in Sinai, from which they continued to Mattanah.

Beeri   (1) The Hittite father of Judith, Esau’s first wife (Gen. 26:34). The marriage displeased Esau’s parents (26:35). (2) The father of the prophet Hosea (Hos. 1:1). Rabbinic tradition identifies him as Beerah, a leader of the Reubenites who was sent into exile under Tiglath-pileser (1 Chron. 5:6), but this is uncertain. The name “Beeri” means “my well” or “of a well.”

Beer Lahai Roi   A place in the Negev whose exact location and meaning are uncertain. It appears first in the narrative of Gen. 16, where Hagar is fleeing from Sarai, her mistress. After the death of Abraham, Beer Lahai Roi becomes the residence of Isaac (Gen. 24:62; 25:11). All three narratives that speak of this place support a location toward the Egyptian border (between Kadesh and Bered). The water source that gave rise to the name was located on the way to Shur (Gen. 16:7). The most likely translation is “well of the Living One who sees me.”

Beeroth   One of four cities (along with Gibeon, Kephirah, Kiriath Jearim) that tricked Joshua into making a covenant with Israel so that they would not be destroyed (Josh. 9:17). When the treachery was discovered, the inhabitants were allowed to live but were forced to become the Israelites’ servants (9:26–27). It later became part of the territory of Benjamin (Josh. 18:25; 2 Sam. 4:2–3). Ish-Bosheth was assassinated by two Beerothites, Rekab and Baanah (2 Sam. 4:2–9), possibly in retaliation for Saul’s persecution of the Beerothites (2 Sam. 4:3). Joab’s armor bearer Naharai was also from Beeroth and was one of David’s thirty mighty men (2 Sam. 23:37). Many men returned to Beeroth after the exile, indicating that the inhabitants assimilated into the Israelite population (Ezra 2:25; Neh. 7:29). The location of Beeroth is contested due to confusion in Eusebius’s Onomasticon. Many scholars propose the location of Beeroth as el-Bireh, east of Ramallah.

Beeroth Bene-jaakan   A place of unknown location to which the Israelites traveled during their wilderness journey (Deut. 10:6 ESV, NASB [cf. NRSV]; NIV: “the wells of Bene Jaakan”; cf. Num. 33:31–32). See also Bene Jaakan.

Beerothite   A person who comes from Beeroth (2 Sam. 4:2; 23:37; 1 Chron. 11:39 [NIV: “Berothite”]).

Beersheba   Located in the biblical Negev, this city was significant for the patriarchs and continued as the recognized southern boundary of the political entity of Israel. The biblical Negev is shaped somewhat like a bow tie, with Beersheba at its center. Because the Negev receives between eight and twelve inches of rainfall per year, water is a critical issue.

Beersheba (Heb. be’er sheba’) means both “well of the seven” and “well of the oath.” The encounters between Abraham and the Philistine leaders Abimelek and Phicol had to do with water rights (Gen. 21:22–32). When Abimelek’s servants seized a well that Abraham had dug, he, in order to demonstrate that his own claim on the well was valid, offered seven lambs to Abimelek, and the two made a treaty. The narrative incorporates both meanings of sheba’. Although Abraham was a formidable presence in the region, it is evident that it was under Philistine control at this time (Gen. 21:33–34). Abraham remained there for a long time, returning to Beersheba after the test on Mount Moriah (Gen. 22:19).

Aerial photograph of the excavations at ancient Beersheba

These same elements and names recur in the interactions between Isaac and the Philistine leaders (Gen. 26:12–33). Isaac grew to be exceedingly wealthy, so the Philistines stopped up the wells that had been dug in the time of Abraham. Abimelek urged Isaac to move away, which he did, but the tensions over water rights continued. Finally, Isaac went to Beersheba, where God reaffirmed to him the covenant with Abraham, and, in a mirror event, he and Abimelek reaffirmed their treaty, complete with an oath and the digging of another well.

Beersheba continued to be a center for the seminomadic patriarchs. Isaac lived there with his family; after Jacob tricked Esau out of Isaac’s blessing, Jacob left Beersheba and headed for Harran (Gen. 28:10). Near the end of his life, as he set out for Egypt to rejoin Joseph, Jacob stopped in Beersheba to offer sacrifices to God (46:1–5). Much later, as Elijah fled from Jezebel and made his way back to Horeb, the source of the covenant, he stopped at Beersheba (1 Kings 19:1–8).

Beersheba figured into the inheritance for two tribes. It was listed among the southernmost towns in Judah (Josh. 15:28), but Simeon’s inheritance within the allotment of Judah included Beersheba (19:2), and descendants of Simeon lived in Beersheba (1 Chron. 4:28). From the period of the judges until the end of the united monarchy, the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” indicated the extent from north to south of Israel (e.g., Judg. 20:1; 1 Sam. 3:23; 2 Sam. 3:10). After the secession and demise of the northern kingdom, Beersheba still indicated the southern boundary (e.g., 2 Chron. 19:4; 30:5). In the postexilic period the people of Judah inhabited territory from Beersheba to the Hinnom Valley (Neh. 11:27–30).

According to 2 Kings 23:8, Josiah “desecrated the high places, from Geba to Beersheba. . . . He broke down the gateway at the entrance of the Gate of Joshua, the city governor, which was on the left of the city gate.” The site of Tel Sheva (identified as ancient Beersheba) has a structure just inside and to the left of the Iron Age gate, where steps indicate a second story, very possibly the governor’s house. Of equal importance is the discovery of three stone blocks of a horned altar, found in secondary usage in a storeroom wall. The horn on a fourth block had been broken off. These were seemingly removed from a basement house, a building that had been destroyed, perhaps in Hezekiah’s reform and purge of the land (2 Kings 18; 2 Chron. 31).

Be Eshterah   A city of Manasseh given to the Levites as a city of refuge (Josh. 21:27). The parallel (1 Chron. 6:71) lists Ashtaroth instead (Deut. 1:4; Josh. 9:10), suggesting that “Be Eshterah” was shortened from “Beth Ashtarah” (“house of Ashtarah”), an earlier worship center for the Canaanite goddess. The site apparently survives as Tel Ashtarah, located twenty miles east of the Sea of Galilee on the King’s Highway, a major trade route.

Beginning and End   See Alpha and Omega.

Behemoth   Found only in Job 40:15, “Behemoth” is a transliteration of the Hebrew plural word behemot (lit., “beasts”), meaning “the Beast” par excellence. The failure to identify the creature with any known animal species is deliberate. Some scholars suggest that it is possibly the hippopotamus or the elephant, but such mundane alternatives domesticate what is meant to be a mysterious, larger-than-life creature of fearsome strength, “which I [God] made along with you [Job].” Job complained that God had treated him like a monster who needed to be guarded (7:12). The poem implies that God can tame both Behemoth and Job.

Beka   A unit in Israel’s weight and currency system. It is half a shekel (Exod. 38:26), which means that it weighed around 5.5 grams. The Hebrew root (bq’) means “to split.” See also Weights and Measures.

Beker   (1) Son of Benjamin (Gen. 46:21; 1 Chron. 7:6 [NRSV: “Becher”]), and the father of nine sons (1 Chron. 7:8). The name is absent from two other genealogies of Benjamin (Num. 26:38; 1 Chron. 8:1). (2) A descendant of Ephraim (Num. 26:35). The name is spelled “Bered” in 1 Chron. 7:20.

Bekerites   Descended from Beker, the Bekerites (NRSV: “Becherites”) were a clan from the tribe of Ephraim (Num. 26:35).

Bekorath   Son of Aphiah, and the father of Zeror, he was an ancestor of King Saul (1 Sam. 9:1 KJV: “Bechorath”).

Bel   This term is technically a title derived from the Akkadian word belu(m), with the meaning “lord” or “master.” Initially the term referred to Enlil, the father of the Mesopotamian gods. Eventually, Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, became the chief god of the pantheon, and he was given the title “Bel.” Consequently, the term became interchangeable with his name. Bel occurs three times in the Bible, all of them within the context of the prophetic condemnation of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (Isa. 46:1; Jer. 50:2; 51:44). Thus, in Scripture Bel stands as a representative of Babylon and its rulers. See also Baal.

Bela   (1) Son of Beor, and the king of Edom who ruled from Dinhabah (Gen. 36:32–33; 1 Chron. 1:43–44). (2) Son of Azaz, and one of those who settled in the area of Aroer in the Transjordan most likely in the early ninth century BC (1 Chron. 5:8–9). (3) Son of Benjamin (Gen. 46:21; Num. 26:38, 40; 1 Chron. 7:6–7; 8:1, 3). (4) An earlier name for Zoar, one of the five cities of the Valley of Siddim (Gen. 14:2).

Belaites   Descendants of Bela, a Benjamite (Num. 26:38).

Belial   Occuring in the Bible only once (2 Cor. 6:15 [NRSV: “Beliar”]), “Belial” (Gk. Beliar) has a mythological connotation in the OT associated with Sheol, chaos, and death (Heb. beliyya’al [2 Sam. 22:5; Ps. 18:4; cf. Ps. 41:8]), and it could also mean “worthlessness,” “ruin,” or “wickedness” (1 Sam. 25:25). The term is widely attested in Second Temple Jewish literature, especially in the DSS, referring to God’s archenemy, whose domain is darkness and whose counsel is wickedness (Mart. Isa. 1:8–9; 2:4; 4:2; T. Dan 1:7; 1QM 1:1–3, 13–15; 13:11; cf. 1QS 2:19; CD-A 4:12–19). Paul employs this conviction to show that the eschatological conflict is between Christ, who is the light, and Belial, who is the darkness (2 Cor. 6:15; cf. 2 Cor. 4:4).

Beliar   See Belial.

Belief, Believe   See Faith, Faithfulness.

Bell   Small bells are mentioned in the book of Exodus twice (28:33–35; 39:25–26), being used to adorn the hem of the high priest to monitor his movements, particularly when he entered the holy of holies. The prophet Zechariah (14:20) announces that in the future after God destroys evil even the bells on the horses will be inscribed with “Holy to the Lord.”

Bellows   An instrument used to blow air on a fire and thus make it stronger. In the Bible bellows are mentioned only in Jer. 6:29, where they are part of a figurative portrayal of an intense refining process on Judah that ultimately does not remove the wicked. Ancient Egyptian bellows utilized two bags made of animal skin, which an operator would step on one after the other, thus forcing out air, similar to a modern foot pump. This type of bellows may be in view in Jer. 6:29.

Beloved Disciple   Traditionally identified with John the son of Zebedee, the Gospel of John depicts him as the ideal eyewitness to Jesus and as the ideal author. He first explicitly appears in John 13–21. In representing the Beloved Disciple as the author of the Gospel of John (John 21:24–25), the author thus claims a privileged place for its revelation about Jesus, perhaps in relation to the Gospel of Mark, which many in the early church considered to have Peter as its primary source of testimony.

Belshazzar   The regent of Babylon under his father, Nabonidus, during Babylon’s final years (?–539 BC). Because the first three successors of Nebuchadnezzar were short-lived, and because Nabonidus left Babylon to stay in the Arabian city of Teima for a decade, Belshazzar may be considered the first significant acting king after Nebuchadnezzar. This is probably why Nebuchadnezzar is called Belshazzar’s “father” in Dan. 5:2, 18. A prophecy of the doom of Babylon came as “the handwriting on the wall” at a banquet hosted by Belshazzar. Belshazzar was indicted for not having learned to be humble before the Most High God.

Belt   See Clothing.

Belteshazzar   The name assigned to Daniel by King Nebuchadnezzar’s chief official, Ashpenaz, when he brought Daniel to Babylon to train and mold him for government service (Dan. 1:6–7). The name may mean “May the lord protect his life.”

Ben   The Hebrew word ben (lit., “son”) represents several types of relationships. It can be used to describe a direct male descendant (Gen. 4:17), as well as Israel’s relationship to God (Exod. 4:22), a member of a people group (Gen. 42:5), or a member of a specific profession or trade (1 Kings 21:35).

Ben-Abinadab   The husband of Taphath, daughter of King Solomon, he was one of the king’s twelve district governors of Israel (1 Kings 4:7, 11). He was responsible for supplying provisions for the king and the royal household for one month out of the year from his location in Naphoth Dor.

Benaiah   (1) Son of Jehoiada, and one of David’s famed mighty men (1 Chron. 27:34 reverses the names of father and son). He was in command of David’s personal guards, known as the Kerethites and the Pelethites. His great feats earned him a reputation like one of David’s mightiest three (2 Sam. 20:23; 23:22–23). He was at Solomon’s coronation (1 Kings 1). He killed Joab at Solomon’s order and became his general (1 Kings 2:25–46). (2) An Ephraimite from Pirathon who was one of David’s mighty men, one of “the thirty” (2 Sam. 23:30). (3) A Levite who was a gatekeeper assigned to play the harp when David brought the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:18–20). (4) A priest who was a trumpeter when David brought the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:24). (5) An ancestor of Jahaziel, who prophesied at the time of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. 20:14). (6) A Simeonite who was one of those who attacked the Meunites in Hezekiah’s time and took their pasture (1 Chron. 4:24–41). (7) An overseer appointed by Hezekiah (2 Chron. 31:13). (8) The father of Pelatiah, a leader who did not believe that God would destroy Judah and was struck down (Ezek. 11:1, 13). (9) Four different men who had returned to Jerusalem after the exile and had taken foreign wives (Ezra 10:25, 30, 35, 43).

Ben-Ammi   The son born of the incestuous union of Lot with his younger daughter (Gen. 19:38), he is the eponymous ancestor of the Ammonites, longtime enemy of Israel. The name “Ben-Ammi” means “son of my kin/people.” Both the Moabites and the Ammonites are associated with the incest of Lot with his daughters (Gen. 19:36–38; Deut. 2:19).

Benches   This term occurs twice in the NIV (NRSV: “chairs”; NET: “seats”) in reference to the sitting places of those selling doves when Jesus cleansed the temple (Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15). The underlying Greek word (kathedra) referred to a seat or chair (cf. Matt. 23:3, where the Greek term is used of “Moses’ seat”). “Benches” occurs in the KJV of Ezek. 27:6, translating the Hebrew word qeresh, whereas modern English translations take the word in that verse to refer to the deck of a ship.

Ben-Deker   One of King Solomon’s twelve district governors of Israel responsible for supplying provisions for the king and the royal household for one month each year (1 Kings 4:9). He was governor over Makaz, Shaalbim, Beth Shemesh, and Elon Bethhanan, land recently taken from the Philistines.

Bene Berak   A location inherited by the tribe of Dan (Josh. 19:45). The modern Israeli town Bene-baraq is located about 2.5 miles north of the biblical site, which is identified as the modern town el-Kheirîyah. It is known as being the home of the renowned Rabbi Akiba.

Benediction   Authorized by the divine image and example (Gen. 1:26–28), “benediction” is literally the “good word” that activates for its recipients such divine benefits as keeping, favor, grace, and peace (Num. 6:24–27). Whether invoked by fathers (Gen. 27; 2 Sam. 6:20), priests (Gen. 14:18–19; Lev. 9:22), or the community (Ruth 2:4), benedictions signal God’s rule over all of life, as does Jesus’ command to bless our enemies. In the NT, benedictions may be condensed (“Grace be with you”) or expanded with divine references and joined to doxologies or prayers (Col. 1:2–14; 4:13).

Benedictus   The prophetic hymn of Zechariah at John the Baptist’s birth (Luke 1:68–79). Opening with the word Benedictus (“Blessed”) in the Latin Vulgate, it glorifies God for acting to save his people and prophesies that John will be the Lord’s forerunner.

Benefactors   In the first-century Greco-Roman economy, most material resources were held by a small percentage of the population. This fact necessitated the need for the wealthy to provide goods and services for the larger community. Those providing these goods and services were known as benefactors. These socially elite people were expected to share their resources by financing public building projects, assisting individuals with personal needs, and providing public services for the community. Society rewarded these benefactors with honor and goodwill, thus increasing their influence and prestige.

Bene Jaakan   An Israelite campsite during their wilderness journey (Num. 33:31–32). It is possibly located on or near the border of Edom (33:37). In Deut. 10:6 the site is called in Hebrew be’erot bene ya’aqan, which the NIV renders as “the wells of Bene Jaakan” (NASB: “Beeroth Bene-jaakan” [cf. NRSV]).

Ben-Geber   One of the twelve district governors of Israel, appointed by King Solomon, responsible for supplying the king and the royal household with provisions for one month each year (1 Kings 4:13). He was the governor over Ramoth Gilead, located in the central Transjordan region, along with the settlements of Jair and the district of Argob.

Ben-Hadad   Several kings of Aram Damascus had the name “Ben-Hadad.” The name means “son of Hadad,” Aram’s national god, and it could be taken by any king of Aram. It is debated whether the OT refers to two or three individuals by this name, but most likely it is three.

(1) Ben-Hadad I, son of Tabrimmon, was bribed with a large amount of silver and gold by King Asa of Judah to break his treaty with King Baasha of Israel, thus providing relief for the embattled Judah. Ben-Hadad I attacked the towns of Israel, successfully conquering several of them as well as the territory of Naphtali (1 Kings 15:16–22).

(2) Ben-Hadad II (but possibly the same person as Ben-Hadad I) attacked Samaria during the reign of King Ahab, who defeated him at Aphek. Ben-Hadad II begged for his life, and Ahab spared him, in the process regaining the cities that Ben-Hadad I had taken from Ahab’s father, Omri, and obtaining market rights in Damascus (1 Kings 20). Based on extrabiblical inscriptions, it is possible that Ahab later participated in a twelve-member alliance headed by Ben-Hadad II (also identified as Hadadezer) that defeated Shalmaneser III’s Assyrian forces at the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC. Ben-Hadad II later laid siege to Samaria again (2 Kings 6:24), but a miraculous intervention by God caused his forces to abandon their camp and flee (7:5–7). Later, Ben-Hadad II fell ill and, as prophesied by Elisha, did not recover, since one of his officers, Hazael, suffocated him and seized his throne (8:7–15). Ben-Hadad II is perhaps the king of Aram who sent Naaman to Elisha, via King Joram of Israel, to be cured of his leprosy (5:1–6).

(3) Ben-Hadad III was the son of King Hazael (2 Kings 13:24), who had gained the throne by murdering Ben-Hadad II. As prophesied by Elisha, King Jehoash defeated Ben-Hadad III three times and repossessed several cities that had been taken from his father, King Jehoahaz (13:14–25). Ben-Hadad III’s oppressive actions made him the subject of prophetic condemnation (Jer. 49:27; Amos 1:4).

Ben-Hail   One of five royal officials, along with nine Levites and two priests, sent by Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to teach the Book of the Law to the people in Judah (2 Chron. 17:7). The name “Ben-Hail” means “son of strength.”

Ben-Hanan   Son of Shimon in the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 4:20).

Ben-Hesed   The name of one of King Solomon’s twelve district governors charged with supplying provisions for the king and the royal household for one month of the year (1 Kings 4:10). Ben-Hesed’s district included Arubboth, Sokoh, and the Hepher region, thus supporting the view that the area probably corresponded with most of Cisjordanian Manasseh.

Ben Hinnom   A valley on the southern slopes of Jerusalem, variously referred to as “Valley of Hinnom,” “Valley of Ben Hinnom” (lit., “son of Hinnom”), “Valley of the Sons of Hinnom,” or even just “the Valley” (e.g., Jer. 2:23). At least two kings of Judah, Ahaz (2 Chron. 28:3) and Manasseh (33:6), sacrificed their own sons in the fire at the Topheth, a site in the valley. The practice, which certainly extended beyond just royalty, was condemned by the prophets, Jeremiah in particular (Jer. 7:31–32; 32:35). King Josiah, as part of his reform movement, defiled the Topheth to prevent further child sacrifice (2 Kings 23:10). Three different gorges south of Jerusalem are candidates for the identified location of this valley. “Valley of Hinnom” becomes in Greek “Gehenna,” which in all its occurrences in the NT refers to hell.

In this aerial photo, the Hinnom Valley runs along the west (left) and south (foreground) sides of the old city of Jerusalem.

Ben-Hur   One of the twelve district governors appointed by King Solomon to supply provisions for the king and the royal household for one month of the year (1 Kings 4:8). He was in charge of the hill country of Ephraim.

Beninu   A Levite of the postexilic community who sealed the covenant renewal led by Ezra (Neh. 10:13).

Benjamin   (1) The youngest son of Jacob and Rachel. Rachel died en route to Ephrath (Bethlehem) while giving birth to Benjamin (Gen. 35:18). Before she died, Rachel named her son “Ben-Oni,” meaning “son of my sorrow.” Jacob later renamed him “Benjamin,” meaning “son of my right hand.” Benjamin is the youngest of Joseph’s eleven brothers (35:22–26), and Joseph specifically requested to see him when the other brothers journeyed without him to Egypt to buy grain during a famine (42:1–16). (2) Son of the Benjamite Bilhan (1 Chron. 7:10). (3) Son of the Israelite Harim (Ezra 10:32), among those who pledged to divorce a foreign wife. (4) One of those who helped to dedicate the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:34). He may be the same Benjamin as the one in Ezra 10:32. See also Benjamin, Tribe of.

Benjamin, Tribe of   After Genesis, almost every scriptural reference to “Benjamin” is to the tribe of Benjamin, named after the youngest son of Jacob. Jacob’s blessing “Benjamin is a ravenous wolf” (Gen. 49:27) was prophetic, as the tribe of Benjamin came to be known for its prowess in warfare (Judg. 3:15; 1 Chron. 8:40; 2 Sam. 1:22). The land allotted for the tribe of Benjamin was “between the tribes of Judah and Joseph” (Josh. 18:11–20). Although the tribe of Benjamin was the second smallest during the exodus (Num. 1:36–37; Ps. 68:27), several prominent biblical figures are descended from it, including King Saul (1 Sam. 9:1), Queen Esther (Esther 2:5), and the apostle Paul (Rom. 11:1).

Benjamin Gate   A gate located in the northeast part of Jerusalem. Jeremiah tried to leave for the Benjamin territory during the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem, but he was apprehended at this gate (Jer. 37:13). It should be associated with the People’s Gate (“gate of the people” [Jer. 17:19]). “Benjamin Gate” might be a later name for the Ephraim Gate.

Beno   A Levite, son of Merari, during David’s reign (1 Chron. 24:26–27).

Ben-Oni   See Benjamin.

Ben-Zoheth   One of the two sons of Ishi (1 Chron. 4:20). It is possible that he was grandson of Ishi and son of Zoheth, since his name literally means “son of Zoheth.”

Beon   One of several locations east of the Dead Sea that the Gadites and the Reubenites requested as a land allotment in which to raise cattle (Num. 32:3). Later, the Reubenites built up “Baal Meon” (Num. 32:38), probably another name for Beon.

Beor   (1) The father of Bela, king of Edom (Gen. 36:32; 1 Chron. 1:43). (2) The father of Balaam, who was hired by King Balak of Moab to curse the Israelites (Num. 22:5).

Bera   The king of Sodom who, along with four other kings, rebelled against Kedorlaomer, king of Elam, in the valley of Siddim (Gen. 14:2). In their defeat, Abraham’s nephew Lot was taken captive by the survivors, who fled to the hill country.

Beracah   See Berakah.

Berachiah   See Berekiah.

Beraiah   Son of Shimei in the genealogical account of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:21).

Berakah   (1) One of the Benjamites who joined David’s company after the latter’s banishment from Saul’s presence (1 Chron. 12:3). (2) A valley located near Tekoa in the desert west of the Dead Sea, where King Jehoshaphat of Judah and his army celebrated the victory that God won for them against a coalition of invading Ammonites, Moabites, and Edomites (2 Chron. 20:26). The word berakhah means “blessing,” and according to the biblical narrative, the valley received its name on account of the praise given to God there. The modern location is uncertain.

Berakiah   See Berekiah.

Berea   A city (NRSV: “Beroea”) in southern Macedonia (modern Veria) forty-five miles southwest of Thessalonica. After fleeing Thessalonica, Paul and Silas preached there to receptive Jews who “examined the Scriptures every day” to confirm Paul’s message (Acts 17:11). Sopater of Berea accompanied Paul (Acts 20:4).

Berechiah   See Berekiah.

Bered   (1) Son of Shuthelah and grandson of Ephraim, who was Joseph’s youngest son (1 Chron. 7:20). In the account of the census that Moses took of Israel, the same person is apparently listed by the name “Beker” (Num. 26:35). (2) One of two places, along with Kadesh, between which the well of Beer Lahai Roi was located (Gen. 16:14).

Berekiah   (1) Son of Zerubbabel, and a descendant of David (1 Chron. 3:20). Berekiah and four siblings are listed separately after two other brothers and a sister, perhaps because they have a different mother or were born after Zerubbabel returned from exile. (2) Son of Shimea, and the father of Asaph (1 Chron. 6:39; 15:17). (3) Son of Asa, a Levite (1 Chron. 9:16). (4) A gatekeeper for the ark of the covenant (1 Chron. 15:23). He may be the same Berekiah as in 1 Chron. 6:39; 15:17 or in 9:16. (5) Son of Meshillemoth, an Ephraimite (2 Chron. 28:12). (6) Son of Meshezabel, and the father of Meshullam, who helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem under the leadership of Nehemiah (Neh. 3:4, 30; 6:18). (7) Son of Iddo, and the father of Zechariah the prophet (Zech. 1:1, 7; Matt. 23:35).

Beri   Son of Zophah in the genealogical account of Asher (1 Chron. 7:36). Appearing only once in the OT, he is not the eponym of the Beriites, who come from the same tribe but descend from Beriah (Num. 26:44).

Beriah   (1) The fourth son of Asher (Gen. 46:17), and the father of Heber and Malkiel (1 Chron. 7:30–31). He left Canaan and went to Egypt with his father and the rest of Jacob’s family. He is the ancestor of the Beriites (Num. 26:44). (2) A son of Ephraim, named “Beriah” because tragedy (ra’ah) had come to his family when two of his sons were killed by the men of Gath (1 Chron. 7:23). (3) A Benjamite who was a son of Elpaal (1 Chron. 8:13). (4) A Levite who was a son of Shimei (1 Chron. 23:10). He and his brother Jeush were considered one family with one responsibility because they did not have many sons (1 Chron. 23:11).

Beriites   The descendants of Beriah, the fourth son of Asher. He is found in all three genealogical accounts of Asher (Gen. 46:17–18; Num. 26:44–47; 1 Chron. 7:30–40).

Berites   The Hebrew text of 2 Sam. 20:14 mentions “Berites,” presumably a group of people otherwise unknown. Some ancient versions appear to support a slight revision of the text to read “chosen ones” or “Bikrites” (see 2 Sam. 20:1).

Berith   See Baal-Berith; Covenant; El-Berith.

Bernice, Berenice   Daughter of Agrippa I, great-granddaughter of Herod the Great, sister of Agrippa II and Drusilla. Bernice was married to her uncle Herod, king of Chalcis, who died in AD 48. In Acts 25–26 she appears as the queen consort of her brother King Agrippa II, who was in Caesarea visiting Festus, the Roman governor of Judea (AD 59–62). During their stay, Bernice witnessed Paul’s imprisonment defense prior to his being sent to Rome for appeal to Caesar. Later, Bernice was briefly married to Polemo, king of Cicilia. She then resumed her significant role in Agrippa’s reign. In AD 75 she went to Rome as the lover of Titus Vespasian, ten years her junior, until he dismissed her as politically untenable.

Berodach-Baladan   See Marduk-Baladan.

Beroea   See Berea.

Berothah   A place on the northern boundary of Israel in Ezekiel’s description of the future land (Ezek. 47:16). Berothah is probably the same as Berothai, a city of Hadadezer that David plundered (2 Sam. 8:8). It is possibly to be identified with Bereitan, modern Brital, Lebanon.

Berothai   A city in the kingdom of Zobah from which David took a large quantity of bronze (2 Sam. 8:8). However, the parallel passage in 1 Chron. 18:8 identifies this city as Kun, about seven miles north of Berothai. This city is possibly located at the modern site of Bereitan in Lebanon. Berothai is most likely identical to Berothah mentioned in Ezek. 47:16, a city located between Damascus and Hamath as the northern boundary of the restored Israel in Ezekiel’s vision.

Berothite   See Beerothite.

Besai   Listed in Ezra 2:49; Neh. 7:52 as an ancestor of temple servants (Nethinim) who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel (in 539 BC or soon after). The fact that many of the names in the list are foreign has led to the belief that they were originally prisoners of war who were pressed into service to do menial tasks as they assisted the Levites.

Besodeiah   The father of Meshullam, who helped in Nehemiah’s effort to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem by repairing the Jeshanah Gate with Joiada (Neh. 3:6).

Besom   The KJV rendering of the Hebrew word mat’ate’ in Isa. 14:23, translated as “broom” in more-recent versions.

Besor Valley   A wide ravine that drained a large portion of the western Negev into the Mediterranean and formed a natural boundary between the settled area to the north and the nomadic tribes to the south. The nomadic Amalekites crossed the Besor to raid David’s town at Ziklag, and a third of David’s army of six hundred stayed at the Besor when he crossed it in pursuit (1 Sam. 30:1–2, 9–10, 21).

Bestiality   Mentioned four times, bestiality refers to sexual acts performed with animals (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 18:23; 20:15–16; Deut. 27:21). Bestiality inverts the created order by mixing image bearers with animals (Gen. 1:27–28) and is condemned as “perversion.” The nations purged from Canaan were guilty of these abominations (Lev. 20:23).

Betah   See Tebah.

Beten   A town in the southern portion of the tribal allotment to Asher under Joshua (Josh. 19:25). It is possibly to be identified with modern Abtun, in the vicinity of Mount Carmel.

Bethabara   In John 1:28 many manuscripts name Bethabara as the place where John was baptizing (followed by the KJV), although the oldest and most widely attested reading has it as Bethany. The sixth-century AD Madaba Map corroborates the Bethabara hypothesis.

Beth Anath   A town assigned to the tribe of Naphtali after Joshua’s conquest of the promised land (Josh. 19:38). The inhabitants of Beth Anath were not driven away upon Israel’s arrival, and by the time of the judges they were required to do forced labor (Judg. 1:33).

Beth Anoth   A city assigned to the tribe of Judah after Joshua’s conquest of the promised land. It was located about three miles north/northeast of Hebron (Josh. 15:59).

Bethany   (1) A village about two miles east of Jerusalem on the way to Jericho (John 11:18). It is mentioned twice in Matthew (21:17; 26:6), four times in Mark (11:1, 11, 12; 14:3), twice in Luke (19:29; 24:50), and three times in John (11:1, 18; 12:1). Bethany is identified as a place where Jesus lodged several times, primarily because his friends Lazarus, Mary, and Martha lived there (John 11:1; 12:1). It was here that Jesus raised Lazarus from the dead and dined at the house of Simon the leper. Simon’s house in Bethany is where Mary anointed Jesus’ body before his death and resurrection (Matt. 26:6–13; John 12:1–2).

(2) John the Baptist ministered in a place called “Bethany” beyond/across the Jordan (John 1:28). It was here on the east side of the Jordan that Jesus called his first disciples (John 1:35–42). The modern town of El-’Aziriyeh is traditionally associated with first-century Bethany. See also Bethabara.

Beth Arabah   A village in the wilderness of Judah located on the border with Benjamin about five miles north-northwest of the Dead Sea (Josh. 15:6, 61; 18:18, 22).

Beth-Aram   See Beth Haram.

Beth Arbel   Appearing only once in the Bible, this city serves as a picture of terrible judgment when “mothers were dashed to the ground with their children” (Hos. 10:14). The city cannot be identified with certainty, but the vast majority of scholars identify it with the Transjordanian city of Arbela (modern Irbid).

Beth Ashbea   The home of linen workers descending from the tribe of Judah. It was probably located in the region of Mareshah (1 Chron. 4:21).

Beth Aven   Beth Aven appears for the first time in the OT in the book of Joshua. It is there that Beth Aven’s location is established in close proximity to Ai and Bethel (7:2). The wilderness of Beth Aven also served as a boundary marker for the tribe of Benjamin (18:12). This place, whose name is translated as “house of wickedness” or “house of iniquity,” is mentioned three times by the eighth-century BC prophet Hosea (4:15; 5:8; 10:5). By this time, the term “Beth Aven” had become a derogatory epithet used for the pagan shrine built at Bethel. Hosea indicated that because of its idolatry and rebellion against God, Bethel (“the house of God”) became Beth Aven (“the house of wickedness/iniquity”).

Beth Azmaveth   A village north of Jerusalem that appears twice in the OT. The location appears in connection with the returnees from exile during the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 7:28). The village was built by singers who served at the dedication of the rebuilt wall (12:29).

Beth Baal Meon   A town in the northern part of Moab (Josh. 13:17). It also appears as Baal Meon (Num. 32:38; 1 Chron. 5:8; Ezek. 25:9) and Beth Meon (Jer. 48:23). The names Baal Meon and Beth Baal Meon appear as well on the ninth-century BC Moabite Stone (lines 9, 30).

Beth Barah   A location near the Jordan River where Joshua led the Ephraimites to capture the fleeing Midianites (Judg. 7:24). Athough some suggest that it could be west of the Jordan River in the vicinity of Wadi Far‘‘ah, its precise location is uncertain.

Beth Biri   Descendants of the tribe of Simeon lived in this town before David was crowned king over Israel (1 Chron. 4:31). The modern town of Jebel el-Biri might be located on the same place as the ancient town of Beth Biri.

Beth Car   See Beth Kar.

Beth Dagon   (1) A town located in the lowland of Judah (Josh. 15:41). The name means “house/temple of Dagon” and is a reference to Dagon, the god of the Philistines (Judg. 16:23; 1 Sam. 5:2–7). (2) A city on the southern border of the tribe of Asher (Josh. 19:27), located about five miles southeast of the modern city of Haifa.

Beth Diblathaim   Jeremiah mentions Beth Diblathaim in his oracles against the nations and specifically against Moab. It may be that Beth Diblathaim is the same as Almon Diblathaim, a town encountered by the wandering Israelites on their way to the promised land (Num. 33:46–47). If so, Beth Diblathaim was located somewhere on the King’s Highway between Mount Hor and the plains of Moab.

Beth Eden   An important city-state located northeast of Israel on the banks of the Euphrates River. Beth Eden played an important role in the Aramean kingdom. During the time of the eighth-century BC prophet Amos, Beth Eden had recovered from an earlier Assyrian invasion led by Shalmaneser III and again rose to fame. Beth Eden is included in God’s judgment against the nations that neighbor his people, Israel (Amos 1:5).

Beth Eked   A town in the northern kingdom of Israel. The town was located between Jezreel and the capital Samaria. It was at Beth Eked that Jehu slaughtered forty-two relatives of King Ahaziah of Judah (2 Kings 10:12–14). The two modern cities that might be located on the ancient ruins of Beth Eked are Beit Qad and Kafr Ro’i.

Bethel   The ancient site of Bethel is probably to be identified with the modern village of Beitin, 10.5 miles north of Jerusalem. Its location is described and pinpointed in Gen. 12:8; Judg. 21:19. Bethel’s situation and importance are explained by its copious springs and its location at the intersection of major ancient highways, the north-south mountain road and the east-west road from Jericho to the coastal plain.

From the patriarchs to the judges. The first mention of Bethel in the Bible is in Gen. 12:8, where Abram camped “east of Bethel” on his first entry into the promised land. He camped there again on his return from a stay in Egypt (13:3). On the first occasion Abram erected “an altar to the LORD.” When Abram returned to that spot, he “called on the name of the LORD.”

It was Jacob who gave it the name “Bethel,” meaning “house of God,” due to the dream he received in that location. In the dream he saw a ladder reaching to heaven, and God spoke to him (28:10–19). Its former name was Luz. God later appeared in Mesopotamia and spoke to Jacob, identifying himself as “the God of Bethel,” instructing him to return to his native land. The title taken by God implied that God would be faithful to his earlier promise to bring Jacob back to his land (31:13). Later God specifically instructed Jacob to settle in Bethel (35:1–6). Deborah, Rebekah’s nurse, died in Bethel and was buried there (35:8). God appeared to Jacob a second time in Bethel and spoke to him, reiterating the promise to give him the land of Canaan (35:9–15; cf. 28:13). All God’s dealings with Jacob are connected to the theophanies and divine promises associated with Bethel.

Bethel is mentioned a number of times in the account of Joshua’s capture of Ai, a city that lay to the east of Bethel (Josh. 7). The king of Bethel is listed among the kings defeated by Joshua (12:16). Under Joshua, the city was apportioned to Benjamin (18:13, 22), but the Canaanites repopulated it after the near extinction of the tribe of Benjamin (Judg. 20–21). Bethel was reconquered by the house of Joseph and incorporated into Ephraimite territory (Judg. 1:22–25; 1 Chron. 7:28), and later it became a fortress on its southern tribal border. Deborah held court between Ramah and Bethel (Judg. 4:5). Under the judgeship of Samuel, Bethel was one of his regular stops in his yearly circuit (1 Sam. 7:16). It continued throughout this period to be a sanctuary where offerings were made (see 1 Sam. 10:3).

From the monarchy to the exile. This long-term cultic association explains the choice of Bethel as one of the two chief sanctuaries of the northern kingdom, the other center being in Dan. Jeroboam I built a royal shrine at Bethel to rival Jerusalem and to prevent the Israelites from drifting back to the Davidic dynasty (1 Kings 12:26–33). The prophet Ahijah’s criticism of Jeroboam’s actions was not due to Ahijah’s commitment to a central sanctuary at Jerusalem (14:1–16) but rather arose from the use of bull images (golden calves). This was not an innocent move by Jeroboam, returning to pre-Jerusalem and more ancient cultic symbols. It is not adequate simply to view Jeroboam’s calves as a “pedestal” upon which the Lord was believed to be enthroned (as accepted by W. F. Albright), for an explicit link is made with the idolatrous golden calf set up by Aaron in the desert: “Here are your gods, Israel, who brought you up out of Egypt” (1 Kings 12:28 [cf. Exod. 32:8]). This became known as the chief sin of Jeroboam son of Nebat. It tainted the northern kingdom (see 2 Kings 10:29) and eventually led to that kingdom’s judgment by God at the hands of the Assyrians (2 Kings 17:21–23).

The southern king Abijah captured Bethel from Israel in the latter part of Jeroboam’s reign (2 Chron. 13:19), but then it later returned to northern control. The unnamed “man of God” in 1 Kings 13 predicted the later destruction of the Bethel altar by King Josiah (1 Kings 13:1–3), a prediction subsequently fulfilled (2 Kings 23:4, 15–18). Bethel was visited by Elijah before his translation to heaven (2 Kings 2:2–4), and a company of prophets dwelt there. Elisha revisited Bethel after his master’s translation and cursed the forty-two youths who insulted him (2 Kings 2:23–25).

Hosea condemned the great wickedness of Bethel, presumably because of the false worship that went on there (Hos. 10:15), but more positively, he recalled that this was the location where God had talked with the patriarch Jacob (12:4). Jeremiah also explained the sad fate of Israel to be a result of their trust in Bethel (Jer. 48:13). Amos, in his condemnation of the worship system of the northern kingdom, ironically called to the people, “Go to Bethel and sin” (Amos 4:4). Later he dropped the irony and spoke plainly: “Do not seek Bethel” (5:5), predicting its destruction (5:6; cf. 3:14). It was in Bethel that Amos was criticized by the head priest Amaziah (7:10–17) and was told to no longer prophesy there because it was “the king’s sanctuary.”

From the exile to the Roman period. The city was destroyed by the Assyrians about the time of their capture of Samaria (722 BC), but the shrine was revived in the form of a syncretistic cult at the close of the Assyrian period by the foreign peoples deported to the area (2 Kings 17:24–41). Some descendants of the inhabitants of Bethel were among those who returned from Babylonian exile in the first great caravan (Ezra 2:28; Neh. 7:32), and these Benjamite returnees resettled in their hometown (Neh. 11:31). Bethel prospered in the Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Bethelite   A citizen of Bethel. Only Hiel, who rebuilt Jericho in the time of Ahab, is called a Bethelite (1 Kings 16:34 KJV, NET).

Bethel Sharezer   See Sharezer.

Beth Emek   One of the towns allotted to the tribe of Asher, mentioned only in Josh. 19:27. It may be identified with Tel Mimas, located some seven miles northeast of Akko where Upper Galilee descends to the Mediterranean coast.

Bether   A Hebrew word in Song 2:17 that is either a proper noun (KJV, NASB: “mountains of Bether”) or an adjective (e.g., NIV: “rugged hills”; NRSV: “cleft mountains”).

Bethesda   A pool in Jerusalem where Jesus healed a man who had been sick for thirty-eight years (John 5:2). Other names for the pool, including “Bethzatha” and “Bethsaida,” appear in various manuscripts. Eusebius also calls it the “sheep pool.” The name means “house of mercy,” and the pool is associated with the cleansing of the sheep for the temple sacrifice. Some manuscripts of John 5 report that the pool was stirred by angels, which allowed for the healing of whoever entered it first at that time. Archaeology has revealed the location of the pool near St. Anne’s Church. It is a two-pool complex surrounded by five porticoes.

Excavations at the probable site of the Pool of Bethesda

Beth Ezel   This town is mentioned only once in the Bible, in Micah’s lament (1:11). Its exact location is unknown, but most of the identifiable towns in this lament are defensive hill forts in the Shephelah, to the southwest of Jerusalem. The name may be derived from the verb “to take away,” in which case Micah’s statement that “its protection is taken from you” (TNIV) involves wordplay.

Beth Gader   In 1 Chron. 2:50–51 Beth Gader is identified as son of Hareph, and grandson of Hur, from the tribe of Judah. Some suggest that later Beth Gader was a town located south of Jerusalem, in the vicinity of Bethlehem.

Beth Gamul   A Moabite town named along with Kiriathaim and Beth Meon in Jeremiah’s oracles against the nations (Jer. 48:23). Its site is uncertain, although modern-day Khirbet el-Jemeil has been suggested as a possible location.

Beth Gilgal   Appearing only once in the OT, this town is linked with the returnees from exile during the time of Nehemiah. The village, located on the east plain of Jericho, was built by singers who served at the dedication of the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:29).

Beth Haggan   This place, whose name means “place of the garden,” is where King Jehu of Israel fatally wounded King Ahaziah of Judah (2 Kings 9:27). Ahaziah would die at Megiddo. Since the location must be somewhere between Jezreel toward Samaria and Jerusalem, scholars suggest that modern-day Jenin should be connected with ancient Beth Haggan.

Beth Hakkerem   This town, whose name means “place of the vineyard,” appears in the book of Jeremiah when the prophet warns the southern kingdom of Judah of an imminent and horrific invasion from the north. Beth Hakkerem is mentioned along with Jerusalem, Tekoa, and the tribe of Benjamin. The fourth-century theologian Jerome suggested that the city could be seen from Bethlehem. In the book of Nehemiah, Beth Hakkerem is one of the districts of postexilic Judah (3:14). At this time, the district was ruled by Malkijah son of Rekab.

Beth-Hanan   See Elon Bethhanan.

Beth Haram   A town (or possibly a valley) in the region of Gad and located east of Jordan (Josh. 13:27). The place is identical with Beth Haran, a fortified city taken during the conquest of the promised land (Num. 32:36).

Beth Haran   See Beth Haram.

Beth Hoglah   A town located between Jericho and the Jordan River, mentioned as the territories of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin are outlined (Josh. 15:6; 18:19, 21). Today it is identified with modern Deir Hajlah.

Beth Horon   A city allotted by Joshua to the Levites (Josh. 21:22). The city was divided into two parts, Lower Beth Horon and Upper Beth Horon. The twin city of Beth Horon, first mentioned in Josh. 10:10–11, is located in the mountains of Judah in the valley of Aijalon. During the Israelite conquest of the land, many Amorites were killed at Gibeon and others pursued as far as Beth Horon. In the distribution of the land, Lower Beth Horon was allotted to Ephraim, while Upper Beth Horon was on the border between Ephraim and Benjamin (16:3, 5; 18:13–14). During Solomon’s reign, Beth Horon was rebuilt after being burned by the Egyptians during one of their northern incursions (1 Kings 9:15–17).

The Chronicler reveals that the city was built by Sheerah, granddaughter of Ephraim (1 Chron. 7:24). Lower and Upper Beth Horon are described as “fortified cities, with walls and with gates and bars” (2 Chron. 8:5). The last mention of Beth Horon is made in conjunction with some Israelite troops who killed three thousand Judeans from Samaria to Beth Horon (2 Chron. 25:13). Modern-day Beit ’Ur el-Foqa has been identified with ancient Upper Beth Horon, while ancient Lower Beth Horon has been identified with modern-day Beit ’Ur et-Tahta.

Beth Jeshimoth   A geographic location referred to four times in the OT. It is one of the towns in Moab where the Israelites camped as they were poised to enter Canaan (Num. 33:49). It is listed among the territories taken from Sihon by the Israelites (Josh. 12:2–3) and as one of the towns given to the tribe of Reuben by Moses (Josh. 13:20). In Ezekiel’s prophecy against Moab it is mentioned as one of the frontier towns that will be the first to be destroyed (Ezek. 25:9).

Beth Kar   A town within the boundaries of the tribe of Benjamin mentioned in 1 Sam. 7:11 in connection with the Israelite defeat of the Philistines at Mizpah. The victory was attributed primarily to Yahweh, who created confusion in the Philistine camp (1 Sam. 7:10).

Beth-le-aphrah, Beth Leaphrah   See Beth Ophrah.

Beth Lebaoth   This town is mentioned for the first time in the book of Joshua in its abbreviated form, Lebaoth. Joshua 15:32 identifies Lebaoth as part of the tribe of Judah, while 19:6 has Beth Lebaoth as one of the cities belonging to the tribe of Simeon. Probably due to a scribal error, the city appears as Beth Biri in a Simeonite genealogy (1 Chron. 4:31).

Bethlehem   There were at least two towns called “Bethlehem” (meaning “house of bread”). (1) A town in Zebulun, in the north, about seven miles northwest of Nazareth (Josh. 19:15).

(2) The well-known town about four miles south of Jerusalem in Judah, situated on a couple of hills about 2,300 feet above sea level. The ancient name was “Ephrath” or “Ephrathah” (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ruth 4:11; Ps. 136:2; Mic. 5:2; see also Bethlehem Ephrathah). With the possible exception of the story of the judge Ibzan (Judg. 12:8–10), most references to Bethlehem are to the town in Judah, which still exists.

Bethlehem first enters biblical history when Jacob’s wife Rachel dies there while giving birth to Benjamin (Gen. 35:16–19). After the conquest, the town was inhabited by Ephrathites descended from Caleb, one of whom was called “father of Bethlehem” (in the sense of civic leader; 1 Chron. 2:51; 4:4; cf. 2:54). Judges mentions two Levites passing though, one who moved from Bethlehem to Ephraim (Judg. 17:7–9), and another who lived in Ephraim but took a concubine from Bethlehem (19:1). The most important references to Bethlehem from this era, however, are in Ruth. It was from Bethlehem that Elimelek’s family set out for Moab (Ruth 1:1), and to Bethlehem that Ruth and Naomi returned (1:22). Two generations later, it was into this same Bethlemite family that the future king David was born (Ruth 4:18–22; 1 Sam. 16:1).

Bethlehem is mentioned frequently as David’s hometown (e.g., 1 Sam. 17:12, 58; 20:6). Several of the mighty men on whom David depended so much were from there, including the brothers Joab, Abishai, and Asahel (2 Sam. 2:18, 32) and Elhanan (2 Sam. 23:24). At one point, when Bethlehem was temporarily garrisoned by Philistines, some of the mighty men risked their lives to fetch David water from the town well (2 Sam. 23:14–17; 2 Chron. 11:16–26). Bethlehem was later fortified by David’s grandson Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:6).

Shepherd’s field near Bethlehem

In the eighth century the prophet Micah promised that although Judah’s defeat was inevitable, a new king would arise from this otherwise insignificant town to save the whole of Israel (Mic. 5:2). Both the place and the clan retained their identity through the exile, and 123 men of Bethlehem returned to Judah (Ezra 2:21; see also Neh. 7:26).

Luke stresses that Jesus was born in David’s city (Luke 2:4; cf. 2 Sam. 7:12–16); Joseph had taken Mary to his ancestral home, Bethlehem, for a Roman census. The angels announced Jesus’ birth to some shepherds in the vicinity of town (Luke 2:1–20). Matthew makes a more specific connection to Micah’s prophecy; indeed, it was on the basis of this prophecy that Herod decided where to send the magi (Matt. 2:1–8) and where to slaughter the baby boys (2:16). Matthew sees in this slaughter a fulfillment of Jeremiah’s prophecy that Rachel, who died at Bethlehem, would mourn her children (Matt. 2:18; Jer. 31:15). Ironically, some Jews rejected Jesus because they thought that he came from Galilee (John 7:42). Constantine the Great, the fourth-century Roman emperor, built a church above a cave in Bethlehem, traditionally believed to be the birthplace of Jesus. Today the city boasts a population of about thirty thousand and is one of the most visited sites in Israel, especially during the Christmas season, when thousands of Christians make a pilgrimage to the traditional place of Jesus’ birth.

Bethlehem Ephrathah   “Ephrathah” or “Ephrath” distinguishes Bethlehem in Judah (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7, 19; Ruth 4:11; Mic. 5:2) from Bethlehem in Zebulun (Josh. 19:15). Some Ephrathites lived in Bethlehem (Ruth 1:2; 1 Sam. 17:12), but the clan may have been more widespread. See also Bethlehem.

Bethlehemite   See Bethlehem.

Beth Maacah   See Beth Maakah.

Beth Maakah   A city in far northern Israel usually called “Abel Beth Maakah.” Located approximately seventeen miles north of Hazor and four miles west of Dan at modern Tell Abel el-Qamh, (Abel) Beth Maakah sat at an important road junction, squarely in the path of northern invaders. Both the Arameans (1 Kings 15:20) and the Assyrians (2 Kings 15:29) destroyed the city when they first entered Israel. See also Abel Beth Maakah.

Beth Marcaboth   See Beth Markaboth.

Beth Markaboth   One of the locations inherited by the tribe of Simeon within the territory of Judah (Josh. 19:5). It was occupied by Shimei and his descendants until the reign of King David (1 Chron. 4:31).

Beth Meon   A Moabite town (Jer. 48:23) also known as Baal Meon (Num. 32:38; 1 Chron. 5:8; Ezek. 25:9), Beth Baal Meon (Josh. 13:17), and Beon (Num. 32:3). The Moabite Stone (line 9) reports it being rebuilt by a Moabite king Mesha, who also built a reservoir in it.

Beth Millo   Likely a palace or fortress. If “Millo” means “fill,” as its Hebrew etymology suggests, it may refer to the foundations of a prominent structure in the upper city. Shechem’s Beth Millo is mentioned in connection with the “citizens of Shechem” who crowned Abimelek king (Judg. 9:6, 20). Jerusalem’s Beth Millo (2 Kings 12:20) may be identified with a stone structure on the east side of the City of David.

Beth Nimrah   One of the towns constructed by the Gadites in the land given to them by Moses after they defeated the Amorites (Num. 32:3, 36; Josh. 13:27). It is located east of the Jordan Valley, and its name is present at Tell Nimrim. It may be associated with the “waters of Nimrim” (Isa. 15:6; Jer. 48:34).

Beth Ophrah   This town is mentioned only once in the Bible, in Micah’s lament (1:10). Its exact location is unknown, but all the identifiable towns in this lament cluster in the Shephelah, a frontier region of foothills to the southwest of Jerusalem. The name “Beth Ophrah” (NRSV: “Beth-leaphrah”; KJV: “house of Aprah”) means “house of dust,” so Micah’s command to its inhabitants to “roll in dust” involves a wordplay.

Beth-Palet   See Beth Pelet.

Beth Pazzez   A town found within the territory allotted to the tribe of Issachar (Josh. 19:21). Based on the cities listed with it, the town probably was located east of Mount Tabor, but the exact location cannot be determined.

Beth Pelet   A southern Judean town located near the boundary of Edom (Josh. 15:21, 27). It was one of the towns reoccupied by Judeans following their return from exile (Neh. 11:26). A proposed location is north of Beersheba, but a definitive location cannot be determined.

Beth Peor   A Transjordanian town located just east of the northern end of the Dead Sea. It was part of the holdings of King Sihon of the Amorites until the Israelite invasion as they passed by on their way to enter Canaan (Deut. 4:46). It is also from the valley near Beth Peor that Moses delivered his speeches in Deuteronomy. Already in Deut. 4:3 Moses refers to the sin of the Israelites in Num. 25:1–9 concerning Baal Peor, whose worship certainly was located in Beth Peor (i.e., “house of Peor”). That incident is referred to again in Hos. 9:10 as the incident that turned Yahweh against his people. Moses was buried in the valley opposite Beth Peor, although “to this day no one knows where his grave is” (Deut. 34:6). See also Baal Peor.

Bethphage   A location near Jerusalem where Jesus sent his disciples to find a donkey for the triumphal entry (Matt. 21:1; Mark 11:1; Luke 19:29). Later Jewish sources believe it to be a suburb of Jerusalem that was located outside the city wall and surrounded by its own wall. It was located about a mile east of the summit of the Mount of Olives. Frescoes found at that location show two disciples untying both a donkey and a colt (cf. Matt. 21:2). According to archaeologists, the city was occupied from the second century BC until the eighth century AD. Many artifacts have been discovered at this location, including graffiti depicting a cross.

Beth-Phelet   See Beth Pelet.

Beth Rapha   Son of Eshton from the tribe of Judah, mentioned only in 1 Chron. 4:12. Since this is one of the few cases where a personal name appears in the OT preceded by beth (“house, dynasty”), it has sometimes been interpreted as the name of a place (perhaps in the region between Bethlehem and Hebron). “Rapha” appears in other Semitic names and may simply be the short form of “Yahweh/God has healed.”

Beth Rehob   An Aramean town or district on the road to Hamath. It is probably to be identified with Rehob of Num. 13:21, the northernmost point of the journey of the Israelite spies sent into Canaan by Moses at God’s command. It has been conjectured as modern Banias, five miles northeast of Dan, or as Hunin, west of Banias. Danites migrated to the north and captured Laish, in the valley that is part of Beth Rehob (Judg. 18:28). Ammonites hired Syrian soldiers as mercenaries from Beth Rehob and Zobah to fight against David (2 Sam. 10:6).

Bethsaida   A town located on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee, near the Jordan River, about five miles east of Capernaum, although the precise location is disputed. The two sites most commonly suggested are el-Araj and et-Tell. The answer may be found in the relationship between the two sites. The ruins of et-Tell are two miles north of el-Araj. In the first century they may have been on opposite sides of the Jordan River, el-Araj on the west and et-Tell on the east. Both were Bethsaida, but el-Araj was the “village” (Mark 8:23) and “Bethsaida in Galilee” (John 1:44; 12:21), and et-Tell was the polis (“city”).

The name “Bethsaida” is Aramaic, meaning “house of fishing” or “house of the fisherman.” The Jewish historian Josephus records that Herod the Great’s son Herod Philip built up the city in terms of the number of inhabitants and grandeur and advanced it from a village to a city. He renamed it “Julias” in honor of Augustus Caesar’s daughter (Ant. 18.2.1). Philip was buried in the city following his death in AD 33 (Ant. 18.4.6).

Bethsaida is the third most mentioned town in the Gospels, and it was at the heart of Jesus’ ministry. It was the birthplace of Peter and Andrew and the home of Philip (John 1:44; 12:21). Jesus performed several miracles at or near the town. Near Bethsaida Jesus walked on water (Mark 6:45–52) and fed the five thousand (6:30–44). In Bethsaida Jesus healed a blind man (8:22–26). Unfortunately, the miracles do not seem to have had much effect on the inhabitants, and in Matt. 11:21 // Luke 10:13 Jesus denounces the city along with Chorazin for its lack of repentance.

Beth Shan   Known as Scythopolis at the time of Jesus, Beth Shan is a town located at the junction of the plain of Jezreel and the Jordan Valley, west of the Jordan River. This strategic site, with fertile lands and abundant water, overlooks major roads running west toward the Mediterranean and north and south through the Jordan Valley. The name also designates the district surrounding the town.

Modern Tel Beth-Shean (Arabic: Tell el-Husn) has been the site of three archaeological excavations. In 1921–33 the University of Pennsylvania began work on the Early Arab and Byzantine levels and later reached the Middle and Early Bronze Age strata, discovering that Beth Shan served as an administrative center for Egypt during the time of the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age I (1550–1150 BC). The most significant finds of this excavation included three basalt stelae with inscriptions from the reigns of the Egyptian rulers Seti I and Ramesses II and a life-size statue of Ramesses II. Excavations in Beth Shan were renewed briefly in 1983 and in earnest between 1989 and 1996 by the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, with significant artifacts uncovered at almost every stratum. The combined efforts of these excavations have found evidence of continuous occupation from the late Neolithic period (5500–4500 BC) to the Crusader and Ayyubid periods (AD 1099–1291).

Beth Shan is first mentioned in the Bible in connection with Joshua’s division of the land among the twelve tribes of Israel. Although located within the territory of Issachar, it was portioned to the tribe of Manasseh (Josh. 17:11) but remained under the control of the Canaanite inhabitants because they possessed iron chariots. When the Israelites gained strength, they put the Canaanites to forced labor but did not drive them out (Josh. 17:12–13, 16; Judg. 1:27).

Tel Beth-Shean, the site of ancient Beth Shan

During the period of the monarchy, after the Israelites were defeated in battle on Mount Gilboa, the Philistines fastened the bodies of Saul and his three sons to the wall of Beth Shan and placed Saul’s weapons in the temple of Ashtaroth. When news of this atrocity spread, men from Jabesh Gilead retrieved the bodies and buried them (1 Sam. 31:7–13). David later retrieved the bones of Saul and his sons and reburied them in Zela (2 Sam. 21:14). Although Beth Shan had been under the control of the Philistines during Saul’s reign, it is listed within one of Solomon’s administrative districts (1 Kings 4:12).

Not mentioned again in biblical sources, the town continued to play a role in the historical events of the area. After Alexander the Great’s conquests, Greeks settled in Beth Shan and changed the town’s name to “Scythopolis.” It became one of the towns designated as belonging to the Decapolis, a confederation of ten towns primarily situated east and south of the Sea of Galilee. This was the only city of the Decapolis located west of the Jordan River.

Scythopolis was the site of some conflict during the Maccabean revolt (1 Macc. 5:52; 12:40–42). Jews retook control of the area during the reign of the Jewish king Alexander Jannaeus, but its inhabitants were spared from massacre because of kindness shown to the local Jews (2 Macc. 12:29–31). In 63 BC the Roman general Pompey won control of the city from the Jews. The city continued to be occupied during the Roman and Byzantine periods and was conquered in AD 636 by the Arabs, who renamed it “Beisan.”

Beth Shean   See Beth Shan.

Beth Shemesh   The name “Beth Shemesh” means “house of the sun,” which suggests the presence of a temple to a sun god at that location.

(1) A city allocated to the tribe of Dan, in Josh. 19:41 it is called “Ir Shemesh,” which means “City of Shemesh.” It is also described as being located on the northern boundary of Judah (Josh. 15:10), as one of the cities that Judah allotted to the Levites (Josh. 21:16), and as being “in Judah” (2 Kings 14:11).

Beth Shemesh is best known for its role in the story of the Philistine capture of the ark of the covenant. After keeping the ark with disastrous consequences for seven months, the Philistines returned it to the border town of Beth Shemesh. The ark’s safe arrival was a joyous occasion for the town until some of the residents looked inside the ark and were struck down by God (1 Sam. 6).

Beth Shemesh belonged to the second administrative district of Solomon (1 Kings 4:9) and was the location where King Jehoash (Joash) of Israel engaged King Amaziah of Judah in battle. The victorious Jehoash then marched on to Jerusalem and plundered the temple (2 Kings 14:11–14; 2 Chron. 25:21–24). During the reign of King Ahaz, the Philistines seized many towns in the lowlands of Judah, including Beth Shemesh (2 Chron. 28:18).

Beth Shemesh has been identified with Tel Beth-Shemesh, located in the northeastern Shephelah (lowland) of Judah, twelve miles west of Jerusalem, overlooking the Sorek Valley. Early excavations, conducted in 1911–12 by Duncan Mackenzie for the Palestine Exploration Fund and in 1928–33 by Elihu Grant from Haverford College, uncovered six levels of occupation. Finds in Stratum VI consisted solely of pottery shards. In Stratum V (Middle Bronze Age, 2200–1550 BC) a massive city wall, a well-preserved house, and several tombs were uncovered. Stratum IV (Late Bronze Age, 1550–1200 BC) finds included several structures, a Ugaritic cuneiform tablet, an ostracon with a Proto-Canaanite inscription, and a spectacular jewelry hoard. Stratum III (Iron Age I, 1200–1000 BC) finds included many residences, bichrome Philistine pottery, and the remains of industrial metalworking. Excavations in Stratum II (Iron Age II, 1000–586 BC) showed that the city had been rebuilt in a concentric layout. Finds included jar handles, seal impressions, tombs, and evidence of olive oil production. Stratum I (Hellenistic to Medieval periods) discoveries included pottery, coins, and architectural remains.

Discoveries of the recent excavations in 1990–2000 by Shlomo Bunimovitz and Zvi Lederman for Tel Aviv University include an elaborate system of fortifications (tenth to seventh centuries BC), an ironsmith workshop, and a unique subterranean water reservoir coated with hydraulic plaster and with a capacity of eight hundred cubic meters. These excavations confirmed that Beth Shemesh was destroyed in 701 BC by the Assyrian king Sennacherib. Although Judean families resettled the city for a short time, they abandoned it when the entrance to the reservoir was deliberately blocked with 150 tons of debris by the Philistines (and/or the Assyrians), who wanted control of the area.

(2) A city within the territory of the tribe of Issachar (Josh. 19:22).

(3) A fortified city within the territory of the tribe of Naphtali (Josh. 19:38). The Israelites were unable to drive out its Canaanite inhabitants, so they used them for forced labor (Judg. 1:33).

(4) A city in Egypt also known as Heliopolis, mentioned in Jer. 43:13 (NRSV). Here the MT has beth shemesh and the LXX has Heliou poleōs (Jer. 50:1 LXX), but the NIV translates the name literally as “the temple of the sun” and places “Heliopolis” in a footnote.

Beth-Shemite   See Beth Shemesh.

Beth Shittah   The place where the Midianite army fled after the surprise attack by Gideon and his three hundred men (Judg. 7:22). The exact location is unknown, but it is likely somewhere in the Jordan Valley near Abel Meholah. The name “Beth Shittah” means “house of the acacia tree.”

Beth Tappuah   A town near Hebron allotted to the tribe of Judah in the southern hill country. The name (“house of the apple”) appears only in Josh. 15:53 and is preserved by the modern village of Taffuh, located three miles west of Hebron.

Beth Togarmah   A place mentioned twice in Ezekiel. First, Beth Togarmah appears as one of several trading partners of the Phoenician city of Tyre (27:14); Beth Togarmah’s goods were “work horses, war horses, and mules.” Second, Beth Togarmah, “from the far north,” is named as one of the military allies of Gog of Magog (38:6). Scholars generally identify Beth Togarmah with Armenia. Togarmah, who settled in the area subsequently known as Beth Togarmah, was a son of Gomer and a great-grandson of Noah (Gen. 10:3; 1 Chron. 1:6).

Bethuel   (1) Son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, born to him by his wife, Milkah (Gen. 22:20–23), and the father of Rebekah and Laban. He appears at the most significant point in the marriage arrangement of his daughter Rebekah when he hands her over for marriage to Isaac (Gen. 24:50–51). Bethuel and his son Laban are referred to as “the Aramean” (Gen. 25:20; 28:5; 31:20, 24); the same term is used to describe Jacob prior to his settlement in Egypt (Deut. 26:5). (2) A place allotted to the tribe of Simeon when Israel took over Canaan under the leadership of Joshua (Josh. 19:4 [“Bethul”]; 1 Chron. 4:30). The possible location of this place is modern Khirbet el-Qarjeten.

Bethzatha   See Bethesda.

Beth Zur   A town in the southern Judean mountains twelve miles south of Jerusalem. The ancient site should be associated with Khirbet et-Tubeiqah, a mere quarter mile away from Burj es-Sur. It was a Judean town (Josh. 15:58) associated with the descendants of Caleb (1 Chron. 2:45). Rehoboam fortified it (2 Chron. 11:7). In the postexilic period it ruled a small administrative district (Neh. 3:16).

During the Maccabean revolt it served as a fortress guarding the border with Idumea (1 Macc. 4:61). Judas defeated Lysias in 165 BC and fortified it (4:29) only to lose it in 163 BC (6:50). It remained in Seleucid hands (10:14) until Simon captured it in 144 BC (11:65). It declined and was abandoned in the first centuries AD.

Betonim   A town located on the east side of the Jordan. It was part of the inheritance that Moses allotted to the tribe of Gad (Josh. 13:26). The line from Heshbon to Ramath Mizpah to Betonim possibly marks the border between Reuben and Gad.

Betrothal   Betrothal is a commitment designed to lead to marriage, comparable to being engaged today. There are a number of instructions in the OT law regarding proper conduct involving a woman who is betrothed or engaged (Exod. 22:16; Deut. 20:7). There are also references to Mary being betrothed to Joseph prior to Jesus’ birth (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:27; 2:5). However, the most significant references are the figurative descriptions of God betrothing himself to his people: “I will betroth you to me forever; I will betroth you in righteousness and justice, in love and compassion. I will betroth you in faithfulness, and you will acknowledge the LORD” (Hos. 2:19–20). Hosea’s experience with his unfaithful betrothed and then wife, Gomer, is a classic picture of God’s faithfulness to his unfaithful people. On one occasion, Paul uses the imagery of betrothal to picture his commitment to the churches he served: “I am jealous for you with a godly jealousy. I promised you to one husband, to Christ, so that I might present you as a pure virgin to him” (2 Cor. 11:2).

Beulah   A transliteration of the Hebrew word be’ulah (“married”), this is a symbolic name promised to the personified Zion (Isa. 62:4). The new names in Isa. 62:4 signify the restoration of the relationship between God and Zion, as husband and wife (cf. 54:1–8), which was lost due to her sons’ iniquities (cf. 50:1). The restoration of Zion’s status is also highlighted with her marriage to her sons (62:5).

Beveled Work   See Hammered Work.

Bewitch   To lead astray by means of deceptive devices, sorcery, witchcraft, or any power unassociated with God and thus demonic or Satanic. God’s response to mediums, spiritists, sorcerers, or witches is one of unconditional rejection (Lev. 19:31; 20:6; 2 Kings 23:24). The apostle Paul asks the churches in Galatia, “Who has bewitched you?” (Gal. 3:1), essentially asking, “Who has led you astray?”

Beyond the River   In Josh. 24 “beyond the River” (NRSV; NIV: “beyond the Euphrates River”) refers to the land of Abraham’s birth, east of the Euphrates. Because Israel’s ancestors worshiped other gods there, and God took Abraham from there to bring him to Canaan, it signified a threshold in redemptive history. Joshua invoked this place and memory when he called Israel to renew the covenant.

Israel under David defeated Aramean troops from there (2 Sam. 10:16–19; 1 Chron. 19:16–19). Since prophets later said Israel would be exiled there (1 Kings 14:15), and Judah’s punishment would come from there (Isa. 7:20), the place name came to imply threat.

In 522 BC Darius I reorganized the vast Persian Empire into twenty satrapies, each comprised of provinces (Esther 1:1; 8:9). The satrapy of “Beyond the River” (Ezra 4:10–11 NRSV; NIV: “Trans-Euphrates”) extended from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean, and Yehud (Judah) was one of its provinces. In the mid-fifth century Persia built a network of fortresses there to maintain imperial control of local affairs and curtail rebellion.

Bezai   The head of a clan that was part of the early return to Judah from Babylonian captivity in 539 BC or soon after (Ezra 2:17; Neh. 7:23). Bezai is also listed as one of the “leaders of the people” who sealed the covenant renewal led by Ezra (Neh. 10:18).

Bezalel   (1) Grandson of Uri and son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah, who was equipped by God’s Spirit with skill to engage in all types of craftsmanship needed for the construction of the tabernacle, its furnishings, and the making of the sacred garments of the priests, the anointing oil, and fragrant incense (Exod. 31:1–11; 35:30–35; 36:1–5; 37:1; 38:22). He was given Oholiab as an assistant, and they had artisans to train and work under them. (2) A member of the clan of Pahath-Moab, listed as one of those guilty of marrying a foreign woman (Ezra 10:30).

Bezek   (1) The location of a battle in which Judah and Simeon defeated the Perizzites and Canaanites under Adoni-Bezek (Judg. 1:4–7). His capital was likely at Khirbet Bezqa, northwest of Jerusalem. (2) The site where Saul took a census of the people and gathered his army to fight the Ammonites attacking Jabesh Gilead (1 Sam. 11:8). This site is affiliated with Khirbet Ibziq, south of Mount Gilboa. Some scholars believe that the two sites are the same, identifying them with Khirbet Ibziq, northeast of Shechem.

Bezer   (1) A Reubenite town east of the Jordan designated as a city of refuge (Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20:8) and a Levitical city (Josh. 21:36; 1 Chron. 6:78). The Moabite Stone (line 27) lists Bezer as a town rebuilt from ruins by King Mesha of Moab. (2) Son of Zophah, a descendant of Asher (1 Chron. 7:37). (3) The NIV reading in 2 Pet. 2:15 for the name of Balaam’s father. Other versions read “Beor” (ESV, NASB, NKJV), following the OT, or “Bosor” (KJV, NRSV; see NIV mg.), which is a transliteration of the Greek.

Bible, Methods of Study   Reading, understanding, interpreting, and properly applying the word of God to life and ministry is the work of Bible study. The essence of this work is the systematic and methodical analysis of the biblical text. The methods that one uses to understand the text of Scripture will vary in keeping with one’s presuppositions concerning the nature of the Bible and the preunderstandings of the interpreter. A methodical study of the Bible considers the nature and state of the biblical text, the issues related to the interpreter, and a procedure for discovering authorial intent.

Byzantine illumination (tenth century AD) showing Luke writing

THE NATURE OF THE BIBLE

Revelation. We begin with the assumption (or presupposition) that the Bible is the revealed word of God, the contents of which were progressively made known to authors guided by the Holy Spirit. God guided the authors of Scripture, using their personalities and writing styles, so that the canonical books of the Bible were composed exactly as God intended. These books in their original form are inspired and inerrant. The word of God is true and trustworthy and thus a reliable rule for faith and practice.

The ability of God to communicate with his creation, along with his desire to make himself known to his human creatures, is the essence of revelation. The preservation of God’s communication, the revelation of his will to people in the word of God, is what makes the Bible a unique literary document, distinguished from all other literary productions. God manifests himself in a general way to all people through creation and conscience (general revelation) and in a special way to select individuals at particular times (special revelation). These communications and manifestations are available now only by consulting certain sacred writings. The revelation given by God and recorded by people in the canon of Scripture is what God spoke in the past. However, the living and abiding nature of the word (Heb. 4:12) spoken in a past, historical context continues to be relevant. The voice of God can still be heard today. Just as revelation determines how theology is formulated, so revelation determines how a biblical text is to be read in the process of literary analysis.

Given the nature of the Bible’s origin, it is historically accurate in what it teaches. This accuracy is not limited to spiritual and doctrinal issues; it is inseparably connected with the historical and factual. Thus, when the Bible makes reference to political and historical figures, it speaks with authority and accuracy.

Accessibility and clarity. The word of God is a written text revealed and inspired by God (2 Tim. 3:16–17), who engaged about fifty authors over a period of approximately eleven hundred years. The OT text was originally recorded in Hebrew and Aramaic (Gen. 31:47; Ezra 4:8–6:18; 7:12–26; Jer. 10:11). The NT text was originally recorded in Koine Greek. Since the text was composed using the languages and literary conventions of the day, it was written to be intelligible and understandable. The biblical text has been distributed throughout the world and translated into just about every major language, so that the text continues to be accessible to many people today.

As Martin Luther observes in The Bondage of the Will, the clarity of the Bible is twofold. There is external clarity that can be discerned through the laws of grammar, and there is internal clarity attained through the work of the Holy Spirit illuminating the reader of Scripture. Related to these points is the perspicuity of Scripture, which refers to the clarity of Scripture in its main points. Unnuanced, these principles can create unfortunate misunderstandings. The clarity and perspicuity of Scripture relate to the result or the outcome of Bible study and only to major teachings. The intended message of Scripture is clear, understandable, and accessible.

Historical, literary, and theological aspects. While the Bible is written to be clear and accessible, the process of discerning the clarity is complex and involves a thorough examination of the historical, literary/linguistic, and theological aspects of each biblical text. Since the Bible is a document characterized by literary, historical, and theological impulses, it must be interpreted with these impulses in mind.

The historical character of the text affirms that the historical details (culture, setting, time, people or characters in the story, and readers of the composition) of a narrative are absolutely essential to the meaning and the message of the text. Historical details create the stage for what God is doing with his people in time and space. Historical details remind the reader that the written word has a context. The text is anchored to time and place.

The literary character of the text involves both the rhetorical strategies and the linguistic factors of a written text that are critical to the communication process. The act of literary communication involves the author/sender sending a message or text to the reader/recipient. The Bible must be interpreted in keeping with the act of literary communication: author, reader, and text. Literary types, structural development, and discourse function are formal features of the text that contribute to the communicating author’s intended meaning. The OT uses at least five basic literary types or genres: law, historical narrative, poetry, wisdom, and apocalyptic. The NT uses some of the same literary types, as well as parables and the epistolary, or letter, form. Gospel can also be considered a distinct literary form.

Finally, the text has a theological aspect, an ideology, a message, and an intention that God reveals on the historical stage by means of appropriate literary devices.

Unity and diversity. There is a definite unity to the diversity of the Bible that must be grasped in the interpretive process. Opinions vary depending on one’s understanding of the origin and nature of Scripture. Some readers stress the diversity of the biblical text, choosing to highlight apparent contradictions and irresolvable situations. Others go to the other extreme and may be in danger of oversimplifying, collapsing contexts, and ignoring the message of the text. Consider, for example, the importance of not reading too much into the discussion of faith and works as developed by Paul and James. The diversity of emphasis in these two authors is not contradictory in the overall message of the Bible.

Diversity obviously exists in the languages, writers, cultures, and message of various books of the Bible. However, given the reality of divine authorship, these diverse pieces are woven together coherently. There are longitudinal themes such as kingdom, covenant, and messiah that run from the OT into the NT. In addition, there is the developed use of terminology across both Testaments with terms such as “redemption” and “the word.”

The unity/diversity aspect of the biblical text ultimately contributes to an enriched understanding of both biblical and systematic theology. Biblical theology tends to consider the diversity of the writers and the different time periods and is willing to let diverse themes stand together. Systematic theology, which builds upon the findings of biblical theology, is more attentive to the unity of Scripture. These approaches complement each other and encourage what is called an “analogy of faith.” Once again, Luther gave shape to this phrase by opposing the ecclesiastical tradition of the church in favor of Scripture as the basis of dogma. The “analogy of faith” principle advocates that doctrine must cohere and not contradict the holistic teaching of Scripture. Doctrine cannot be a formulation of a few proof texts.

Summary. These summations concerning the nature of Scripture are by no means exhaustive, but they do provide a foundation for determining the nature and use of various interpretive methods. The process of interpretation will be given more attention below, but at this point it is worth emphasizing that methods of Bible study must contribute to the discovery of the author’s intended meaning. Since God is the ultimate author, our concern is to know his intended meaning. This goal is not without challenge. Many conclude that original authorial intent is unattainable because of the distance between our present cultural and historical situation and that of the biblical writers. An additional obstacle is the variety of interpretations that arise from community use of the biblical text. The challenges of time, culture, geography, and language can be faced successfully to arrive at the clear meaning of Scripture by means of a methodical analysis of all aspects of the biblical text.

THE ROLE OF THE INTERPRETER

Before considering the relation of the interpreter to the process of Bible study methods, it is helpful to sort out who is the audience of a text. Written texts are composed with someone in mind, an original audience or recipients, who may or may not read the finished product. Beyond the original readers there is an extended audience of readers throughout time, including us, who read and interpret the word of God and seek to apply it to their lives.

Preunderstandings and presuppositions. The readers of the biblical text apply the methods of Bible study in order to understand the intended meaning of Scripture. In addition to the science of methodology there is an art to interpretation that involves recognizing personal preunderstandings brought to the text and presuppositions influencing an interpretation of the textual data.

So how do we differentiate a preunderstanding from a presupposition? “Preunderstanding” refers to the preconceived notions and understandings that one brings to the text, which have been formulated, both consciously and subconsciously, before one actually studies the text in detail. This includes specific experiences and encounters with the text that tend to make us assume that we already understand it. Sensitivity to preunderstanding reminds us that we are never approaching the text for the first time, completely neutral or totally objective. Our personal experiences, cultural influences (music, movies, literature), family background, church, race, and nationality are factors influencing our preunderstanding. These preunderstandings are ultimately corrected or nurtured by the constant influence of the biblical text.

Presuppositions, on the other hand, are the faith commitments held by Christians that do not change each time they study the Bible (in contrast to preunderstanding). This article, for example, began with a statement of presuppositions regarding God and the Bible. The analogy of faith deems such presuppositions to be unchangeable constants.

Approach to the text. How, then, should the interpreter approach the text? Although total objectivity is not a realistic goal, Christian readers do want to understand what God has revealed for them. So, the text is approached through faith and by means of the Holy Spirit, who gives understanding of the word that God authored. In order for this to happen, the reader must stand before the biblical text and allow it to speak rather than standing behind it to push it in a predetermined direction. The goal of Bible study is discovery of meaning, not creation of meaning.

A critical factor in Bible study is the realization that the process is an exercise with sacred dimensions. The primary object in this task is to know God, to understand his will, and to love and trust him, which is Paul’s desire for all Christians (Col. 1:9–14; Eph. 1:15–23; 3:14; Phil. 3:8–13). God is glorified when we find our joy and delight in him through an enriched understanding of his word. This can happen when one depends upon the Holy Spirit for understanding (1 Cor. 2:9–16). The study of the sacred text is a delicate balance of thinking, working, and analyzing while reverently and humbly depending upon the Spirit.

THE METHODS OF BIBLE STUDY

Terminology. The activity of interpretation is best described as a spiral, a twist of assorted factors that take the reader from the intention of the original context to the present context of life within the community of the church. The process involves terms and procedures that can be confusing. The word “hermeneutics” is most commonly understood to describe the science and art of biblical interpretation. The goal of hermeneutics is to discern the original intent of the text (“what it meant”) and the contemporary significance of the text (“what it means”). Scholars regularly discuss which of these two is primary in hermeneutical process. The term, however, is broad enough to cover both aspects.

The English word “exegesis” is derived from a Greek term meaning “to lead out.” When applied to Bible study, it defines the nature of the work as taking meaning out of the text and not reading meaning into it. The exegetical process involves the study of words, syntax, grammar, and theology. Another critical term, “contextualization,” refers to an aspect of the interpretive process involving cross-cultural communication of the text’s significance for today.

Defining these key terms in hermeneutics brings to the surface an ongoing discussion associated with Bible study, the question of meaning, which is defined in several ways. Meaning is understood by some as the author’s intention. Some scholars explain meaning as referent (what the author is talking about), others describe it as sense (what is being said about the referent), and finally it can be understood as significance (a contemporary, cross-cultural significance).

Inductive Bible study. How one gets to meaning involves a process of study, the crux of which is the practice of inductive Bible study. Although this objective process can be defined in several ways, it is distinguished by four key elements.

(1) The first element is observation. This involves a careful, close reading of the text to determine exactly what it says. This step makes repeated use of the who, what, when, where, and why questions that enable the reader to become fully saturated with the particulars of the passage. Attention to textual detail will result in accurate interpretation. Observation requires a will to observe, exactness in making observations, and persistence and endurance in the process. Observation is focused on the words of the passage, the structure (the relations and interrelations between terms), the literary form, and the atmosphere or tone. (2) Interpretation follows. The goal of this element is to define meaning and to answer the question, What does this text mean? (3) Correlation, the third element, asks, How does this text relate to the rest of the Bible (cf. analogy of faith)? (4) The fourth element, application, asks, What does this text mean to me?

Each step in the inductive process is elaborate and includes its own particular interests and issues that are critical for determining meaning. Take, for example, the issues of meaning associated with the second step, interpretation. This process must be fully engaged for accuracy in interpretation. The business of interpretation involves a constant interaction of parts. Microaspects are observed in light of macrofeatures, and vice versa.

The interpretive process of the text is fairly standard. Given the nature of inductive analysis, the inductive process begins at the microlevel of examining and interpreting terms, words, and sentences. It then highlights the next structural levels of paragraphs, units of paragraphs, chapters, and then the book itself.

Context and literary type. Since context and literary type are critical elements in the exercise of analysis, attention will be given to each. It is often said that context determines meaning. This statement is a reminder that a term, a theme, or a structural element is ultimately governed by a larger set of factors. The term “trunk,” for example, in the context of a family vacation could refer to what is packed, whereas in the conversation of lumberjacks it could be a reference to a tree. Context takes into consideration all historical referents. In addition, context includes all the individual parts of a composition (phrases, sentences, paragraphs, chapters). Examination of a book’s particular historical context involves also looking at the geography, politics, economics, and cultural practices of a given audience featured. The danger of ignoring context in biblical study is that original authorial intent is replaced with all kinds of self-centered textual understandings.

Literary type is also a critical factor in the inductive process. Another word for literary form is genre, derived from a French term that can be translated “kind, sort, style.” It denotes a type or species of literature or literary form. Genre analysis profitably yields an understanding of the author’s intention in a given literary composition. For example, genre triggers the reader’s expectations and reading strategy. Genre guides the reader in understanding how to read and interpret a given text. For example, we read and interpret a story differently from the way we read and interpret a poem. Each of these genres has its own rules and strategies for communicating meaning. Genre analysis involves observing the form along with the mood, setting, function, and content of the text.

Each literary type has a set of distinctive characteristics that must be examined. To understand what the biblical authors are saying (and what God is saying through them), we must play by the rules of the literary genre that they selected. Genre is a generalization or an abstraction within which variation occurs. Thus, a genre may be defined broadly and include many texts that share fewer traits, while on the other hand it may be defined in a more narrow way and include fewer texts sharing many more traits.

The process of genre analysis is undertaken inductively. The analysis begins with the literary class, continues with the individual texts, and then interacts with both. Genre can be understood only by analyzing the parts of a given text. Although there are plenty of helpful textbooks devoted to virtually every literary type, one must keep in mind that genre descriptions arise out of the details of the text. Genre is not a predescribed form that is imposed on the text for the discovery of authorial intent.

Once the historical, literary, and theological aspects of the particular book are settled, the book is then analyzed in its specific canonical context (NT or OT) and then considered in the overall canon (the Bible). The results of this process are then pursued in relation to the interests of biblical and systematic theology.

Summary. The method of inductive Bible study is not only a specific procedure of analysis, but also a guide for a variety of methodical practices. The process of inductive Bible study encourages a spirit of attention to detail and reminds the reader of the overall goal in interpretation: to know what the text meant and means. In addition, the very nature of the inductive method promotes a curiosity and yields a definite joy of discovery. The inductive process is a guide to the interpreter in an analysis of either the Hebrew or the Greek text.

Other methods of Bible study. There are other methods of Bible study associated with distinct views of the Bible’s nature and origin. These critical methods of interpretation arise out of a discussion regarding how the Bible should be interpreted. The history of this discussion goes all the way back to the third century AD with the debates between the Alexandrians and Antiochians. The sixteenth-century Reformation, the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, and the twentieth century were significant turning points that yielded new ways of conceiving the world and the biblical text. Thus, it is important to understand that there are no neutral methods of biblical interpretation.

Historical-critical approaches. The more-popular critical methods of Bible study came to the forefront in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries with the rise of deism and rationalism. The prevailing opinion of this time was the fundamental similarity of all historical texts and all historical events. The historical-critical method was founded on the principles of criticism, analogy, and correlation. The supernatural origin of the Bible is denied, and it is considered to be a book like all other historical documents. The biblical text is viewed as a tradition created. It is an artifact of the evolutionary process preserved and passed along to a subsequent generation and must be approached with an attitude of doubt.

In contrast to the approach taken in this article, the historical-critical understanding of the locus of revelation is not the biblical text revealed by God. The locus of revelation shifts outside the text. The reader no longer looks to the text to hear the word of God. The reader now looks behind or beyond the biblical text to another story, one that is independent of the biblical text. Instead of studying a process of progressive revelation, the historical-critical methodologies are committed to sorting out complex historical traditions. Sources are identified, sorted chronologically, and studied for their distinctive themes. The methods are sometimes organized according to the particular interests of schools of thought: history of religions, history of traditions, history of forms, history of redactions.

Literary approaches. Finally, there are methods of Bible study associated with the set of literary presuppositions. First, this approach to the biblical text takes an ahistorical view of the text. In other words, there is no concern for its historical cause and effect. It is concerned only with a synchronic analysis of the finished product. Second, the text is viewed as an autonomous entity. Once a text is completed, it has a life of its own. The interpretive process is then devoted to the text’s final form, looking at the whole instead of the parts. Meaning comes from the language and style of the text. Finally, meaning is understood as aesthetics; it is not related to authorial intention or a historical occasion. Theoretically, the literary approach views the text as if it is cut off from an author and from a historical context. In this construct, meaning shifts from the past to the present. Interpretation then is an interaction of text and reader. The methods of interpretation associated with these literary presuppositions include literary criticism, rhetorical criticism, structuralism, narrative criticism, and reader response criticism.

Bible Code   A cipher through which supposedly hidden messages are discovered in the OT by taking a sequence of equally spaced Hebrew letters and identifying in them a meaningful message. The chance of finding such a message is enhanced by the lack of vowels in Hebrew writing, which allows greater flexibility when interpreting the results. There are significant problems with the claim that the codes are intentional, including that it has been established that similar messages can be discovered in virtually any text; furthermore, it runs counter to the Bible’s claim to clearly reveal God’s word (cf. Deut. 29:29).

Bible Formation and Canon   Bible formation and canon development are best understood in light of historical events and theological principles. In the historical-theological process we learn what God did and how he engaged a variety of people to produce Scripture as the word of God. The Bible is the written revelation of the triune God, who made himself known to his creation. The divine actions of God to reveal himself resulted in a written text recognized to be authoritative and thus copied and preserved for future generations. The process of recognizing and collecting authoritative books of the Scriptures occurred over time and involved consensus.

BIBLE FORMATION

Revelation. The process of Bible formation begins with God revealing. The act of revelation involved God communicating truth to the human writers in a progressive and unified manner. Inspiration is the act of God the Holy Spirit, who superintended the biblical authors so that they composed the books of Scripture exactly as he intended. God used the biblical writers, their personalities and their writing styles, in a manner that kept them from error in composing the original written product, the Scriptures. The resulting books of the Bible constitute God’s permanent special revelation to humankind.

Both Testaments affirm the work of revelation along with the formation of a body of divine writings. The OT is dominated by the phrase “thus says the LORD” and similar expressions (cf. Gen. 9:8; Josh. 24:27; Isa. 1:2; Jer. 1:7 and contrast Ps. 135:15–19). Every part of the OT is viewed as the word of God (Rom. 3:2). This is confirmed by Jesus’ attitude toward the Scriptures (Matt. 19:4–5; 21:42; 22:29; cf. Luke 11:50–51; 24:44).

Four NT passages help us understand the work of inspiration. A factual statement regarding the extent and nature of inspiration is made in 2 Tim. 3:16. According to 2 Pet. 1:19–20, the Holy Spirit purposefully carried persons along to produce the prophetic word, and 1 Cor. 2:10–13 supports the choice of the words in the work of composing the inspired product. Finally, Peter comments that Paul was given wisdom to produce inspired literary documents in the canon of Scripture (2 Pet. 3:14–18).

Authority. Books formed and authored by God in this manner are authoritative. Because the Bible is the divinely inspired word of God reliably composed in the originals, it is binding upon people in their relationship with God and other people. Biblical authority derives from God’s eternal character and the content of his word preserved in Scripture. The inscripturated word of God is authoritative and requires obedience.

Page from a thirteenth-century AD version of the Samaritan Pentateuch

The authority of God’s word is affirmed and illustrated in the creation and fall narratives. In the fall, Adam and Eve rebelled against God’s command (Gen. 3:3–4) and were expelled from the garden. In subsequent periods of biblical history, God’s spoken and written word continued to be the basis for belief and conduct. God summarized his will in the Ten Commandments (Exod. 20:1-17; Deut. 5:6–21) and held his people accountable to it (Deut. 6:2; Josh. 1:8; 2 Kings 17:5–23). The authoritative word embraced by faith protects the believer from sin (Ps. 119:11). The fool is the person who rejects God’s authority (Pss. 14:1; 53:1). The apostle Paul acknowledged the authority of the gospel for his own life and ministry (Gal. 1:6–9). God the Holy Spirit impresses upon the believer the authority of the Bible as the reliable rule for faith and practice (John 6:63).

God made provision for a reliable and trustworthy preservation of his authoritative word in the multiplicity of extant manuscripts. God commanded that his revealed word be copied (Deut. 17:8–18; 24:8; 31:9, 25–26; 33:8–10) for administrative and personal purposes (Deut. 6:6; Josh. 1:8; 23:6; Prov. 3:3; 7:3). Through this process of multiplication the word of God was preserved (Ps. 119:152, 160; Isa. 40:8; cf. Matt. 5:17–18; John 10:35; 1 Pet. 1:22–25).

CANONIZATION

Canonization is the next critical step in the development of the Bible. The word “canon” (Gk. kanōn) refers to a standard, norm, or rule (Gal. 6:16; cf. Ezek. 42:16), and when applied to the Bible, it designates the collection of books revealed by God, divinely inspired, and recognized by the people of God as the authoritative norm for faith and practice. The presupposition of canonicity is that God spoke to his human creatures and his word was accurately recorded. Since inspiration determines canonicity, the books composed by human beings under the direction of the Holy Spirit functioned authoritatively at the time of writing. The people of God then recognized and collected the books that they discerned to be inspired and authoritative (1 Thess. 2:10–16; 2 Pet. 3:15).

The canonical process. The challenge associated with canon and Bible formation is that the Scriptures do not reveal a detailed historical process for recognizing and collecting inspired works. An understanding of this process is derived from the testimony of Jesus, biblical principles, and historical precedents.

Canonical identification is associated with the witness of the Holy Spirit, who worked in connection with the believers to recognize the written documents given by inspiration (1 Thess. 2:13). The Holy Spirit enabled believers to discern a book’s authority and its compatibility with existing canonical revelation (Isa. 8:20; Acts 17:11). Although the question of authorship cannot be positively settled for every OT or NT book, believers recognized the prophets as the OT authors (Deut. 18:14–22) and the apostles as the NT authors. Canonical books were recognized to bear the power of God and to contain an effective message (2 Tim. 3:15–16; Heb. 4:12; 1 Pet. 1:23).

Over time, the authoritative books of Scripture were collected into a body of literature that today forms one book, the Bible. During this process, some believers struggled with the message, content, and ambiguous authorship of books such as Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, and Esther in the OT and Hebrews, James, and 2 Peter in the NT. The pattern of composition and canonical process for the OT provided the foundation for the composition and development of the NT canon. Therefore, the NT books that came to be recognized as canonical were those that were composed in connection with an apostle, doctrinally sound, and widely circulated and used by the churches.

In the collection task some texts were recognized (homologoumena), some were disputed (antilegomena), and others were rejected as unorthodox (pseudepigrapha). Historically, there is no evidence for widespread acceptance of the present-day canon of sixty-six books until the third century AD.

Structure and content. Over the centuries, several canonical lists began to emerge, often influenced by particular theological conclusions. For example, the Samaritan canon, which includes only the first five books of our OT, was compiled by the Samaritans, who were hostile to anything in Israel or Judea outside Samaria. Today, Christian traditions vary in their inclusion or omission of the Apocrypha from their Bibles and in their list of which books are contained in the Apocrypha.

The Babylonian canon, accepted as standard by Jews, contains all the books now recognized as the OT and is divided into three parts: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. This canon is also known as the Tanak, an acronym derived from the Hebrew words for “law” (torah), “prophets” (nebi’im), “writings” (ketubim). This canonical list traditionally includes twenty-four books (the twelve Minor Prophets are considered to be one book, as are 1–2 Samuel, 1–2 Kings, 1–2 Chronicles, and Ezra-Nehemiah). The twenty-four books of this canonical list are the same as the thirty-nine OT books in current English Bible editions. The law or instruction section includes the first five books of Moses (Genesis through Deuteronomy). The Prophets section is divided into the Former and Latter Prophets. The Former Prophets are the historical books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. The Latter Prophets include both the Major and the Minor Prophets. The Writings section contains both poetic and wisdom material, along with some historical material.

Historical references to this canonical format are found in extrabiblical sources as early as the second century BC. The grandson of Jesus Ben Sira referenced a threefold canon in the prologue of the apocryphal book Sirach (c. 190 BC); Josephus referenced it in Against Apion (AD 37–95). Jesus acknowledged the threefold division in Luke 24:44 (cf. Matt. 23:34). Among Christian sources, this division is preserved in the oldest extant list of OT books, associated with Bishop Melito of Sardis (AD 170). Tertullian, an early Latin church father (AD 160–250), Origen (AD 254), Hilary of Poitiers (AD 305–366), and Jerome (AD 340–420) affirmed an OT canon of twenty-two or twenty-four books. Most current English versions follow a fourfold structure of law, history, poetry, and prophets.

The twenty-seven books of the NT are attested in lists associated with churches in the eastern and western parts of the Mediterranean world. Two such witnesses are the Thirty-ninth Paschal Letter of Athanasius (AD 367) and the Council of Carthage (AD 397). The canonical list associated with Marcion and the Muratorian list represent fragmentary lists from the early part of the second century AD. In terms of usage, a majority of church fathers recognized and used the twenty-seven NT books in our canon. See also Apocrypha, New Testament; Apocrypha, Old Testament.

Bible Texts and Versions   The NT and the OT have considerably different but partially overlapping textual histories. For clarity, it is best to begin with a survey of the NT manuscripts and versions.

NEW TESTAMENT

Greek texts. Although no autographs of the NT books survive, there exist more than five thousand Greek texts covering anywhere from a portion of a few verses up to the complete NT. Traditionally, these texts have been classified into five groups: papyri, uncials, minuscules, lectionaries, and quotations in patristic texts. The most important manuscripts are listed below.

The earliest texts of the NT are those written on papyrus. Ninety-eight of these manuscripts have been identified, and they are represented by a “P” with a numerical superscript. The earliest of these papyri is P52, which contains parts of four verses in John 18 and dates to the early second century. For substantial portions of the NT text, the most important papyri are found in the Chester Beatty and Bodmer collections. P45, P46, and P47, all from the Chester Beatty collection, are from the third century and contain large sections of the four Gospels, eight of the Pauline Epistles, Hebrews, and Revelation. Within the Bodmer collection in Geneva are four very important codices. P66 dates to around AD 200 and preserves most of the Gospel of John. P72 dates to the third century and contains the earliest copies of 1–2 Peter and Jude, which are preserved in their entirety, as well as Greek translations of Pss. 33–34. P74 dates to the seventh century and contains portions of Acts, James, 1–2 Peter, 1–3 John, and Jude. Finally, P75, which dates to the early third century, contains most of Luke and John 1–15. It is the oldest extant copy of Luke. Among the remaining papyri, forty-three have been dated to the early fourth century or before.

The second category of manuscripts is the uncials, which usually were written on parchment and span the fourth through the tenth centuries. About 270 uncials are known, and they range from a few verses up to complete copies of the NT or even the entire Bible. Uncials originally were denoted by capital letters, but when the number of manuscripts grew beyond these limits, a new system was employed whereby each manuscript was given a number always beginning with zero. However, the most important uncials are still usually known by their letter. Among the most important uncials are the following five manuscripts. Codex Sinaiticus (designated by the Hebrew letter א) dates to the fourth century and is the only uncial that contains the entire NT. It also has almost all of the OT as well as the early Christian writings the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. Dating from the fifth century, Codex Alexandrinus (designated as A) contains the OT, most of the NT—lacking only portions of Matthew, John, and 2 Corinthians—and 1–2 Clement. Along with Sinaiticus, the most important uncial is Codex Vaticanus (designated as B), which dates to the fourth century. It contains almost all of the OT and the complete NT, except for substantial portions between Hebrews and Revelation. It has been in the Vatican’s library for over five hundred years. The fourth important uncial is Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis (designated as D), which contains Greek and Latin copies of the four Gospels, most of Acts, and a few verses from 3 John. It dates from the late fourth or early fifth century. The fifth important uncial is Codex Washingtonianus (designated as W), which dates to the early fifth century and contains virtually all of the four Gospels.

A page from Codex Vaticanus

The third category of NT manuscripts is minuscules. These texts date from the ninth century and later and comprise approximately 2,800 manuscripts, which are denoted by a number not beginning with zero. Among the more important minuscules are Codex 1, Codex 13, and Codex 33, which, along with their relatives, are considered reliable witnesses to early families of texts such as the Caesarean (1) or the Alexandrian (33). Codex 13 and its relatives are noteworthy for having the story of the adulterous woman at the end of Luke 21 instead of in John 8. The final two groups of NT manuscripts, the lectionaries and quotations in patristic sources, are not manuscripts in the strict sense of the term, but their use of portions of the NT presents important witnesses for the practice of textual criticism.

Versions. With the spread of Christianity during the time of the Roman Empire, the NT was translated into the language of the native peoples. These versions of the NT are important both for textual criticism of the NT and for the interpretive decisions that are reflected in how the text was rendered into a new language. Among the most important early versions of the NT are the following.

As Latin began to displace Greek as the dominant language of the empire, there was a need for a Latin version of the Bible. The earliest translation, known as the Old Latin or Itala, was made probably in the late second century, though the oldest manuscript (Codex Vercellensis) is from the fourth century. With the proliferation of Latin texts a standardized Latin translation became desirable, and in AD 382 Jerome was commissioned by Pope Damasus to provide a new translation known as the Vulgate.

Another family of NT versions is the Syriac texts. Around the late second century the four Gospels were translated into a version known as the Old Syriac. It is extant in two incomplete manuscripts that are probably fifth century. The translation that became the standard Syriac text is the Peshitta, which was produced in the early fifth century. It does not contain 2 Peter, 2–3 John, Jude, or Revelation because these were not considered canonical among the Syriac churches.

Other important versions of the NT from antiquity are the Coptic, Armenian, Georgian, and Ethiopic translations.

OLD TESTAMENT

Hebrew texts. The text that has served as the basis for most modern editions and translations of the Hebrew OT is the Masoretic Text (MT), named after the Masoretes, the Jewish scribes who transmitted the text and added vocalization, accentuation, and notes to the consonantal text. The most important Masoretic manuscripts date from the end of the ninth century to the early eleventh century. Notable among these is the Leningrad Codex (AD 1008), denoted as L, which is the earliest Masoretic manuscript of the entire OT. Also important are the Aleppo Codex (c. AD 925), denoted as A, which preserves all of the OT except for most of the Pentateuch; the British Museum MS Or. 4445 (c. AD 925), denoted as B, which contains most of the Pentateuch; and the Cairo Codex (c. AD 896), denoted C, which contains Joshua through Kings and also the Prophets.

Although these manuscripts are much later than the biblical period, their reliability was largely confirmed with the discovery of the DSS beginning in 1947. Among the Qumran library are many manuscripts of biblical books as well as biblical commentaries, apocrphyal and pseudepigraphal works, and sectarian literature. All the OT books are represented among the scrolls that were found except Esther and Nehemiah, though the latter is usually presumed to have been at the end of Ezra but has not survived. The books with the most manuscripts are, in order, Psalms, Deuteronomy, and Isaiah. One of the striking characteristics of these scrolls is that they reflect a diversity of text types. For example, there is a copy of Jeremiah that is close to the Masoretic version, but also a manuscript of Jeremiah similar to the much shorter version found in the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the OT).

Another Hebrew text of the OT is that of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which is the text transmitted by the Samaritans. It is similar to the MT in some respects but also has differences that reflect theological interests. The main manuscripts for the Samaritan Pentateuch are from the twelfth century.

Versions. Between the third and first centuries BC, the entire OT was translated into Greek. This version, known as the Septuagint (designated by the abbreviation LXX), became the main version of the OT used by the early church. Due to its adoption by the church, the LXX has been preserved in numerous manuscripts, including Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus, and Vaticanus. By the late first century BC or early first century AD, there were two revisions of the Greek text: the Proto-Lucianic version and the Kaige recension. The latter aimed to revise the Greek toward closer conformity with the Hebrew text and derives its name from its peculiar tendency to translate the Hebrew word gam (“also”) with the Greek work kaige. In the second century AD three other Greek translations were made by Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus, all of which revised the Kaige recension back toward the MT.

Another important early version of the OT consists of the Targumim, which are Aramaic translations or paraphrases (and sometimes extensive elaborations) of OT books. The official Targumim for Judaism are Targum Onqelos for the Pentateuch (c. second century AD), which is quite literal, and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan for the Prophets (sometime before the fourth century AD), which ranges from being quite literal to somewhat paraphrastic. Unofficial Targumim for the Pentateuch include Targum Neofiti and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan. There are also various unofficial Targumim for the Writings section of the OT, except for Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah (which are already written partly in Aramaic).

Besides the Greek and Aramaic translations, there are other important versions of the OT. Sometime in either the third or fourth century AD, the Peshitta of the OT was produced, though there is evidence that there were earlier Syriac translations of some books already circulating. Also important is a group of Latin translations known collectively as the Old Latin. These versions were produced sometime during the second century AD and were primarily made from already existing Greek translations rather than Hebrew texts. As with the NT, a later Latin translation was made by Jerome for the Vulgate.

Bible Translation   Every faithful translation of the Bible is the word of God. In this respect, Christianity is very different from Islam, which considers the Arabic version of the Qur’an exclusively holy. It is true that only the original versions of the biblical books, which were written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, were verbally inspired, and this means that individual translations, like copies, can contain errors. Translations also necessarily involve some degree of interpretation. However, all language is created by God, and in the incarnation the Word became fully human as well as fully divine. In God’s hands, every human language is as capable as any other of expressing his truth.

Since Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been at work to reverse the effect of human sin at Babel (Gen. 11:9), not by reducing all languages to one, but by redeeming the diversity and richness of the world’s languages so that all can hear God speak to them in their own tongue (Acts 2:1–11). Indeed, translations of Scripture themselves transform the languages and cultures in which they are written, endowing them with new or revised concepts of God, humanity, sin, and the means of salvation.

THE HISTORY OF TRANSLATION

Bible translation began long before the Bible as we know it was complete. In the fifth century BC the Israelites who returned from exile spoke Aramaic. Thus, they needed the Levites to translate the Hebrew law for them (Neh. 8:8). This Levitical teaching was probably an early example of a Targum, a translation into Aramaic with interpretation and expansion. We do not know exactly when the Targumim began to be written down, but some of the earliest fragments that have been found are among the DSS.

By about the third century BC the dominant languages of Palestine were Greek and Aramaic. Many NT quotations from the OT use an established Greek translation of the OT. This was known as the Septuagint (LXX), after the legend that it was translated by seventy-two men, six from each tribe of Israel, on the orders of Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt (285–247 BC). The NT was written in similar “common” (koinē) Greek, but in some places the Gospels and Acts translate words that Jesus and Paul originally spoke in Aramaic (Mark 5:41; 15:34; Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14; see also John 5:2; 19:13, 17, 20; 20:16).

Until Pentecost, God’s revelation was translated only into the languages spoken by the Jewish people in their everyday life. At Pentecost, however, the coming of the Holy Spirit was marked by a display of miraculous linguistic gifts, and a new era of Bible translation had begun (Acts 2). As Christians obeyed Christ’s command to take the word of God into all the world, they began to translate it into all the languages used by the growing church.

Within three centuries, Scripture was translated from the original Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek into Syriac, Coptic, and Latin. The earliest translations into these languages were then revised and improved in the subsequent centuries until some, such as Jerome’s Latin Vulgate and the Syriac Peshitta, emerged as acknowledged standards. Other early translations included Ethiopic, Armenian, Georgian, and Old Slavonic. Many of these languages were already written, but as missionaries ventured further, they sometimes had to start by reducing spoken languages to writing. Ulfilas, missionary to the Goths, was the first to do this.

All of the thirty-three translations prior to the Reformation had to be copied out by hand, and almost all were “secondary translations” made from the Latin. Moreover, despite the efforts of early reformers such as John Wycliffe (AD 1330–84), the Catholic Church continued to use the Latin text itself, which was accessible only to the educated. In the sixteenth century, however, the printing press was invented, Renaissance scholars rediscovered the value of consulting texts in the original Hebrew and Greek, and Protestantism realized that believers need the Bible in their mother tongue.

The most influential sixteenth-century translator into English was William Tyndale (1494–1536). His work on the NT and parts of the OT was gradually expanded and revised by other scholars, culminating in the 1611 King James Version, which is still widely used. Meanwhile, other European translations were produced in German (by Martin Luther), Spanish, Hungarian, Portuguese, and French.

Tyndale New Testament (1534)

The Reformation also gave new momentum to mission outside Europe, and by the end of the eighteenth century the number of languages having the Bible had roughly doubled. A much greater global achievement, however, began in the nineteenth century, when the newly formed Bible societies, with other mission agencies, were instrumental in the translation and publication of portions of Scripture in over four hundred languages. Famous translators from this century include William Carey in India, John Robert Morrison in China, Henry Martyn in Persia, and Adoniram Judson in Burma. About five hundred more translations were added in the first half of the twentieth century. Progress was, nevertheless, slow. Many languages were difficult to analyze, and it was particularly hard to produce translations that read smoothly, using the genres and idioms that a native speaker would use.

Since the 1950s, linguistic science has revolutionized the way that translation is carried out, and organizations such as Wycliffe Bible Translators have set themselves the task of giving every person in the world the Scriptures in their everyday language. Increasingly, translation is carried out by linguistically trained native speakers of the target languages, working wherever possible from the original Hebrew and Greek. Translators understand better than before how extended discourses are constructed at levels above the sentence, and how social and pragmatic factors affect meaning. The combination of linguistics and technology has also greatly increased the speed with which translations can be produced; sometimes a first draft in a new language can be generated from a closely related language using a computer program.

TYPES OF TRANSLATION

All translators aim for both accuracy and acceptability, but the work of translation constantly involves compromise between these two factors. There are, broadly speaking, two types of translation: formal correspondence and functional equivalence.

In a formal correspondence translation (also called “literal”), the translator, as far as possible, preserves the word order and structure of the original text and translates each word the same way every time it occurs, even if the result is slightly wooden. This is helpful for word studies, and it preserves patterns of repetition that give structure to the text. There is always a danger, however, that the closest formal match to the original actually conveys a meaning different from the original in a particular context. Literalness is not the same as accuracy. Pushed to its extreme, formal correspondence produces the kind of semitranslation found in interlinear texts (where the English is reproduced word for word below a line of Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek); it is not grammatically acceptable, cannot be used on its own for public or private reading, and loses many of the nuances of the original. However, formal correspondence translations that avoid such extremes are important for detailed Bible study.

In a functional equivalence translation (also called “dynamic,” “idiomatic equivalence,” or “meaning-based”), the translator aims to produce the same response in a modern reader as the original text would have done in an ancient reader. To achieve this, the syntactic structures and figures of speech of Greek and Hebrew are replaced by their equivalents in the target language. A word may be translated many different ways in different contexts, even when it has a single basic meaning in the original. While this preserves some nuances, it loses others, obscuring structure and the deliberate echo of one verse in another. In this case there is always a danger that the translator has misunderstood the original meaning and the response that it would have produced. Pushed to its extreme, this type shades into paraphrase, and it may be overly subjective or jeopardize the historical particularity of the text. However, dynamic equivalence translations that avoid such pitfalls are valuable for evangelism, new readers, and public and devotional reading.

In practice most translations sit somewhere on the spectrum between these two extremes. Some intermediate translations are a deliberate compromise, aiming to keep as close as possible to the original while communicating its meaning clearly in a common language that is accessible to all. The NIV is a widely used example. One problem in using such a translation is knowing when form has been preserved at the expense of meaning, and when meaning has been preserved at the expense of form. For serious study, therefore, it is useful to compare intermediate translations with translations of the other two types, and to learn from the introductory material what translation principles have been used.

To illustrate the differences between the types of translation, consider how Rom. 3:21 is rendered by the NASB (formal correspondence), the NIV (intermediate), and the NLT (functional equivalence):

But now apart from the Law the righteousness of God has been manifested, being witnessed by the Law and the Prophets. (NASB)

But now apart from the law the righteousness of God has been made known, to which the Law and the Prophets testify. (NIV)

But now God has shown us a way to be made right with him without keeping the requirements of the law, as was promised in the writings of Moses and the prophets long ago. (NLT)

FURTHER CHOICES IN TRANSLATION

Within this spectrum translators have further detailed decisions to make.

First, what are the best available Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts, as determined by the discipline of textual criticism?

Second, what style should be used? An elevated or archaic style is sometimes preferred in order to convey the dignity of the word; others use a deliberately colloquial style in order to maximize accessibility. Different books of the Bible themselves have different styles and genres, ranging from vivid stories and evocative poems to precise doctrinal formulations, and a translation may attempt to reflect this diversity. At the same time, the style and range of vocabulary chosen will depend to some extent on the needs of the target audience.

Third, should the translation contain complexity and ambiguity when the original does, or should it clarify and simplify? Some parts of Scripture were never easy reading even in the original (see 2 Pet. 3:15–16). However, it is sometimes necessary to disambiguate in order to produce grammatically acceptable text in the target language. In modern books it is also normal to divide text into paragraphs and chapters, often with subheadings. Ancient texts, however, were written without any such breaks, so this too is an interpretation of the text for the sake of clarity.

Fourth, what should the translator do when there is no equivalent word or phrase in the target language? Many people groups have never seen a sheep! Sometimes a choice must be made between coining a new word and refocusing the meaning of an existing word. This is particularly difficult when deciding how to refer to God in a pagan culture. Translating gesture can also be challenging. For example, in Jer. 31:19 the Hebrew is literally “I slapped my thigh,” which is an indication of distress; but in Western culture slapping one’s thigh would probably mean enjoying a good joke, so the NIV translates the Hebrew as “beat my breast.” Footnotes may be necessary to ensure that the meaning is fully understood.

Finally, in cultures that have possessed the Bible for many generations tradition plays a role. A previous translation of a particular verse may be so well known that, unless it is seriously wrong, it is preferable to let it stand than to “modernize” it. Conversely, tradition may so change the meaning of “biblical” words (such as “saint”) that verses containing them need to be retranslated.

As a result of all these decisions, there is scope for many different translations even in a single language. Where several translations exist, serious study should always include comparison between translations along with the use of commentaries. Where available resources as yet permit only one translation in a language, the type of translation to be produced must be chosen with great care. In either case, new translations will always be needed. On the one hand, although God’s word never changes, scholars can improve our textual, linguistic, and exegetical understanding of the Hebrew and Greek originals. On the other hand, the human languages into which the Bible is translated are in a process of constant change.

GENDER-NEUTRAL TRANSLATIONS

Recent English-language translations have grappled in particular with the question of gender neutrality. All languages differ in the way they denote gender. Until recently, the masculine gender in English was also the inclusive gender; hence, “man” could simply mean “person” or “humanity.” In many cases, the biblical languages work the same way, so that the older dynamic translations could, like formal correspondence translations, mirror the original. Feminist concerns, however, have changed English usage. It is increasingly unacceptable to use the masculine gender inclusively, and everyday language now substitutes plurals (“person,” or “they” with singular meaning) or expansions (“man or woman,” “he or she”). This introduces a divergence between formal correspondence translations, which preserve the gender usage of the original, and functional equivalence translations, which prefer inclusive forms to masculine forms if the meaning of the original is entirely inclusive. To complicate matters further, many careful readers of Scripture disagree on where masculine nuances exist and how important they are, in each specific instance, to the meaning of the text.

Biblical Hermeneutics   Hermeneutics is the science and practice of interpretation. It can refer more generally to the philosophy of human understanding, or more specifically to the tools and methods used for interpreting communicative acts.

Human communication takes place in a variety of ways: through the use of nonverbal signs, through speech, and through writing. Effective communication requires some degree of shared belief, knowledge, and background between the participants. If the communicators have a significant amount of common ground, they will be able to successfully understand one another with little extra effort. Conversely, individuals with vastly different backgrounds will need to take extra steps to communicate effectively, such as defining special terms, avoiding jargon and colloquialisms, appreciating details about the other’s cultural assumptions, or learning a foreign language.

The Bible is not exempt from this process of communication. The Scriptures are meant to be read, understood, and put into practice (Luke 8:4–15; James 1:18), a task that requires effort and study on the part of its readers (Acts 17:11; 2 Tim. 2:15). Everyone who reads the Bible is involved in this interpretative process, though readers will vary in their hermeneutical self-consciousness and skill. Thus, although readers are able to understand and appropriate much of the Bible without any special training in hermeneutical principles, such training is appropriate and helpful, both in attaining self-consciousness in interpretation and in acquiring new skills and insights in the effort to become a better reader.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HERMENEUTICS

The church has benefited from a long history of thinking about the nature and purpose of interpreting its Scriptures, and that reflection has resulted in a wide variety of hermeneutical theories and practices. How does one determine the meaning of a text? Is meaning the truth embedded within the passage? Or is it the original author’s intention in writing? Or does the text act independently of its author and history, either because it stands on its own terms or because it only “means” anything in interaction with readers? The answers to these questions will determine how readers approach a text, the questions they expect that text to answer, and the tools they use in interpretation.

From the early church to the Enlightenment. The early church emphasized the ability of the biblical text to convey heavenly truth, whether that truth was conceived as doctrinal teaching or absolute ethical rules. While the “literal meaning” of many texts could often supply simple truths and maxims, such a reading was at other times inadequate and could appear incompatible with what were considered basic and fundamental beliefs. Various allegorical techniques were therefore employed to explain such problematic texts. Interpreters often viewed the literal and historical features of the text as a starting point in the search for fuller meaning, as symbolic pointers to moral principles, absolute truths, or eternal realities. These practices were systematized throughout the Middle Ages and resulted in an extensive development of tradition. Church tradition, in turn, provided a degree of protection from the potential for arbitrariness in allegorical techniques, insisting that interpretation must be guided by the “rule of faith,” the traditional teaching and faith of the church.

Beginning in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, scholarship moved to distance itself from such tradition. The Protestant Reformers, dissatisfied with the rule of church tradition, sought to displace its authority with the direct rule of Scripture. They therefore returned to the original biblical text, engaging in critical study of the text itself and translating the Bible into the vernacular to make it more widely accessible. In the centuries that followed, Enlightenment scholars went a step further in their rejection of the church as the sole repository of knowledge. Instead, they asserted, knowledge was acquired through scientific inquiry and critical study. Such inquiry could be applied to any field: the forces of nature, human anatomy, or the interpretation of texts. The meaning of a text was not some abstract truth or heavenly principle; rather, meaning was determined by the human author’s original intention in writing and was therefore a historical matter. The intention of an author could be better exposed and understood through a more complete study of both the language in which a text was written and the historical circumstances that surrounded it. Many of these same emphases had been championed by the Protestant Reformers; yet the Enlightenment thinkers differed on one key point: the Reformers never questioned that the text was the word of God.

From the Enlightenment to the present. This favorable attitude toward historical research dwindled over the centuries. In its place authors emphasized the primacy of the text as text, apart from any connection to its origin and history. Literature, it is argued, ultimately operates independently from its author’s intention. All that matters is the text, and it is the reader’s job to understand the text on its own terms, apart from the contingencies surrounding its creation. To that end, interpreters should pay careful attention to the text’s literary features, including its plot structure, characterization, themes, and use of imagery. An interesting example of this hermeneutical dynamic is found in John 19:22, where Pilate asserts, “What I have written, I have written.” Pilate’s words quickly take on significance far beyond their author’s intention, primarily because they are juxtaposed with other themes in John, such as testimony and the kingship of Christ.

More recent approaches have emphasized the role of the reader in the construction of meaning. Interpretation, it is argued, is determined by the interaction between reader and text; readers bring their own presuppositions to the task of interpretation, and such assumptions determine meaning. The author and the historical context of the text will exert some influence, but the primary determinant of meaning is the present reader in his or her present environment. This is not to say that the text “means” whatever a reader wants it to mean; rather, it makes meaning contingent upon the contemporary environment and not subject to anything external to individual readers. On the one hand, readers must“actualize” the text by applying and appropriating it within an environment alien to the original. On the other, readers have the right, and in some cases the responsibility, of undermining the text, particularly if that text assists in the oppression of others.

ELEMENTS OF AN EFFECTIVE HERMENEUTIC

An effective hermeneutic requires keeping each of these elements in constant balance with one another. God’s word is truthful and fully trustworthy, yet it is given to his people through individual human authors, authors who wrote in a particular context to a particular audience at a particular time. Understanding the Bible therefore requires knowledge of the purposes of these authors in their specific historical contexts. Nevertheless, our primary access to authorial intention is through the biblical text itself. Finally, understanding always requires personal interaction with, and application of, the text of Scripture to each person’s own life and circumstances. Thus, hermeneutics involves the simultaneous interaction of a variety of perspectives—truth, author, text, and reader—each of which cannot function properly without the others. What follows here is an outline of the most important hermeneutical tools required for such a weighty endeavor.

LINGUISTICS

An appreciation of the nature, structure, and function of language is fundamental to any interpretative endeavor. Obviously, this applies first of all to the specific languages in which the books of the Bible were originally composed. Each language has its own unique vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, and structures available to a writer in one language often are absent in another. Thus, while it is often necessary and acceptable to rely on translations (Neh. 7:73–8:12), readers should be aware that translation itself involves a degree of unavoidable interpretation.

A more general analysis of language is also useful. Understanding the typical patterns by which authors will string sentences together is necessary for following a writing’s train of thought. This tool, called “discourse analysis,” operates above the sentence level, attempting to understand and explain how sentences function in conjunction with one another in order to produce meaningful paragraphs, and how those paragraphs in turn operate within the overarching purpose of the discourse. These patterns of discourse can vary on the basis of book, author, language, culture, and literary genre, but there are also features of effective discourse common to all communication. Thus, while the principles and rules of communication are often intuitively grasped, understanding language, both generally and specifically, is foundational to the task of interpretation.

LITERATURE AND LITERARY THEORY

The biblical writers are concerned not only with the informational content of their writing, but also with the manner in which that content is communicated. The words, patterns of speech, style, and imagery of any text provide significant insight into its purpose and message, apart from that text’s specific propositional content. The diversity of language used in the Gospels provides an example of this. Each of the four Gospel authors has a slightly different concern in his writing. John’s purpose, “that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name” (John 20:31), explains his frequent use of courtroom language, such as “testimony” and “witness” (e.g., John 21:24). Mark, by contrast, sweeps the reader along a fast-paced and intensely personal exposition of Jesus’ life and death through the terseness and immediacy of his narration. Attention to these literary details allows the reader to more fully participate in the world of the text.

Such decisions will often depend upon a thorough analysis of genre. A reader naturally interprets historical narrative differently from poetry and didactic material. Furthermore, the conventions of different genres change over time. The book of Acts, for example, despite its essentially historical character, does not appear concerned with recording an exact dictation of the many speeches it reports, despite modern expectations that historical writing should be as precise as possible. The classification of ancient genres and the description of their respective conventions therefore require a good deal of analysis and sensitivity, but often such insights are provided by a careful and open reading of the text.

HISTORY

As the product of a particular author at a particular time, each book of the Bible is situated within its own unique historical context. Paul, for example, while perhaps conscious of the importance of his letters for posterity, wrote to specific churches or individuals with a singular purpose. This particularity of author, audience, and circumstance can often cause interpretative problems. Thus, while background studies are not always necessary to get the general idea of the author’s message, they can be invaluable in protecting readers from anachronism and enabling them to better appreciate the author’s purpose and perspective.

Historical study is assisted by specialized disciplines. Archaeology, for example, focuses on the beliefs, habits, practices, and history of ancient cultures, harnessing a wealth of evidence to that end. Similarly, anthropology and other social sciences are able to explore facets of modern cultures in order to better assess cross-cultural presuppositions and behaviors, many of which provide insight into ancient civilizations that shared similar attitudes. These methods provide the reader with the information necessary to understand a text in terms consistent with its cultural backdrop, highlighting both the similarities and the differences between the Bible and its environment. Recent discoveries of ancient Hittite treaties, for example, shed light on the “cutting ceremony” recorded in Gen. 15. These treaties detail similar ceremonies in which the vassal of a king would walk between hewed animal carcasses as a symbol of allegiance; if disobedience occurred, the vassal would share the fate of the animals. A similar ceremony occurs in Genesis, but with an interesting twist at the end: God, not Abram, passes through the pieces (15:17).

Archaeological excavations at the western wall of the Temple Mount, Jerusalem

HUMILITY AND THE ATTITUDE OF THE READER

Careful attention in interpretation requires a great deal of humility. It is difficult to overstate the importance of the attitude of the reader for an effective hermeneutic. Being a good reader requires willingness to share and participate in the world of the author and the text, a willingness that postpones judgment and expects personal change. This, in turn, requires a spirit of self-criticism, a commitment to defer one’s own presuppositions in favor of those of the text. Although readers are never able to fully distance themselves from their cultural situation and assumptions, the study of hermeneutics, among other things, can provide tools and skills for self-criticism and self-awareness, skills that enable the reader to better understand, appreciate, and appropriate the meaning of a text. Even a peripheral understanding of the complexities of interpretation can help readers develop an attitude of humility, imagination, and expectation as they approach the Scriptures.

Such humility is a prerequisite for application. The depth of meaning embedded in any text, and especially within the Bible, provides the humble reader with a rich and powerful tool for personal growth. Having better understood the world of the text on its own terms, readers are able to “project” that world onto themselves and their environment, to appropriate its meaning in a new and possibly foreign context. Thus, Jesus promises that those who hear, understand, and put his word into practice will yield a crop “some thirty, some sixty, some a hundred times what was sown” (Mark 4:20).

UNIQUE FEATURES OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION

Certain unique features of the biblical text can create special opportunities and challenges for the Christian interpreter. These challenges are at work in the Bible’s own interpretation of itself. The Bible was written by many different authors over the course of a long period of history; it is therefore not surprising to find later authors reflecting on earlier periods. This innerbiblical interpretation offers the Christian insights into the unique nature of biblical hermeneutics and therefore provides a foundational model in approaching the Bible as the word of God.

The common and preeminent assumption that grounds innerbiblical interpretation is the commitment to ultimate divine authorship. Thus, the writer of Hebrews, though affirming the diversity of human authorship in the Bible (1:1), regularly introduces OT quotations with statements such as “God says” (1:5), “he spoke through David” (4:7), and “the Holy Spirit says” (3:7). Other writers tend to prefer the formula “it is written,” but each of these reflects a common presupposition that the Scriptures are ultimately delivered by God (2 Pet. 1:21).

Divine authorship means, at the very least, that there is a depth of meaning and purpose to the text, a depth often hidden even from the human author (1 Pet. 1:10–12). Psalm 2, for example, probably originally served as a coronation hymn used to celebrate the appointment of a new king in Israel. Yet the NT understands this psalm as a prophecy fulfilled in the resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 13:33; Heb. 5:5). The intention of the original speaker can even be at odds with God’s intention, such as when Caiaphas claims, “It is better for you that one man die for the people than that the whole nation perish” (John 11:50; cf. Acts 5:35–39). In this case, the irony of Caiaphas’s statement creates a powerful testimony, contrary to his intent, and is used by John to promote confidence in Jesus.

Furthermore, because the Scriptures are from God, they have a consistent and central focus. The NT unhesitatingly views all of Scripture, in all its diversity, as focused, by virtue of divine inspiration, on the person and work of Jesus Christ. This is seen in, for example, Luke 24:13–35, where the resurrected Jesus, “beginning with Moses and all the Prophets,” explains to his disciples “what was said in all the Scriptures concerning himself” (cf. John 5:39; 12:41). This central focus on Christ requires the Christian interpreter to understand any individual verse in light of its context within the canon, to operate with the same assumption as the NT apostles, that all the Scriptures are concerned with testifying to Jesus the Christ.

Additionally, Paul views both Testaments as the special possession and once-for-all foundation of God’s church (Eph. 2:19–20; cf. Acts 2:42). The church, from a NT perspective, is the primary audience of the entirety of Scripture (1 Pet. 1:12) and is therefore uniquely entrusted with understanding and proclaiming its message (Matt. 28:18–20). While the Scriptures themselves are the only infallible guide for interpretation, believers should not forsake the teaching and tradition of the church (2 Thess. 2:15).

Finally, full understanding of the Bible requires the work of the Holy Spirit in conjunction with the faith of the reader. Belief and understanding go together (John 10:38), and both are the result of the unique work of the Holy Spirit (16:13). The proof that such understanding has taken place is the godly life of the believer (Rom. 2:13; James 1:22–25). The reverse is also true: disobedience works against understanding the riches of God’s Word (James 1:21). Such considerations underline the importance of the hermeneutical task. The tools and principles of hermeneutics are valuable only insofar as they enable the reader to better understand and appropriate the biblical message, to hear the word of God and respond appropriately.

Biblical Theology   There is no consensus on the definition of, or preferable method for, biblical theology. This article explores the variety of ways biblical theology has been understood and practiced.

Biblical theology has been defined in various ways: (1) theology based upon Scripture (or theology derived primarily from a study of Scripture), as opposed to theology based upon confessional statements or philosophy; (2) theology in harmony with Scripture; (3) theology that is descriptive of the Bible’s contents; (4) a study of the theology found in the Bible; (5) the study of the main themes of the Bible; (6) the formulation of the theology of the entire Bible (in distinction from the theology of the OT, the theology of the NT, or the theology of the various books of the Bible, such as the theology of Isaiah or of Matthew); and (7) the ways the Bible has been studied throughout the history of the church.

One of the major weaknesses with these definitions is that they can function primarily as a way of distinguishing those theologies that are preferred from those that are dismissed. Although they may differ from one another, every Christian theologian formulates theology in reference to the Bible. Biblical theologies have a direct correlation to both the text of Scripture and the ways in which the authors of Scripture thought.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY AS A RECENT DISCIPLINE

Biblical theology is a relatively recent discipline. There are two reasons for this. First, the term “biblical theology” does not seem to have been used prior to the seventeenth century. Second, the focus on the historical progression of biblical themes did not become a significant part of biblical studies until the eighteenth century. This historical focus characterizes most biblical theologies of the last two centuries.

In his 1787 lecture at the University of Altdorf, Johann Philipp Gabler made a distinction between biblical theology (a historical discipline) and dogmatic theology (a didactic or instructive discipline that is usually called “systematic theology” in our own time). Prior to Gabler, biblical scholars engaged in what was sometimes called “exegetical theology,” but this usually was a discipline subordinate to systematic theology rather than a discipline in its own right. It involved showing the relationship between biblical texts and the various doctrines of systematic theology.

Influential writers of the early church such as Irenaeus and Marcion wrestled with issues that would become a significant concern of later biblical theologians, such as the relationship between the Testaments and the Christian’s use of the Mosaic law, but they lacked the historical focus in the study of Scripture that would characterize modern biblical scholarship.

THE BIBLICAL THEOLOGY MOVEMENT

Biblical theology as a discipline should be distinguished from the biblical theology movement, a primarily neoorthodox mid-twentieth-century movement in biblical studies that grew out of the controversy between fundamentalism and modernism in America. Neoorthodoxy, as expressed by Karl Barth, was characterized by the idea that the Bible itself is not the word of God but rather is a record of revelation and a witness to the word of God. Through the Scripture we encounter the divine Word in Christ. Biblical scholars of this movement affirmed the value of historical criticism (opposing a literalistic interpretation of the Bible) and at the same time acknowledged the need for a new direction that would affirm the unity of the gospel and make the results of historical criticism more useful for the church.

DEFINING THEOLOGY

Some explanations of biblical theology begin with a definition of theology. This is not a simple task, for there are many different ways that theology has been conceptualized. When Christians speak of theology, they usually are referring to either (1) the study of God (as revealed in Scripture and/or history), (2) the study of Scripture (the teaching that arises from the canonical books), or (3) the study of what the church (or a branch of the church) believes and teaches.

One’s understanding of theology is linked with the understanding of revelation. Those who believe that God has revealed himself primarily through Scripture will seek to develop a theology derived from Scripture. Those who believe that God has revealed himself primarily through his actions in history (such as the exodus from Egypt or the resurrection of Jesus Christ) will seek to develop a theology that comes out of understanding those events (keeping in mind that Scripture is often the primary witness to these actions). Those who view theology as a study of what the church believes will combine a study of Scripture and history with a careful analysis of various expressions of theology within a faith community. In spite of varying definitions of theology, with very few exceptions Christian theologians are concerned with working out the implications of the Christian Scriptures (the books of both Testaments) for the life of the church, as well as social analysis and critique.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY AND OTHER TYPES OF THEOLOGY

Systematic theology. Biblical theology often is defined in distinction from systematic theology. There are a number of ways that students of Scripture have differentiated biblical theology from systematic theology.

Gabler viewed biblical theology as a historical, descriptive discipline, distinct from systematic theology, which is an instructive, prescriptive discipline. From his perspective, biblical theology focuses on what biblical authors said about sacred matters, while systematic theology reveals what current theologians think about sacred matters in light of their own time and church background. This perspective forced recognition of the difference between the teaching of the biblical writers and the systematic theology professed in various churches.

Some later biblical theologians considered biblical theology to be a historical discipline in contrast to systematic theology, which is a logical discipline (using laws of logic to organize and synthesize theology).

A different emphasis is found when biblical theology is viewed as a descriptive task in contrast to systematic theology, which is prescriptive in nature. A distinction has often been made between systematic theology, viewed as a prescriptive task (explaining what the Scripture “means” in the time and situation of contemporary believers), as distinct from biblical theology, which is a study of what the Scripture “meant” at its time of writing.

Another way to contrast the two is to speak of biblical theology as a discipline that studies the Bible diachronically (i.e., with an emphasis on what is revealed throughout various time periods), while systematic theology is a discipline that studies the Bible synchronically (with the goal of producing a unified system by focusing on what the Scripture as a whole teaches). Biblical theology as a diachronic and sequential study has also been contrasted with systematic theology viewed as a logical arrangement of what is observed sequentially in Scripture.

In summary, those distinguishing biblical theology from systematic theology, with various nuances and emphases, describe biblical theology as a historical, descriptive, diachronic, and sequential discipline that focuses on what the Scripture “meant” at its time of writing, in contrast to systematic theology, which is didactic, logical, prescriptive, and synchronic, explaining what the Scripture “means” to contemporary readers.

The results of one’s biblical theology can be used to formulate systematic theology in light of the cultural and historical context of the contemporary theologian. Systematic theologians do this in a variety of ways. Roman Catholic theologians have traditionally placed Scripture alongside the tradition of the church in this task, while Protestants value Scripture above tradition when constructing theology. Among Protestants, some interpret Scripture in light of tradition, reason, and experience, while others emphasize the role of the Spirit in helping believers understand the word of God.

Historical theology. Biblical theology is often viewed as a discipline that follows the task of biblical exegesis and precedes historical theology, which itself precedes systematic theology.

Old Testament / New Testament theology. OT theology and NT theology can be viewed as two branches of biblical theology or as intermediate steps between exegesis and biblical theology. Other theological disciplines sometimes considered to be subsequent to systematic theology include ethical theology, homiletical theology, and pastoral theology.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY AND EXEGESIS

Those focusing on biblical theology as a diachronic study often speak of biblical theology as a study of the progression and development of significant themes throughout Scripture, or throughout the progress of revelation. From this perspective, biblical theologians take the work done by biblical exegetes in their careful study of Scripture and observe themes that appear with regularity. When biblical theology is viewed in this way, it is common to see it as the study of the theology found within each book of the Bible and a comparison, analysis, and compilation of these theologies.

The work of biblical theologians is based upon, and is an extension of, the work done by biblical exegetes. The biblical exegete interprets and explains a passage of Scripture in light of linguistics, semantics (often including philological study), grammar, syntax, textual criticism, literary structure (of both the passage itself and the book within which the passage is found), compositional and rhetorical strategies of the author (including chiasm, plot, theme and character development, and parallelism), genre, historical and sociological background of the text, and geographical setting.

There is always fluidity in the relationship between biblical exegesis and biblical theology, for while the results of biblical exegesis inform biblical theology, the observations of biblical theologians assist biblical exegetes in their understanding of each biblical book as a whole, as well as the relationships between smaller units of Scripture within the book in which they are found. As a result, there is a circular (or spiral) interaction between biblical exegesis and biblical theology. An understanding of each part of Scripture informs one’s formulation of biblical theology, while an understanding of biblical theology increases one’s understanding of each part. Ultimately, every biblical passage informs the work done by the biblical theologian, while each text of Scripture is understood in a clearer manner by the exegete as the unity and diversity within the canon as a whole is seen with greater clarity.

METHODS OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY

There are a variety of ways in which biblical theology has been practiced and a number of ways in which these methodologies have been classified. Differences in the way the Bible is understood have resulted in various kinds of biblical theologies. For example, while some have focused on the final form of the biblical text, others have focused on the reconstruction of the biblical text (in light of historical critical methods), and still others have focused on the study of events referred to in the biblical text as reconstructed in light of tradition criticism or historical criticism.

Classifications of the various methods for biblical theology (with some overlap between the categories) include (1) systematic, (2) diachronic, (3) central theme, (4) confessional, (5) descriptive, (6) tradition-history, (7) salvation-historical, (8) christological, (9) promise-fulfillment, (10) allegorical, (11) typological, (12) canonical, (13) literary, (14) cultural-linguistic, and (15) sociological. The first three of these methods for biblical theology will be considered here in greater detail.

The systematic (or dogmatic) method organizes biblical theology in light of the structures used by systematic theology, such as the three themes of God, humanity, and salvation. This synchronic approach characterized the earliest biblical theologies. The greatest weakness in this method is that it often leads to imposing on the text of Scripture a framework that is incongruous with the content and teaching of Scripture. This unbalanced distortion leads to overemphasizing some ideas of the biblical writers and underemphasizing others.

The diachronic (or historic) method structures biblical theology in terms of the historic progression of themes or ideas communicated by the writers of Scripture. It focuses on the way God’s revelation unfolds throughout the canon, with a concern for the historic time periods of revelation. An example of this approach is the salvation-history method, which focuses on the progress and history of redemption. A diachronic study of the Bible is difficult because there is no consensus concerning the time or sequence of writing for most of the books of the OT. For example, some believe that the Mosaic law (as found in the Pentateuch) preceded the OT prophets, while others are convinced that the law was largely written as a response to the teachings of the prophets of Judah and Israel.

The central theme (or cross-section) method selects a unifying theme that is prominent in Scripture and observes how this theme is addressed throughout the historic progression of Scripture. Significant themes that can be traced throughout Scripture and that have been suggested as a center of biblical theology (a way of providing unity to the study of Scripture) include (1) God’s covenant(s) with his people, (2) the relationship between God and his people, (3) the history of redemption or salvation history (Heilsgeschichte), (4) the kingdom or reign of God, (5) promise and fulfillment, (6) reconciliation, (7) the presence of God, (8) the love and mercy of God, and (9) the providence of God. Many have rejected the possibility of finding a center or dominant theme around which each part of Scripture can be organized, and they reject approaches that force a particular theme upon texts that resist such a simplified analysis and classification.

QUESTIONS FOR BIBLICAL THEOLOGIANS

A number of questions have arisen as biblical exegetes have attempted to formulate biblical theology.

1. Is biblical theology a theological endeavor?

This question seems to arise when the biblical text is viewed as an object of study rather than as God’s self-revelation to humanity. Biblical theology has often been understood as the discipline that focuses on what a text meant, as distinct from systematic theology, which focuses on what a text means. Emphasizing the descriptive aspect of biblical theology at the expense of its normative role in the community of faith can lead to viewing Scripture as an object of study. If Scripture is viewed as the living word that is understood only by those with a desire to hear and obey the voice of God, a sharp distinction between what the text meant and what it means will be avoided. Those who reject the possibility of a merely cognitive understanding of Scripture will reject the idea of orthodoxy apart from orthopraxis and affirm that attempts at exegetical understanding (what the text meant) are not only incomplete and deficient but also distorted without obedience to God (which is, at the very least, part of what the Scripture means today). Those affirming biblical theology as a theological discipline will emphasize the theological nature of Christian Scripture as it addresses issues of the character and nature of God and the implications of this for human morality.

2. How does one find unity from biblical books that speak with diverse voices? Is there thematic unity? Would biblical theology better be replaced by biblical theologies derived from various portions of Scripture?

As biblical theology came to be understood as a historical discipline, the differences between the teachings of the two Testaments were highlighted. This has led some to reject the possibility of biblical theology.

(a) Some reject biblical theology because they see the differences between the theology of the two Testaments as insurmountable and irresolvable. They view the OT not only as pre-Christian, but also as sub-Christian. Examples include the call of God for Israel to destroy the inhabitants of Canaan (Deut. 7:1–2; 20:16–18) and the prayers of imprecation (cursing) in the psalms (e.g., Ps. 137:8–9). Similarly, when the revelation of Jesus Christ as seen in the NT is viewed as the climax of the progress of God’s revelation, how does the OT retain value? Is the OT always secondary and the NT primary?

(b) Those from the history-of-religions school moved away from, and even rejected the idea of, biblical theology, replacing it with a focus on the evolutionary development of Israel’s religion in light of the religions of Israel’s neighbors.

(c) Some of those who have rejected biblical theology focus on the historical-critical study of the text, often rejecting the historicity of the events described in the text. In response, some have defended the value of the history in the biblical narratives, while others have pursued biblical theology without considering the issue of the historicity of the events described in Scripture, focusing on the theology that comes out of the final form of Scripture.

(d) Recent biblical interpreters have focused on the differences in the theology of the writers of the various canonical books (e.g., the contrast in the way Jesus is presented in the Synoptic Gospels and John’s Gospel, or the differences in the way faith is understood by James and Paul, or the varying perspectives on the poor and oppressed seen in Exodus as compared with Proverbs). As a result, the movement has been away from observing similarities and toward highlighting these differences (thus a move away from unity).

3. Is it possible to summarize accurately everything the Bible teaches? Can one produce a biblical theology that values each biblical text?

It appears that all attempts to formulate a biblical theology will, of necessity, be selective, for it is impossible to construct a biblical theology in which all texts are weighted equally. This being the case, which portions of Scripture will be used? Which will be central? Which will be ignored? How will these decisions be made?

4. What is meant by the term “Bible”?

Different faith communities have diverse canons of authoritative Scripture. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches have a canon that includes what Protestants sometimes refer to as the deuterocanonical books, which Protestants reject. Differences in the locus of study for a biblical theology will, of course, affect the biblical theology that is produced.

Bichri   See Bikri.

Bichrites   See Bikrites.

Bicri   See Bikri.

Bidkar   Jehu’s “chariot officer.” Jehu ordered Bidkar to throw Joram king of Israel onto the field of Naboth the Jezreelite after Jehu had shot Joram with an arrow (2 Kings 9:24–26). Bidkar had been with Jehu when they heard Elijah prophesy this event. See also 1 Kings 21:18–24.

Bier   An object on which a corpse is laid and taken to the grave. The Hebrew word translated as “bier” (mittah) in 2 Sam. 3:31 can also refer to a bed or a couch. In 2 Chron. 16:14 a different Hebrew word (mishkab) is used to describe the bier (NASB: “resting place”) upon which Asa’s body was permanently laid within his grave. Jesus touched the bier of a young man before raising him from the dead (Luke 7:14).

Statuette of a funeral bier for the Egyptian prince Thutmose (c. 1360 BC)

Bigtha   One of the seven personal attendants of the Persian king Xerxes (Ahasuerus), whom he commanded to bring Queen Vashti to his banquet (Esther 1:10). Working with the harem, he was a eunuch.

Bigthan   See Bigthana.

Bigthana   One of two door guards of the Persian king Xerxes (Ahasuerus) who plotted to assassinate the king. The plot was discovered and reported by Mordecai, after which Bigthana was hanged (Esther 2:21–23).

Bigvai   The head of a clan that was part of the early return to Judah from Babylonian captivity in 539 BC or soon after (Ezra 2:2, 14; Neh. 7:7, 19). The same clan sent Uthai and Zakkur and seventy men at the time of Ezra around 458 BC (Ezra 8:14). Bigvai is also listed as one who sealed the covenant renewal led by Ezra (Neh. 10:16).

Bikri   The father of Sheba, the Benjamite who rebelled against David. Joab’s men laid a siege against Sheba in Abel Beth Maakah, and his head was handed to them (2 Sam. 20:1–22). There is no further mention of Bikri in the OT.

Bikrites   Term used in the LXX and the Latin Vulgate of 2 Sam. 20:14 (so RSV, NRSV) for the people group identified in the Hebrew text as the Berites.

Bildad   Bildad is the second of Job’s friends introduced in Job 2:11, where he is said to come from an otherwise unknown place, Shuah. Bildad’s speeches (Job 8; 18; 25) reflect his staunch conviction that God deals with people (including Job) exclusively through the principle of retributive justice: God punishes sin and rewards good. Although he shares this perspective with his friends, Bildad applies it more vehemently. Bildad incorrectly attributes the death of Job’s children to some unspecified sin that they had committed (8:4) and inappropriately encourages Job to seek God’s forgiveness for his sin, claiming that it would lead to his restoration (8:5–6).

Bileam   A town of western Manasseh that was given to some of the Levites descended from Kohath (1 Chron. 6:70). Probably the same town as Ibleam (Josh. 17:11), Bileam lay about fifty miles north of Jerusalem.

Bilgah   (1) The fifteenth of twenty-four heads of priestly families whom David assigned for temple service by lot (1 Chron. 24:14). (2) A priest who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Neh. 12:5, 18), possibly also called Bilgai (10:8).

Bilgai   See Bilgah.

Bilhah   (1) The servant of Rachel, given to her by Laban (Gen. 29:29). Rachel gave her to Jacob as a concubine, and Bilhah bore Dan and Naphtali (30:5–8). Later, Reuben has sexual relations with Bilhah (35:22). (2) Location in the territory of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:29), probably also in Josh. 15:29; 19:3; 19:44, with alternate spellings.

Bilhan   (1) A descendant of Seir through Ezer, a Horite chief who lived in Edom (Gen. 36:27; 1 Chron. 1:42). (2) A descendant of Benjamin through Jediael, and the father of seven sons (1 Chron. 7:10).

Bill of Divorcement   See Divorce.

Bilshan   One of several leaders who accompanied Zerubbabel and Joshua when the people of Israel returned from captivity in Babylon to Jerusalem and Judah (Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7).

Bimhal   A descendant of Asher through Japhlet, and the head of a family (1 Chron. 7:33).

Binding and Loosing   Binding can mean physically restraining a person or people (Judg. 15:13; 2 Kings 25:7; Job 16:8; Pss. 119:61; 149:8), mending, as with a wound (Isa. 61:1; Ezek. 34:16; Hos. 6:1), or taking a legally constraining oath (1 Sam. 14:27–30; Neh. 10:29; Jer. 50:5). The opposite of binding is loosing or setting free, which can describe literally being freed from bonds (e.g., Acts 16:26) or the release from something that is binding.

The law, a binding covenant between Israel and God, is to be literally bound on one’s forehead as a reminder (Deut. 6:8; 11:18). Non-Israelites who wish to identify with the God of Israel can bind themselves to his laws (Isa. 56:6). In Num. 30:6, 9, 13, an oath taken by a young woman still in her father’s house will be binding only if the father is not against it. If he is against it, it is not binding and she is loosed from it (30:5). This is the same in the case of a married woman, whose approval has to come from the husband. However, for widows or divorced women, all pledges they make are binding since there are no men in their lives to void the pledges (30:9).

While contracts were binding, some had time limits. For example, the seventh year and the fiftieth year (Jubilee) allowed for cancellation of such binding contracts as slavery or land ownership (Lev. 25:10–54; 27:24).

The binding of Isaac (Gen. 22), traditionally known as the Akedah, has theological significance for both Christians and Jews. It is interpreted as a form of resurrection, a coming from the dead for Isaac after Yahweh had instructed his father, Abraham, to sacrifice him (Heb. 11:17–19). God inquires of Job whether he can “bind the chains of the Pleiades” or “loosen Orion’s belt” (Job 38:31).

The book of Proverbs encourages the wise to metaphorically bind love and faithfulness around their necks (3:3) and their parents’ commands and teachings to the heart (6:21) and the finger (7:3); it also talks of folly being bound up in the heart of a child (22:15), perhaps alluded to by Paul in Rom. 11:32 when he says that God has bound all people to disobedience that he may have mercy on them.

Introducing his ministry in Luke 4:18, Jesus quotes Isa. 61:1, which talks of binding up the brokenhearted, a reference to his healing ministry. Further, binding and loosing are found in Jesus’ commissioning of his disciples (Matt. 16:19; 18:18; cf. John 20:23), where it may be referring to the binding of demons and loosing of demoniacs bound or oppressed by demons (cf. Mark 3:14–16; 6:7; Luke 13:6). Since Jesus has the power to bind and loose (John 8:36), he chooses to empower his followers to do the same. Binding Satan is the subject of the ultimate eschatological battle in Jewish lore (T. Levi 18:11–12) and becomes central in Christianity. Jesus encounters satanic forces embodied in humans and looses such people from the chains of Satan (Mark 5:3; Luke 13:12, 16). Ultimately, Satan is to be bound for a millennium and loosed only for eternal damnation (Rev. 20:1–3).

Paul invokes Jewish law about marriage by claiming that one is bound in marriage only as long as one’s partner is alive (Rom. 7:2). In this way, Paul explains how Christians are dead to the law, because Jesus has died on their behalf, thus setting them free from the law (Rom. 7:4–6; cf. Heb. 9:15). To the Corinthians also he talks of the binding nature of marriage but with a caveat: if the marriage is between a believer and a nonbeliever, and if the nonbeliever leaves, then the believer is not bound (1 Cor. 7). But for Paul, being set free from sin (Rom. 8:2) means being bound to God (6:22).

Binea   A descendant of Benjamin, King Saul, and Jonathan through Moza. Binea’s son is called both “Raphah” and “Rephaiah” (1 Chron. 8:37; 9:43).

Binnui   (1) The father of Noadiah, a Levitical contemporary of Ezra (Ezra 8:33). (2) A descendant of Pahath-Moab who was among those guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezra 10:30). (3) The ancestor of thirteen men who were guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezra 10:38 [but see NIV mg.]). (4) Son of Henadad, he completed two sections of Nehemiah’s wall (Neh. 3:18 [“Bavvai” in some versions; see NIV mg.], 24). He was one of the Levites who ratified the document of rededication (Neh. 10:9). (5) The head of a family from which 648 returnees accompanied Zerubbabel to Jerusalem (Neh. 7:15 [probably “Bani” in Ezra 2:10]). (6) One of the Levitical leaders who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:8). See also Bavai.

Birds   Over 350 species of birds have been recorded in the land of modern-day Israel. The OT employs thirty-five different words for birds (both wild and domestic), but the identification of these words with known species has proved to be very difficult. Like other words for animals, terminology for birds often is employed in personal names (e.g., Jonah, Oreb, Zippor, Zipporah). There is significant evidence for fowling practices in ancient Israel, usually by means of nets and snares (Pss. 124:7; 140:5; Prov. 6:5; 7:23; Lam. 3:52; Hos. 7:12; Amos 3:5). Small birds and chickens are occasionally even depicted on Iron Age II (1000–586 BC) seals and vessels from sites such as el-Jib (Gibeon) and Tell en-Nasbeh (Mizpah).

Stork

Like other animals in the Bible, birds are depicted as agents of God. Divine agency is especially evident in instances such as the ravens feeding Elijah (1 Kings 17:4–6) and the dove bringing an olive leaf to Noah (Gen. 8:11). The Bible also employs bird-related imagery such as in descriptions of divine judgment (Prov. 30:17; Jer. 12:9). Birds may also serve as ominous signs of impending judgment (Hos. 8:1). God’s “wings” can offer both healing (Mal. 4:2 KJV, RSV) and protection (Ruth 2:12; Pss. 17:8; 36:7; 57:1; 61:4; 63:7; 91:4). The metaphor of the soul or spirit as a bird is referenced in the description of the Holy Spirit descending like a dove (Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32). The observation that birds “do not sow or reap” is employed as an image of worry-free living (Luke 12:24; cf. Job 38:41; Ps. 147:9). Jesus’ reference to “when the rooster crows” (Mark 13:35) is not strictly literal but rather refers to a watch of the night: the quarter of the night after midnight.

The prominence of sacrificial birds (especially doves and pigeons) in ritual literature indicates that they were likely raised for such purposes in ancient Israel. All birds could be eaten except those listed as unclean in Lev. 11:13–19 (twenty species) and Deut. 14:12–18 (twenty-one species). Generally speaking, birds of prey and those that feed on carrion or fish were considered unclean. Birds often served as food for the poor (Matt. 10:29–31; Luke 12:6–7). Poor people could offer birds as a substitute for expensive livestock (Lev. 5:7; 12:8; 14:21–22; cf. Luke 2:24), while the poorest of the poor were permitted to bring grain (Lev. 5:11). Finally, in one purgation ritual a live bird is used to carry away impurities (Lev. 14:52–53; cf. 16:22).

Birsha   King of Gomorrah, he was part of a five-king alliance that rebelled against Kedorlaomer king of Elam (Gen. 14:1–16). Kedorlaomer defeated Birsha and his allies and plundered the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, but Abram recovered the plunder and captives.

Birth   Births in the ancient world were the domain of women. The women who bore children were often assisted in the birthing process by midwives (Gen. 35:17; 38:28; Exod. 1:15–20). Although work was forbidden on the Sabbath, Jewish law permitted midwives to assist laboring women with births on the Sabbath because childbirth was viewed as saving a life.

Many women utilized a birthing stool (Exod. 1:16). Upon birth, the newborn often was washed with water, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in cloths (Ezek. 16:4; Luke 2:7, 12). The OT required women to undergo a rite of purification following childbirth (Exod. 13:2, 20; 34:20; Lev. 12:6–8; Luke 2:22–24). This purification lasted forty days after the birth of a son and eighty days after the birth of a daughter and concluded with the sacrifice of both a burnt offering and a sin offering.

Birthing was valued, and women who were considered to be infertile often faced great shame (1 Sam. 1:10–11; Luke 1:25). Jewish tradition drew additional connections between childbirth and a woman’s character. For instance, death in childbirth was threatened for women who did not follow the law. Pain in childbirth was associated with the sin of Eve (Gen. 3:16), and conversely, absence of pain was interpreted as a sign that a woman was particularly righteous. According to Josephus, Moses was borne with no pain to his mother, and the Protevangelium of James indicates the same about Mary’s labor with Jesus.

The birthing process posed significant risk to both woman and child. Estimates of mortality rates for babies vary, but it is thought that as many as 50 percent of children did not survive beyond the age of five, with many failing to live through the first week outside the womb. Conservative guesses place the death rate for mothers around 5 percent. Death rates during childbirth were higher among Greek women, who often married younger than their Jewish counterparts and frequently suffered complications in childbirth due to their youth.

The Bible sometimes employs the language of birth as a spiritual metaphor. In John 3:3–6 Jesus instructs Nicodemus about the need for spiritual birth by explaining that he must be born again. In Rom. 8:22 Paul describes the whole of creation as experiencing the pain of childbirth as it awaits redemption, and in Gal. 4:19 he says that he is in labor for a second time with the Galatians as he desires the formation of Christ in them.

Birth Control   The predominant form of birth control available to men in the ancient world was coitus interruptus. Onan does this to avoid impregnating Tamar (Gen. 38:8–9) and faces God’s judgment for his action, although this may reflect punishment for refusing to fulfill his levirate duty rather than punishment for withdrawing prematurely. However, because large families were an asset in primarily agrarian societies, contraception frequently was condemned. Later Jewish literature forbids the use of birth control by males because of the command to “be fruitful and increase in number” (Gen. 1:28) but sometimes permits contraceptive use by women, particularly those who are nursing an older child. The second-century AD physician Soranus instructed a woman wishing to prevent pregnancy to avoid deep penetration, to hold her breath at the moment of ejaculation, and immediately to squat down, begin sneezing, wipe herself, and drink something cold. Other birth control methods for women in the ancient world included ointments consisting of old olive oil, honey, or cedar resin to be spread on the cervix prior to intercourse. Various plants, including silphium, asafetida, wild carrot, and the seeds of Queen Anne’s lace were taken orally to either prevent or terminate pregnancy. Abortion and infanticide, though condemned by Judaism (cf. Exod. 21:22–25), were practiced by some. Acacia gum and dates were among ingredients in vaginal suppositories that were believed to function as abortifacients. Infanticide occurred through exposure at birth (cf. Exod. 1:15–16; Acts 7:19) and often targeted female babies.

Birth Defects   Congenital defects are treated symbolically in the law of Moses along with crippling diseases and permanent injury. Israelite worship, managed by the priesthood, pointed away from itself to heavenly things. Thus, it was important for sacred things to be undistorted. Dwarfs and hunchbacks were disqualified for priestly work, along with those suffering from various injuries (Lev. 21:16–23).

Along the same lines, some who opposed Israel were genetically defective (2 Sam. 21:20), deviating from the human form in their gigantism and polydactyly. Not only were they in the land promised to Israel, but they were something beyond the ordinary—they physically embodied evil opposition to God.

In the NT, symbols take second place to the spiritual reality of Christ, come to save all peoples. An entire chapter of the Gospel of John, the story of the man born blind (John 9), is devoted to a birth defect and its spiritual meaning. Jesus argues that now those who willfully will not see the truth of the gospel are the real blind ones; the man born blind can spiritually see better than they do and is accepted by Jesus.

Birthright   The birthright consists of the material blessings of a father being passed on to his sons. By right, the oldest son received a double portion of the inheritance received by the children (Gen. 25:29–34; Deut. 21:15–17; Luke 15:11–32). The birthright is often connected to, but needs to be distinguished from, the blessing. The blessing generally involved more of a focus on a spiritual allotment, but it crossed paths with the birthright with respect to future leadership and authority of the person (Gen. 27; 49). Royal succession was also a birthright, though God could countermand this privilege (1 Kings 2:15; 2 Chron. 21:3).

In the NT, Jesus’ birthright includes the throne of David, a position of honor as God’s unique Son, and creation itself (Rom. 8:29; Col. 1:18; Heb. 1:4–6). The low regard with which Esau viewed his birthright is also used as a warning in Hebrews to encourage Christians not to take their spiritual inheritance lightly (Heb. 12:16–17).

Birthstool   Traditionally, twin rocks upon which midwives would seat women for childbirth. The term appears once in the NRSV (NIV: “delivery stool”), translating a Hebrew word (’abenayim) that literally means “two stones” (Exod. 1:16). However, the same Hebrew word means “potter’s wheel” in Jer. 18:3, suggesting that the obstetric understanding could be metaphoric.

Birzaith   A descendant of Asher through Malkiel, or possibly the name of a place (1 Chron. 7:31 [KJV: “Birzavith”]).

Bishlam   One of the men who wrote a letter to King Artaxerxes in Aramaic (Ezra 4:7). The name could be an abbreviated form of “Ben-Selam,” meaning “son of peace,” or the abbreviated form of the Aramaic name “Bel-Salam,” meaning “Bel is peace.”

Bishop   An older translation of the Greek word episkopos, which the NIV translates as “overseer.” The word occurs five times in the NT (Acts 20:28; Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:2; Titus 1:7; 1 Pet. 2:25).

The word episkopos was used in the Greco-Roman world to describe a large variety of financial, political, and religious officials. The LXX uses the word to describe priestly authorities (2 Kings 11:18), temple inspectors (2 Kings 12:11), and military officers (Num. 31:14; 2 Kings 11:15), among other roles. The DSS evidence an official (Heb. mebaqqer) similar to the overseer in the NT. Nearly anyone with duties of ruling and oversight could be called an overseer in ancient Greco-Roman and pre-Christian Jewish writings.

Overseers first appear in the NT in Acts 20:28. This verse is in the context of Paul’s farewell speech to the elders of the Ephesian church, charging them to watch carefully over the welfare of the church. A comparison of Acts 20:17 and 20:28 shows that “elder” (presbyteros) and “overseer” (episkopos) are basically interchangeable terms (the two are explicitly equated in Titus 1:5–7). The overseer in Acts 20:28 is specifically equipped by the Holy Spirit to rule (shepherd), which is the same job of elders (e.g., Acts 14:23; 15; 16:4; 1 Thess. 5:12–13; 1 Tim. 5:17; Titus 1:5–9; 1 Pet. 5:5). This shepherding function is primarily one of protecting the church from the false teachers who, Paul knows, will sneak in and distort the truth of God’s word once he leaves (Acts 20:29–31). Although overseers are not specifically mentioned in Eph. 4:11, the idea of shepherding (pastoring) the flock of God is one of the gifts given to the church for its edification by Jesus Christ.

In Phil. 1:1 Paul addresses the church in Philippi, making a distinction between the entire body of the saints and the roles of overseer and deacon.

In 1 Tim. 3:2 and Titus 1:7 is found the most information about the roles of overseers, whereas 1 Tim. 3:1 describes the office of oversight. The job of the overseer is defined more in terms of virtues than specific duties (1 Tim. 3:2–7; Titus 1:7–9). In this regard, the qualifications for overseers are quite similar to standard lists of virtues in contemporary Greco-Roman literature. The overseer must be of outstanding moral character, self-controlled in all areas of life, an experienced Christian, and a good leader in his own household. However, two specific Christian duties stand out in the biblical lists: teaching and refuting error (1 Tim. 3:2; Titus 1:9). These two abilities are especially important in the Pastoral Epistles because false teaching is a particularly pressing threat in the churches addressed. Overseers must also discipline errant church members (1 Tim. 5:20; 2 Tim. 3:16; 4:2). Although it is difficult to draw hard-and-fast distinctions between the various teaching and authority roles mentioned in the NT, an overseer is primarily called to watch over, protect, and teach the church in an official capacity.

Finally, in 1 Pet. 2:25 Jesus Christ is called the “Shepherd and Overseer” of all Christians. Jesus is the paradigm for the loving care and protection of the church that all undershepherds (overseers/bishops) are called to emulate.

There is evidence that in the early church some (such as Clement of Rome) saw an overseer as equal to an elder. As early as the beginning of the second century, others (such as Ignatius) argued that overseers were the chief figures in a detailed church hierarchy, as well as being direct successors to the apostles.

Bit and Bridle   A bridle is gear that fits over an animal’s head; attached to the bridle is a bit, a metal mouthpiece that allows one to control the animal. The terms “bridle” and “bit” are used metaphorically in both Testaments, demonstrating some manner of control (Job 41:13; Ps. 32:9; James 1:26). For example, James uses this metaphor to challenge believers about the difficulty and importance of controlling their tongue (James 3:1–12).

Horse bridle, discovered at Persepolis in Persia (fifth century BC)

Bithiah   Apparently one of two wives of Mered the Judahite (1 Chron. 4:17–18), though the Hebrew text is unclear on this point. Bithiah may have been a princess, or the phrase “Pharaoh’s daughter” may refer only to her Egyptian descent. The name “Bithiah” means “daughter of Yah(weh)” and may indicate that she had converted to the religion of Israel.

Bithron   A translation of the Hebrew word bitron, a term of uncertain meaning that appears only in 2 Sam. 2:29. Abner, commander of Ish-Bosheth’s army, marched through Bithron while fleeing from David. The most common explanations are that “Bithron” refers to a ravine or a mountain pass, possibly the Jabbok (KJV, TEV), or that it indicates the forenoon (NIV, NRSV, RSV, NASB).

Bithynia   A region in northern Asia Minor bordering the Black Sea that, along with Pontus, was ruled as one province by the Romans. Paul and his missionary companions desired to enter Bithynia during his second missionary journey but were prevented from doing so by the Holy Spirit, so they traveled to Macedonia instead (Acts 16:7). The Christians in Bithynia received greetings from Peter (1 Pet. 1:1).

Bitter   See Gall.

Bitter Herbs   A food eaten with lamb and unleavened bread at the Passover meal. The herbs were often comprised of whatever bitter greens were available. Though not specifically identified, they included lettuce, endive, parsley, watercress, cucumber, and horseradish, all of which were plentiful in areas of the Sinai Peninsula, Palestine, and Egypt. The bitter herbs recalled the misery of slavery in Egypt (Exod. 12:8; Num. 9:11). They were dipped into a fruit puree (kharoset sauce), which represents the mortar that Israelites used for Pharaoh’s building projects. In John 13:26–27 Jesus, instead of dipping a “piece of bread” (Gk. psōmion), probably dipped bitter herbs, sharing them with Judas Iscariot (cf., in the Greek texts, Mark 14:20, where Jesus does not specify what is being dipped; Matt. 26:23, where Jesus talks about dipping a hand).

Bittern   The KJV translation of the Hebrew qippod (Isa. 14:23; 34:11; Zeph. 2:14). Bitterns, a kind of heron, are found in the Middle East and live in marshy reed beds. This fits the biblical association with desolate places, particularly with swampland. Moreover, these verses do seem to refer to different kinds of birds, which makes the translation “hedgehog” or“porcupine” (e.g., RSV) unlikely. However, bitterns roost close to the ground, which conflicts with the behavior that Zephaniah describes of roosting on columns. Most modern translations and commentaries prefer to identify the qippod as some kind of owl, although we cannot be sure of the exact species. The NIV translates the term as “owl” (Isa. 14:23) and “screech owl” (Isa. 34:11; Zeph. 2:14).

Bitter Water   Numbers 5:11–31 describes a judicial ordeal for determining whether a wife has been unfaithful. In the course of the ritual, the wife suspected of wrongdoing is to drink water mixed with dirt from the floor of the tabernacle, thus made “bitter” (Heb. mar; Num. 5:18), and in which a scroll containing curses has been washed (so that the water also contains the ink of the scroll). In the event that the woman was guilty of unfaithfulness, this concoction was intended to transfer to her body the curses against her. Deuteronomy 21:1–9 may represent a second judicial ordeal involving water, though bitterness is not involved. The names “En Mishpat” (“spring of judgment” [Gen. 14:7]) and “En Rogel” (“spring of inquiry” [e.g., Josh. 15:7]) may also refer to the use of water for divination or ordeal.

Shortly after crossing the Red Sea, the Israelites came to Marah (“bitterness”), where the waters were bitter and not potable. Moses was divinely instructed to throw a piece of wood in the water, rendering it sweet and drinkable (Exod. 15:23–25), the first of several divine provisions of drinking water in the desert. Revelation 8:11 depicts apocalyptic divine judgment in terms of bitter or poisoned water. In both of these passages, bitterness is effected or removed by the combination of wood and water: “wormwood” (Gk. apsinthos, a bitter substance derived from the wood of a particular shrub). The image of Rev. 8:11 recalls a similar divine threat in Jer. 9:15; 23:15.

Bitumen   A tarlike substance used as mortar for setting bricks, as in Gen. 11:3 (NIV: “tar”) with the building of a ziggurat. It was also used, along with pitch, as a waterproofing agent for Noah’s ark (Gen. 6:14) and for the reed basket in which Moses was placed as an infant (Exod. 2:3).

Biziothiah   A city in the Negev belonging to Judah (Josh. 15:28). It is on the extreme southern end near Beersheba.

Biztha   One of the seven personal attendants of the Persian king Xerxes (Ahasuerus), whom he commanded to bring Queen Vashti to his banquet (Esther 1:10). Working with the harem, he was a eunuch.

Black   Commonly used to denote the color of objects. A sunless sky is “black” (Exod. 10:15; 1 Kings 18:45; Rev. 6:12). Some birds (Lev. 11:13, 14) and horses (Zech. 6:2, 6; Rev. 6:5) are associated with that color. Depending on the context, black may represent death, judgment, and evil. Of special significance is the blackness preceding Jesus’ death (Mark 15:33 pars.). However, when describing hair, the color may also indicate youthful beauty (Song 5:11). See also Colors.

Blains   The KJV rendering of the Hebrew word ’aba’bu’ot in Exod. 9:9–10 (RSV, NASB: “sores”; NIV, NRSV: “festering”).

Blasphemy   Any contemptuous expression that rejects God’s authority and questions his nature. In the OT, three words primarily convey this sense of utterly offensive speech or action.

The first, na’ats, means “to speak or act with contempt,” rejecting God’s authority (Num. 14:23; Deut. 31:20). Blasphemers include wicked enemies who mock God (Pss. 10:3, 13; 74:18), and God’s people who reject the authority of his word (Isa. 1:4; 5:24). The second, gadap, is synonymous with na’ats. When Sennacherib’s field commander publically undermined the people’s confidence in God, Isaiah prophesied that Sennacherib would suffer divine punishment for this blasphemy (2 Kings 19:5–7; Isa. 37:6–7). It also refers to actions that defy and thus blaspheme God (Num. 15:30). The third, naqab, literally means “to pierce a hole” and indicates the intent to cause damage. It appears twice in Lev. 24:15–16 in conjunction with cursing God; the penalty is death.

This provides the foundation for the NT material. When the Pharisees wrongfully attributed Jesus’ power to drive out demons to Beelzebul, Jesus declared that every sin and blasphemy would be forgiven, even speaking a word against the Son of Man, but not blaspheming or speaking against the Holy Spirit (Matt. 12:22–32). The Spirit’s work was evident in the powerful demonstration they had seen. To attribute Jesus’ work to Satan was a complete affront to the majesty of God.

When this “son of man” claimed divine power and attributes, some of the Jewish leaders accused him of blasphemy. In the OT, blasphemy involved denigrating the majesty, authority, and power of God. Although Jesus did not say anything contemptuous of God, his audience thought that he had blasphemed God on several occasions. Early in his ministry he claimed to forgive sins when he healed the paralyzed man. The response of the Pharisees and teachers of the law was to think, “Who is this fellow who speaks blasphemy? Who can forgive sins but God alone?” (Luke 5:21). The Gospel of John records ongoing tension between Jesus and his opponents. They were prepared to stone him “for blasphemy, because you, a mere man, claim to be God” (John 10:33). Finally, when Caiaphas put Jesus under oath before the Sanhedrin to declare if he was the Christ, the Son of the living God, Jesus responded by referring to Dan. 7:13–14 and Ps. 110:1: they would see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of God and coming on the clouds of heaven (Matt. 26:64–66 pars.). In their minds, this was clearly blasphemous (see John 19:7).

Stephen was accused of speaking words of blasphemy against Moses and God (Acts 6:11), and Saul of Tarsus, in his vendetta against Christians, went from one synagogue to another trying to force early Christians to blaspheme (Acts 26:11). Later, knowing that he was “the worst of sinners,” he acknowledged that he was a “blasphemer and a persecutor and a violent man” (1 Tim. 1:13–16). Knowing the seriousness of the offense, Paul declared that he handed Hymenaeus and Alexander over to Satan so they would be taught not to blaspheme (1 Tim. 1:20).

The source of all blasphemy will make its appearance in the final eschatological confrontation: on the heads of the beast will be a blasphemous name (Rev. 13:1; cf. 17:3), and it will utter blasphemy against God, his temple, and his people (13:5, 6). Paul describes this same scenario in 2 Thess. 2:3–4, where “the man of lawlessness” sets himself up in God’s temple, proclaiming himself to be God. Finally, when the bowls of wrath are poured out on the earth, those who refuse to repent will curse God (Rev. 16:9, 11, 21), the final blasphemy.

Blasting   See Blight.

Blastus   A personal servant of Herod Agrippa I mentioned in Acts 12:20. He was likely the chamberlain in charge of Herod’s bed quarters. The citizens of Tyre and Sidon persuaded him to help them make peace with Herod regarding an issue with the supply of food.

Bleach   See Fuller.

Blemish   The physical defect on a sacrificial animal that makes it an unacceptable offering to the Lord (Lev. 22:17–25), or the physical defect on a priest that disqualifies him from performing certain priestly functions (Lev. 21:17–24). In the NT, Christ is the once-for-all sacrificial lamb without blemish or defect. In Christ, Christians are presented to God as holy and without blemish (Eph. 5:27; Col. 1:22; Heb. 9:14; 1 Pet. 1:19).

Blessing and Cursing   The blessings and curses of Scripture are grounded in a worldview that understands the sovereign God to be the ultimate dispenser of each. Blessings and curses are not the outcomes of magicians who attempt to manipulate the gods for personal gain or retribution. Rather, God is the giver of blessing and ultimately the final judge who determines withdrawal or ban. He is the source of every good gift (James 1:17) and the one who gives power and strength to prosper (Deut. 8:17).

Some view the nature of blessing and curse as simply a gift from God, while others see it as an act in which one party transmits power for life to another party. Perhaps the common thread between views is the idea of relationship.

Terminology. In the OT, the key Hebrew terms for blessing are the verb barak and the noun berakah. When the context of their use identifies a person or a living creature as the object of blessing, the basic idea is to provide someone with special power that will ultimately enhance his or her life. The blessing theme is also illuminated by means of words such as “grace,” “favor,” “loyalty,” and “happiness.”

In the NT, the Greek term eulogeō and its cognates are best understood in terms of the impartation of favor, power, and benefits. The makarios word group describes a state or status of being fortunate, happy, or privileged.

The OT curse vocabulary includes the ideas of disgracing, making contemptible, and imprecation. The NT curse terminology comprises the ideas of curse, slander, or consecrated to destruction.

Old Testament. The sovereign God sometimes employs agents of blessing in his creation. The blessing extends to the nations through Abraham (Gen. 12:3), to Jacob through Isaac (Gen. 26–27), and to the people through the priests (Num. 6:24–26).

The theme of blessing/curse is used to structure Deut. 27–28 and Lev. 26 (cf. Josh. 8:34) in the overall covenant format of these books. Scholars have observed that the object of this format is not symmetry or logical unity but fullness. From this perspective, the blessing/curse structure functions to enforce obedience for the purpose of ensuring a relationship. The blessing of Deuteronomy also includes the benefits of prosperity, power, and fertility. The curse, on the other hand, is the lack or withdrawal of benefits associated with the relationship.

The creation narratives are marked with the theme and terminology of blessing (Gen. 1:22, 28; 2:3; cf. 5:2; 9:1). The objects of blessing in Gen. 1:22, 28 (cf. 5:2; 9:1) are the living creatures and human beings created in the image of God. As the revelation progresses, the blessing of God is particularized in the lives of Noah (Gen. 6–8), Abraham (Gen. 12–25) and his descendants, and the nation of Israel and its leadership (Gen. 26–50). In these contexts, the blessing is intended to engender offspring and to prosper recipients in material and physical ways (compare a similar NT emphasis in Acts 17:25; cf. Matt. 5:45; 6:25–33; Acts 14:17).

The blessing of God is also extended to inanimate objects that enhance and prosper one’s quality of life. The seventh day of creation is the object of blessing (Gen. 2:7; Exod. 20:11), perhaps giving it a sense of well-being and health. Objects and activities of life such as baskets and kneading troughs (Deut. 28:5), barns (Deut. 28:8), and work (Job 1:10; Ps. 90:17) are blessed.

God promises to bless those who fear him (Ps. 128:1). Blessing is designed for those who, out of a deep sense of awe of God’s character, love and trust him. The God-fearer confidently embraces God’s promises, obediently serves, and takes seriously God’s warnings. The blessings itemized in Ps. 128 are comparable to those detailed in Deut. 28 relating to productivity and fruitfulness (cf. Ps. 128:2 with Deut. 28:12; Ps. 128:3 with Deut. 28:4, 11). The Deuteronomic concept of blessing and curse is questioned when God-fearers undergo a period of suffering or experience God’s apparent absence (e.g., Joseph, Job; cf. Jesus).

New Testament. In the NT, blessings are not exclusively spiritual. God gives both food and joy (Acts 14:17) and provides the necessities of life (Matt. 6:25–33). The NT does connect blessing with Christ, and it focuses attention on the spiritual quality of the gift that originates from Christ himself and its intended benefit for spiritual individuals.

Regarding curse, the NT explains that Christ bore the curse of the law to free us from its deadening effect (Gal. 3:10–13). Revelation 22:3 anticipates a time when the curse associated with sin will be completely removed and the blessing associated with creation will prevail.

Blight   Rendering in the NIV and most modern translations of the Hebrew word shiddapon. The term refers to crop destruction caused by hot winds that blow in from the desert east of Palestine. “Blight” accompanies other terms (e.g., “mildew”) denoting unfavorable things that would and did arise in the land of Israel as a result of the people’s disobedience (e.g., Deut. 28:22; 1 Kings 8:37; Amos 4:9). The KJV uses the archaic “blasting.”

Blindness   Blindness was a common ailment in the ancient world. Some causes included old age (Gen. 27:1), trauma, or divine punishment (John 9:2). Israel was given special instructions to care for the blind (Lev. 19:14). True love helped the blind (Job 29:15), and misleading them was a serious violation (Deut. 27:18).

Blindness constituted a ritual blemish, but the blind themselves were not rendered “unclean,” though they could not function as priests (Lev. 21:18). Even blind animals were unfit for sacrifice (Lev. 22:22), a barometer of the people’s hearts that the prophets had to remind them of (Mal. 1:8). According to the Temple Scroll, the Qumran sect expanded the biblical qualifications and refused entrance to any blind person (11Q19 45:12–13). Now viewed as impurity, blindness in its midst would defile the whole community and dilute the emphasis of the community on “sight” as an eschatological sign (1Q28a 2:3–10; cf. Isa. 29:18; 35:5). Jesus and his disciples’ healing of the blind may have also been a critique against such separatistic practices (cf. Matt. 9:27–31; 12:22).

Panel from a fourth-century AD sarcophagus showing Jesus healing a blind man

In figurative language, the Bible frequently describes the spiritual condition of people in terms of blindness. Isaiah capitalizes on the metaphor of blindness to describe the rebellious and apostate groups: prophets, priests, and rulers who were divinely afflicted with blindness (Isa. 43:8; 56:10; 59:10; cf. Zeph. 1:17). The anthropology represented in the OT posited three “zones” of interactive relationship: hands-feet (action), mouth-ears (speech), and heart-eyes (emotion with thought). The zone of heart-eyes related to blindness, since the notion of a dark heart emanated through the eyes. This tradition surfaced in Jesus’ teaching (Matt. 6:22–23; cf. 1 John 2:9–11).

Jesus highlighted the onset of the messianic age by fulfilling Isaiah’s promise to proclaim “recovery of sight to the blind” (Luke 4:18). Forty-six of fifty-two references to blindness in the NT are Gospel stories of Jesus’ healing. Because Jesus’ ministry was one of opening blind eyes (cf. Isa. 42:7, 16, 18), calling the Pharisees “blind guides” was a sharp description (Matt. 15:14; 23:16, 24). But on others, Jesus would impose blindness, the very reverse of his mission (John 9:39–41), since he came as the “light of the world” (8:12). Spiritual blindness as applied to unbelievers could be used to describe the failure or hard-heartedness of some to accept the true identity of Jesus Christ. Using similar language, Paul describes the pagan unbelievers: “The god of this age has blinded the minds of unbelievers, so that they cannot see the light of the gospel that displays the glory of Christ” (2 Cor. 4:4).

Nearsightedness and blindness can also be used to describe believers who have grown dull to the truth (2 Pet. 1:9) or tepid in their faith (Rev. 3:17). Believers are blind when they fail to grasp their true spiritual condition.

Blood   The word for “blood” in the Bible (Heb. dam; Gk. haima) is used both literally and metaphorically. “Blood” is a significant biblical term for understanding purity boundaries and theological concepts. Blood is a dominant ritual symbol in biblical literature. In ancient Jewish, Greco-Roman, and early Christian usage blood had both positive and negative connotations. Blood was used in sacrifices and purification rites, and it was inherently connected to menstruation, animal slaughter, and legal culpability. Among the physical properties of blood are the ability to coagulate, the liquid state of the substance (Rev. 16:3–4), and the ability to stain (Rev. 19:13). Blood can symbolize moral order in terms of cult, law, and power.

JEWISH BACKGROUND

Blood played a major role in the Jewish sacrificial system. The blood of the sacrifice was handled with care and was applied to the sacrificer. This ritual treatment provided indirect contact between the person to be purified and the altar. An example of such indirect treatment is seen in a purification rite involving a pair of birds. One bird is slaughtered in the presence of the impure person. The surviving bird is dipped into the blood of the slaughtered bird, and the person is sprinkled with the same blood. Indirect contact is thus established between the impure person and the living bird. When the bird next was released, the impurities of the person flew away with the bird (Lev. 14:6–7, 49–53).

Sin offerings followed a similar concept of indirect contact. On Yom Kippur, the annual Day of Atonement, the high priest made a series of sin offerings (Exod. 30:10; Lev. 16:3–19). Sin offerings likewise were used to consecrate altars (Exod. 29:35–37; Lev. 6:23; Ezek. 43:18–27). The use of an animal sacrifice for the cleansing of altars meant indirect contact between the altar and the sacrificial animal when the blood of the animal was dotted on the horns and poured out into the trough at the base of the altar. The animal thus received the impurity. The blood effected indirect contact between the impure person and the receiving sacrifice or altar.

GRECO-ROMAN BACKGROUND

Blood played a crucial role in ritualistic sacrifice in ancient Greek culture and was incorporated into the later (Greco-)Roman cults as well. It was used in oath rituals and as an agent of purification in Greek religious practice. Both persons and shrines underwent blood purifications. The use of special utensils for the handling of blood implied the significance of the substance in Greek tradition and the rituals of which it was part.

The mystery cults in the Greco-Roman world attached a broad range of soteriological understanding to blood. In this understanding, the purification function of blood was the most salient concept attached to blood in mystery cult usage. Generally speaking, blood was considered a literal agent of purification. However, within Mithraism, for example, blood had a symbolic function and benefited the cult initiate.

OLD TESTAMENT USAGE

The usage of blood in the OT is predominantly negative. The first direct mention of blood in the biblical text involves a homicide (Gen. 4:10). Henceforward, the shedding of human blood is a main concern (Gen. 9:6). Other concerns pertaining to blood include dietary prohibitions of blood (Lev. 17:10–12), purity issues such as the flow of blood as in menstrual blood (Lev. 15:19–24), and blood as a part of religious rites such as circumcision (Gen. 17:10–11; Exod. 4:24–26).

Leviticus 17:11 contains a central statement in the OT concerning the significant role of blood in the sacrificial system: “The life of a creature is in the blood.” Blood was collected from all animal sacrifices, and blood was poured onto the altar (Lev. 1:5).

The covenant with Abraham was sealed with a covenantal ritual (Gen. 15:10–21). Moses sealed the covenant between the Israelites and God with a blood ritual during which young Israelite men offered young bulls among other sacrifices as fellowship offerings (Exod. 24:5). Moses read the words of the Book of the Covenant and sprinkled the blood of the bulls on the people, saying, “This is the blood of the covenant that the LORD has made with you in accordance with all these words” (Exod. 24:7–8).

During the Passover observance at the time of the exodus, blood was placed on the sides and tops of the doorframes of the Hebrews (Exod. 12:7). Not only altars were sprinkled and thus consecrated with blood, but priests were as well. Aaron and his sons were consecrated by the application of blood to their right earlobe, thumb, and big toe, and the sprinkling of blood and oil on their garments (Exod. 29:20). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest entered the holy of holies and sprinkled blood on the mercy seat to seek atonement for the sins of the people (Lev. 16:15).

Whenever blood is involved in a religious occurrence, one can speak of a ritual, ceremony, or rite. The rite of circumcision likewise was a blood ceremony (Gen. 17:10–11; Exod. 4:24–26). Rabbinic tradition reveals that during circumcision ceremonies Scripture was read with an emphasis on blood. An example of such a reading is found in Ezek. 16:6: “Then I passed by and saw you kicking about in your blood, and as you lay there in your blood I said to you, ‘Live!’ ”

NEW TESTAMENT USAGE

Many events in the passion of Christ include references to blood. During the Last Supper, Jesus redefined the last Passover cup: “This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins” (Matt. 26:28). Judas betrayed “innocent blood” (Matt. 27:4), and the money he received for his betrayal was referred to as “blood money” (Matt. 27:6). At Jesus’ trial, Pilate washed his hands and declared, “I am innocent of this man’s blood” (Matt. 27:24).

The apostle Paul wrote that believers are justified by the blood of Christ (Rom. 5:9). This justification or righteous standing with God was effected through Christ’s blood sacrifice (Rom. 3:25–26; 5:8). The writer of Hebrews stressed the instrumental role of blood in bringing about forgiveness (Heb. 9:22). In the picture of the ideal community of Christ, the martyrs in the book of Revelation are situated closest to the throne of God because “they triumphed over him [Satan] by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony; they did not love their lives so much as to shrink from death” (12:11). The blood of the Lamb, Christ, is the effective agent here and throughout the NT, bringing about the indirect contact between sinner and God.

THEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

When the phrase “blood of Christ” is used, scholars debate whether it refers to the death of Christ or the life of Christ as released from his body. When, under the old covenant, an animal was killed as part of the sacrificial system, the animal’s blood was shed. Scholars wonder if the shedding of the animal’s blood was an indication that life had ended or that the life of the animal was now released from its body and presented as an offering to God. In the same vein, when Christ died on the cross and his blood flowed, was it an indication that his life had ended or that his life had been released from his body and was presented as an offering to the Father? Scholars who hold the second view contend that OT references to blood as the source of life (Gen. 9:4; Lev. 17:1; Deut. 12:23) are taken up in the NT. Although the death of Christ was unfortunate, the emphasis lies on his life having been set free for the purpose of bringing salvation. Scholars who hold the first view, which is the traditional view, point out that the overwhelming majority of the time when the word “dam” is used in the OT, it has a negative connotation, pertaining to death or violence. Hence, when the Hebrews heard the phrase “blood of Christ,” a correlation with death rather than life likely came to mind. Indeed, Heb. 9:14–15 relates the “blood of Christ” to his death as a ransom.

Blood, Field of   See Akeldama.

Bloodguilt   The guilt that results from the shedding of innocent blood, the taking of an innocent life. The person who incurred bloodguilt was considered not only morally but also ritually impure; this impurity attached not just to the person, for the land was made ritually impure as well. The only way this impurity could be removed was by the execution of the guilty individual (Num. 35:29–34). The person responsible for carrying out the sentence was referred to as the “avenger of blood” (Num. 35:19–27; Deut. 19:6–13 [see also Avenger]). This responsibility fell to the slain person’s nearest kin. For those whose taking of innocent life was accidental (manslaughter), there were cities of refuge established to which the accused could flee from the avenger, and a judicial process was set up to determine innocence or guilt (see also Cities of Refuge).

In addition to the legal sections of the OT, bloodguilt comes under repeated condemnation in narrative, poetry, and prophecy. Already in Gen. 4 the murder of Abel is narrated, with God declaring that Abel’s blood “cries out to me from the ground” (4:10). Numerous accounts in Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles narrate both the shedding of innocent blood and the ensuing vengeance that was carried out (e.g., 2 Sam. 16:8).

Proverbs warns the young not to join with those who lie in wait to shed innocent blood (1:11–18). The psalms, as well as condemning those who shed innocent blood, also pay special attention to the fact that God himself plays the role of the avenger of blood (Pss. 5:6; 9:12; 79:10). Lamentations attributes the exile directly to the incurrence of bloodguilt (Lam. 4:13–14).

The prophets were especially concerned with bloodguilt. God would not accept sacrifices from those whose hands were “full of blood” (Isa. 1:15; cf. 59:1–7). Their sacrifices were unacceptable for two reasons: (1) since they had incurred bloodguilt, they were ritually impure and therefore not in a position to be able to offer sacrifices; (2) the sacrifices that they were offering had come into their possession as a result of their oppression and murder of the poor; that is, they were not the legitimate owners of that which they were sacrificing (see also Jer. 7:6; 19:4; 22:3, 17; 26:15; Ezek. 22–24).

In the Gospels, the chilling words “His blood is on us and on our children” (Matt. 27:25) are pronounced with regard to perhaps the most heinous instance of bloodguilt in the Bible (see also Matt. 23:30, 35; 27:4–8; Luke 11:50–51; Acts 5:28).

Blue   This color overlaps with purple in the Bible (see Ezek. 23:6) to describe a dye extracted from murex shellfish along the coastline of Palestine. The Hebrew word, tekelet, is also sometimes translated “violet” (e.g., 2 Chron. 2:7, 14; 3:14 NET). Blue was used in the tabernacle (e.g., Exod. 25:4; 26:1, 4, 31), the temple (2 Chron. 2:7, 14; 3:14), and the priestly garments (Exod. 28:5–8, 15; 39:1). The color “dark blue” may occur in the NT (Rev. 9:17 NIV), but the Greek word (huakinthinos) may also be translated “sapphire” (NRSV). Jewish men, including Jesus, wore blue tassels on the four corners of their cloak as a reminder to obey God’s commandments (Num. 15:38; cf. Deut. 22:12; Matt. 9:20; 14:36). See also Colors.

Shells from the murex snail, a source of blue or purple dye

Boanerges   A nickname, meaning “sons of thunder,” given by Jesus to the brothers James and John when he appointed them as apostles (Mark 3:17). Mark does not explain the significance of the name, but it may refer to their fiery temperament (cf. Mark 9:38; Luke 9:54). Alternatively, if meant in a positive way like Simon’s nickname, “Peter/Rock” (cf. Mark 3:16; Matt. 16:18), it could signify their future role as thunderous witnesses to the gospel.

Boar   See Swine.

Boat   See Ships, Sailors, and Navigation.

Boaz   (1) One of two bronze pillars erected by Solomon at the portico of the temple (1 Kings 7:15–22). Its name means “in him [is] strength.” Together with the other pillar, Jakin, the names form a prayer: “May he [the LORD] establish strength in him [Solomon].” The pillars may have been engraved with a royal inscription, but they were broken up at the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:13). (2) A man of Bethlehem who married Ruth the Moabite during the time of the judges. Boaz was an older, wealthy landowner who honored God in his words (Ruth 2:4, 12; 3:10) and deeds. He honored the Mosaic custom of allowing the disadvantaged to glean in his fields, but he went beyond this in providing for Naomi and Ruth. He also extended the custom of levirate marriage (see Deut. 25:5–10) to accord Ruth’s son to her deceased husband, although his own name appears in all the genealogies of David.

Bocheru   See Bokeru.

Bochim   See Bokim.

Body   The human body has its origin in the act of creation by God depicted in Gen. 2:7, so that it comes under the heading of the “very good” evaluation at the close of the six days of creation (1:31). In neither the OT nor the NT is the body viewed as evil, in contrast to the ancient Greek view that saw the human body as a prison of the soul and viewed death as a release from this bondage. This contributes to the Bible’s positive view of human sexuality when properly expressed in a committed marriage relationship, one notable example being the mutual admiration of the man and the woman who are deeply in love in Song of Songs, where we find a head-to-toe description of the man’s physique (5:10–16) and a corresponding description of the woman’s body (7:1–8).

Old Testament. In the OT, death is regularly described as a returning of the body to the dust/ground from which it was made (e.g., Gen. 3:19; Ps. 90:3). The dignity of the human body is signaled by the importance of proper burial (Deut. 21:22–23), which is a cultic rather than a health regulation in the OT. The outrage committed by the Philistines on the bodies of Saul and his sons (1 Sam. 31), the deliberate desecration of tombs (2 Kings 23:16; Amos 2:1), and leaving an enemy unburied are ways of expressing utter contempt. The ensuring of proper burial (even of strangers) becomes a mark of Jewish piety, as exemplified in Tob. 2:1–10; 12:11–15.

The Hebrew word nepesh (often translated “soul”) can be used of a dead body (e.g., Lev. 21:11; Num. 6:6; 19:13; Hag. 2:13), though this word has a wide range of meaning (sometimes it means “throat”). This usage is not to be taken as signifying that the soul/body distinction is not recognized. On the contrary, in OT teaching “body” (whatever the Hebrew word used) always refers to the physical body, not to the whole human person that is bipartite (body/soul) within an overall psychophysical unity. The reference in Mic. 6:7 (NIV: “the fruit of my body”) is really to the “womb” (cf. Deut. 28:4), and the Hebrew word in question, beten, can refer to a male body insofar as it is involved in procreation (Ps. 132:11).

New Testament. Hebrews insists on the real humanity of Jesus (2:14–18), and the Gospels portray him as having the normal physical requirements of drink, food, and sleep (Mark 4:38; John 4:7–8). To deny that Jesus Christ came “in the flesh” strikes at the heart of the gospel and is the spirit of the antichrist (1 John 4:2–3). For atonement to take place, it was required that Jesus offer himself body and soul to God through death (Heb. 10:5–10, 20). At the Last Supper, when Jesus said, “This is my body” (Matt. 26:26), his meaning was that the bread represented his body, which would be offered on the cross as the sacrifice that makes possible the inauguration of the new covenant (cf. Exod. 24:1–8).

The bodily resurrection of Jesus is evidenced by the empty tomb (Mark 16:4–6) and the appearance of the risen Christ to his followers (e.g., Luke 24:36–43; see the list of witnesses in 1 Cor. 15:5–8). This is a fundamental point of Christian doctrine and gospel proclamation, providing assurance to believers that they too will be physically raised from the dead (1 Cor. 15:42–52), a belief found already in the OT (Dan. 12:2). Salvation in the Bible embraces the redemption of the body and the renewal of the physical creation. At the time of Christ’s return, believers will be raised from their graves and meet their returning Lord (1 Thess. 4:13–18).

In what is acknowledged by all to be a difficult passage (2 Cor. 5:1–9), Paul appears to envisage that at the point of death he will not become a disembodied soul but instead will “be clothed with [his] heavenly dwelling” (5:4). The expression “away from the body” (5:8) is not to be taken as an indication of bodiless existence, but rather is explained by “at home with the Lord” and refers to the believer’s state upon leaving this earthly life. The nature of the “spiritual body” in 1 Cor. 15:35–49 is only hinted at by means of analogies (e.g., the seed) or contrasts (between the “perishable” and the “imperishable”), but its physicality (though gloriously transformed) is plain. Perhaps our clearest indication is provided by what we are told of the resurrection body of Jesus, which could pass through grave clothes (Luke 24:12; John 20:5–7), appear and disappear in a closed room (Luke 24:31, 36), and ingest food and be touched (Luke 24:37–43).

Paul made use the “body” analogy for the character of the church as the “body of Christ” (1 Cor. 12:12–26), viewing it as an organism consisting of different, mutually dependent members or organs. This teaching was designed to rebuke and correct the self-glorifying and self-serving use and abuse of spiritual gifts in the Corinthian church. So too, the reality of the Christian community as a “body” (1 Cor. 10:17; 11:29) showed that their uncaring attitude toward each other manifested at their suppers was totally inappropriate. In the same letter Paul says that the believer’s “body” is united to Christ, making sexual immorality a thing to be shunned (6:12–20). Believers are to glorify God in their bodies. The analogy of the body is used a little differently in Ephesians (1:23; 2:16) and Colossians (1:18, 24), where its point is that Christ is the “head” of the body (the church), which therefore must submit to his direction and rule. Believers are to present their “bodies” as a living sacrifice, serving the master who redeemed them (Rom. 12:1). The verse that follows gives the other side to the equation: serving God with the mind (12:2). Body and mind together make up the complete human being, who is a psychosomatic unity. See also Gestures.

Bodyguard   An individual or group employed for the protection and security of a particularly important person or persons. Kings, leaders, and wealthy individuals or families may employ a bodyguard against real or imagined dangers. David was the captain of Saul’s bodyguard (1 Sam. 22:14), as well as Achish’s bodyguard for life (28:2). After he became king, David made Benaiah son of Jehoiada the captain of his own bodyguard (2 Sam. 23:23; 1 Chron. 11:25).

Bohan, Stone of   A boundary marker on the south boundary of the territory of the tribe of Benjamin and on the northern border of the territory of the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:6; 18:17). The exact location of the stone is unknown, although it was most likely west of the Jordan River because the boundary between the tribes of Judah and Benjamin ran west from the Jordan River and the Dead Sea. Although the texts in Joshua have “the Stone of Bohan son of Reuben,” Bohan is not mentioned in the genealogies of Reuben.

Boils   A skin disease caused by inflammation of hair follicles. Boils are the sixth plague sent by God upon the Egyptians (Exod. 9:8–12), described as the “festering boils” causing pain. These boils, along with the other plagues, show Yahweh’s power so that his name is declared in all the earth (6:1–7; 9:16). As a contracted skin disease, boils are examined by a priest in order to determine if someone who has them is ritually clean or unclean (Lev. 13:18–23). In one case, God hears King Hezekiah’s prayers and heals the boil that has afflicted him (2 Kings 20:7; Isa. 38:21). Boils are employed as one of the covenant curses for disobedience (Deut. 28:27, 35).

Bokeru   The second son of Azel (1 Chron. 8:38; 9:44), he was a descendant of Saul from the tribe of Benjamin.

Bokim   A place near Gilgal where the angel of the Lord rebuked Israel for not tearing down the altars to foreign gods and proclaimed that the Lord would not drive out all the inhabitants of the land (Judg. 2:1–5). Thereupon the people wept, made sacrifices, and named the place “Bokim,” which means “weeping ones.”

Boldness   An expression for a range of responses to a crisis or difficulty, from courage (Acts 4:29, 31; 2 Cor. 3:12; Eph. 3:12; Phil. 1:20; 1 Thess. 2:2) to shameless persistence (Luke 11:8). After Paul and Silas had been jailed in Philippi, they were willing to endure more persecution to preach to the Thessalonians (Acts 16:16–24; 1 Thess. 2:2). To the Philippians, the apostle reflects on his bold preaching (Phil. 1:20). The Christians’ relationship with Christ also gives them boldness to enter into God’s presence (Eph. 3:12; Heb. 4:16). The agent of Christian boldness is the Holy Spirit (Acts 4:31).

Bolled   In Exod. 9:31 the KJV rendering of the Hebrew word gib’ol, meaning “in bloom” (NIV) or “in bud” (NRSV).

Bolster   A KJV rendering of the Hebrew word mera’ashot (lit., “at the heads”), referring to a long pillow or cushion (1 Sam. 19:13, 16; 26:7–16).

Bond   A bond typically represents a close relationship in Scripture. It can carry positive or negative connotations, as do related words such as “bondage.” In the sense of “chains,” bonds literally hold a slave to the master or a prisoner to the jail. God’s exiled people are likewise said to be held in bonds, from which he will rescue them (Jer. 30:8). Spiritually speaking, “bond” may describe the firm covenant relationship between God and his people (Jer. 2:20; 5:5; Ezek. 20:37). In the new covenant, believers are freed from bondage to sin and become Christ’s bondspeople (Rom. 6:16–22). This relationship with Christ in turn joins Christians to one another; in Ephesians this unity is called “the bond of peace” (4:3).

Bondage, Bondman, Bondmaid, Bondservant   See Slave, Servant.

Bones   Of the 206 bones that comprise the adult skeletal structure, the Bible mentions only a few: rib (Gen. 1:21–22), hip (Gen. 32:25), skull (Judg. 9:53), jaw (Isa. 30:28), and legs (John 19:31–33). The Hebrew noun ’etsem shows evidence of both collective “limbs” (masc. pl.) and an individual sense of bones (fem. pl.). Nevertheless, while bones could be isolated, anatomical description tended more toward a holistic sense so that bones could refer to physical and psychological collapse in laments (Jer. 23:9) or to the entire person as a corpse (Gen. 50:25; 1 Sam. 31:13).

Overwhelmingly, however, anatomical “units” are used metaphorically for human emotions or attitudes: shame becomes “decay in [the] bones” (Prov. 12:4), fear makes “bones shake” (Job 4:14), and a sad spirit “dries up the bones” (Prov. 17:22). The phrase “bone of my bones” is an idiom, a kinship formula used to describe unity and close relatives (Gen. 2:23; cf. 2 Sam. 5:1).

Plastered skulls from Neolithic Jericho

Bonnet   The KJV rendering of two different Hebrew words: migba’a, the headband or cap of priests other than the high priest (e.g., Exod. 28:40; Lev. 8:13); pe’er, a headdress (Isa. 3:20) or turban (Ezek. 44:18).

Book of Life   The phrase “book of life” occurs eight times in the Bible (Ps. 69:28; Phil. 4:3; Rev. 3:5; 13:8; 17:8; 20:12, 15; 21:27). The image may originate from the practice of keeping genealogical records or a registry of citizens in which the names of individuals were recorded. Some have suggested that it is a figurative record of all the living, from which the unsaved are eventually erased. But more likely the phrase metaphorically expresses the omniscience of God, who knows all those whom he has predestined to eternal life. In Ps. 69:28 being “blotted out” of the Book of Life probably refers to the fate of experiencing a premature earthly death (cf. Exod. 32:32–33). But since it applies to God’s enemies, it also carries with it the overtones of eternal damnation. The promise made to those who overcome that they will not be blotted out of the Book of Life assures them of their final victory (Rev. 3:5; cf. John 5:24–25). At the final judgment, those not found written in the Book of Life are destined to eternal separation from God in the lake of fire (Rev. 20:12–15). The final use of the phrase in “the Lamb’s book of life” indicates that the record belongs to Christ, who purchased the redemption of all those found recorded in the book (Rev. 21:27). For similar phrases and concepts, see Pss. 9:5; 51:1; 139:16; Isa. 4:3; Dan. 7:10; 12:1; Mal. 3:16; Luke 10:20; Heb. 12:23.

Book of the Twelve   The Book of the Twelve (hereafter, BT) consists of the prophetic books more commonly known as the Minor Prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. The collection comprises the eighth “book” of the Prophets (Former Prophets: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings; Latter Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, BT), known in Hebrew as Nebi’im, the second of three divisions of the Hebrew Bible (along with Law [Torah] and Writings [Ketubim]).

ANCIENT ATTESTATION AND MODERN STUDY

It is well known that ancient traditions from the time of Ben Sira to Jerome (approximately 200 BC to AD 400) attest to treating the Minor Prophets as a single entity. This may be due to the corpus’s comparable length to the prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, which allowed the writings to fit together on a single scroll. It is likely too that the unity of the BT was not only practical but also homiletical. The teaching of Ben Sira recorded in the book of Sirach shows the BT to reflect a collective message of “confident hope”: “May the bones of the Twelve Prophets send forth new life from where they lie, for they comforted the people of Jacob and delivered them with confident hope” (49:10). The BT was a voice of support and encouragement for an exiled people facing a number of challenges to their faith and future.

Reading the Minor Prophets as a unit rather than as twelve independent prophetic messages is a growing discipline in biblical and theological studies. Although it is accepted that the BT has a complex literary history, what attracts particular interpretive interest is the final form of the composition. Scholars also observe that the order of the twelve writings in the MT differs from the LXX as well as that conjectured at Qumran (4Q76). This raises a host of possible explanations for the differences, but for most it does not undermine the value of reading the works as a whole, since it supports the significance of analyzing the deliberate sequence of the MT for theological interpretation.

UNIFYING ELEMENTS

A variety of unifying elements bind these prophetic works to one another. Chronological, intertextual, and theological links throughout the BT buttress the message of confident hope that develops within a general topical movement from judgment to restoration.

Chronology. A fairly clear chronological progression through the BT extends from the eighth century BC to at least the sixth century BC (if not deeper into the Persian period) as one travels from Hosea to Malachi. Six of the books offer historical superscriptions that relate the individual writings to the reigns of particular Israelite and Judean kings. In this manner, Hosea, Amos, and Micah are linked to the eighth century, Zephaniah to the seventh century, and Haggai and Zechariah to the late sixth century. Out of the six works without superscriptions, four seem to be aware of these historical markers of the BT. If the book of Jonah is to be paired with the prophet who worked in Israel during the reign of Jeroboam II (2 Kings 14:25), then it fits appropriately near its contemporaries Hosea, Amos, and Micah. Nahum and Habakkuk address the anticipated downfall of Assyria (eighth century) and rise of Babylon (seventh century), respectively, which suits their location between Micah and Zephaniah. Malachi ends the BT within the Persian period (539–331 BC) and calls the nation to proper living and worship at the rebuilt temple. Joel and Obadiah are the two works lacking a historical superscription that seem to be placed within the BT most overtly for contextual and thematic reasons than for chronological ones.

Theology and intertextuality. Observing a number of verbal and theological links throughout the BT not only accounts for the placements of Joel and Obadiah (and the other books without historical superscriptions) but also solidifies the BT as a cohesive literary whole. On a general level, the BT moves from sin to judgment to restoration. Hosea and Malachi serve as bookends to the BT, as their messages employ the images of marriage and divorce. Micah 3:12 exists as the literary and theological center of this progression as it castigates Israel’s authorities for leading the people in disobedience that results in the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (the watershed crisis for the exilic generation). At the risk of oversimplification, it is also worth noting the geographical interchange that exists in the first half of the BT (Hosea through Micah) as the focus of each work alternates between northern and southern kingdoms. This even continues as Nahum addresses the northern enemy (Assyria), and Habakkuk the southern (Babylon).

The broader literary and theological context of the BT provides a backdrop to links observable on the microlevel. For example, while most suspect that Joel was composed in the Persian period, its placement after Hosea and before Amos is deliberate. Hosea ends with a call to repentance that Joel actualizes, continues, and amplifies. Later, Jonah rehearses Joel’s call for repentance by recycling the hope that God may then relent in judgment, ironically exemplified in the Gentile world (Joel 2:14 // Jon. 3:9). In addition, the end of Joel strikingly parallels the beginning and ending of Amos (Joel 3:16, 18 // Amos 1:2; 9:13). Subsequently, Amos also leads the reader into Obadiah by mentioning Edom, the topic of Obadiah as a whole (Amos 9:12).

Traceable themes weave through the individual works of the BT that reveal the robust interpretive benefits of studying the corpus as a whole. Examples of such theological themes include the day of the Lord, fertility and covenant blessings in the land, and issues of theodicy (based on the BT’s use of Exod. 34:6–7).

Books   The common Hebrew word for “scroll” is seper (Exod. 17:14; Num. 5:23; Deut. 17:18). The later term megillah can also refer to a scroll (Jer. 36:6; Ezek. 3:3). In a few cases megillah is combined with seper and translated as “scroll” (Ps. 40:7; Jer. 36:2; Ezek. 2:9).

The LXX commonly translates the Hebrew word seper (scroll) with the Greek word biblion (“scroll” or “book”), and the NT uses the same word. When Paul wrote to Timothy asking him to bring the parchments, he also requested that he bring ta biblia, “the books” (2 Tim. 4:13; NIV: “scrolls”). English translations often are inconsistent in the way they translate the Hebrew term seper or the Greek biblion.

Books and scrolls in antiquity. During Old and New Testament times, the two most common writing materials for ancient books or scrolls were papyrus and parchment. Papyrus was made from the papyrus reed stalk that grew abundantly in Egypt and around the Mediterranean. Two thin layers of the pith were laid at right angles to each other and pressed together, then the sheets or leaves were pasted together to form a roll. The other common type of writing material, parchment, was made of leather that had been scraped and stretched.

Text was written on the parchment or papyrus in columns, and the scroll was unrolled and rolled back up as one read through the columns. Jeremiah’s first edition of prophecy was written on a parchment scroll (Jer. 36). Parchment was also the common material used to write documents at Qumran. Scrolls made of parchment were more expensive than those made of papyrus.

It is in fact anachronistic when English translations refer to a scroll as a “book.” A “book” with pages (or leaves) and bound along the side did not appear until well after the third century BC. This new type of writing medium was called a “codex,” and its origin most likely came from wooden tablets covered with wax and bound together. Later papyrus or parchment leaves were folded and sewn together to form an inexpensive personal “notebook.” Letters and notes often were written on this early type of book.

In the Roman world the earliest codex to contain literary works dates to the first century AD. In 1930 the American collector Chester Beatty acquired a group of Greek papyrus manuscripts on the antiquities market. The collection contained portions of seven codices from the OT (Genesis, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Esther, Ecclesiastes) and three from the NT (the Gospels with Acts, the Pauline Epistles, Revelation). These important codices were copied in the second and third centuries AD.

Perhaps because the papyrus codex was cheaper to make, the early Christian church adopted it and made it popular. No codices have been found among the DSS. Scrolls continued to be the dominant medium for biblical books in the Jewish world until the tenth century AD. Only Torah scrolls are used in synagogues today. (See also Writing Implements and Materials.)

A papyrus manuscript

Books mentioned in the Bible. The Bible refers to a large number of distinct books that existed at various times and places. Unfortunately, these extrabiblical books did not survive, but the authors of Scripture knew about them and may have quoted them or employed them in writing biblical history. Below is a list of nonbiblical literary works mentioned in the Bible.

• The Book of the Covenant (Exod. 24:7; 2 Kings 23:2, 21; 2 Chron. 34:30).

• The Book of the Law (Deut. 30:10; 31:26; Josh. 1:8; 8:34; 2 Kings 22:8; Gal. 3:10). This is also called the Book of the Law of Moses (Josh. 23:6; cf. Mark 12:26) and the Book of the Law of God (Josh. 24:26).

• The Book of the Wars of the LORD (Num. 21:14). Quotations from this source may include Num. 21:14b–15, 17–18, 27–30.

• The Book of Jashar (Josh. 10:13; 2 Sam. 1:18). This text contained David’s lament for Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. 1:19–27) and most likely Joshua’s statement (Josh. 10:12).

• The scroll of Joshua (Josh. 18:9).

• The book of the annals of Solomon (1 Kings 11:41).

• The book of the annals of the kings of Israel (1 Kings 14:19). This source is mentioned eighteen times in 1–2 Kings.

• The book of the annals of the kings of Judah (1 Kings 14:29). This scroll is mentioned fifteen times in 1–2 Kings.

• Genealogical records from the reigns of Jotham king of Judah and Jeroboam king of Israel (1 Chron. 5:17).

• The book of the kings of Israel and Judah (1 Chron. 9:1; 2 Chron. 27:7).

• The book of the kings of Israel, which includes the annals of Jehu son of Hanani (2 Chron. 20:34). This may be the same as the book of the kings of Israel and Judah in 1 Chron. 9:1 (see ESV, NRSV).

• The book of the annals of King David (1 Chron. 27:24).

• The records of Samuel the seer (1 Chron. 29:29).

• The records of Nathan the prophet (1 Chron. 29:29; 2 Chron. 9:29).

• The records of Gad the seer (1 Chron. 29:29).

• The prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite (2 Chron. 9:29).

• The visions of Iddo the seer (2 Chron. 9:29).

• The records of Shemaiah the prophet and of Iddo the seer (2 Chron. 12:15).

• The annotations of the prophet Iddo (2 Chron. 13:22).

• The book of the kings of Judah and Israel (2 Chron. 16:11). This includes information on Hezekiah’s reign in the vision of the prophet Isaiah son of Amoz (2 Chron. 32:32).

• The annotations on the book of the kings (2 Chron. 24:27).

• The annals of the kings of Israel (2 Chron. 33:18).

• The records of the seers (2 Chron. 33:19).

• The genealogical record of those who had been the first to return (Neh. 7:5).

• The book of the annals (Neh. 12:23). This contained genealogical data and possibly other historical material on the returning exiles.

• The book of the annals of the kings of Media and Persia (Esther 10:2; cf. Esther 2:23; 6:1; Ezra 4:15).

• The book of life (Ps. 69:28; Phil. 4:3; Rev. 3:5; 13:8; 17:8; 20:12, 15; 21:27; cf. Exod. 32:32–33; Ps. 139:16).

• The Book of Truth (Dan. 10:21).

• The scroll of remembrance (Mal. 3:16).

Boot   The Hebrew word seon, translated “boot,” occurs only in Isa. 9:5. Likely related to an Akkadian word, it may have referred specifically to the footgear of the Akkadian-speaking Assyrian army, as opposed to the footgear of the Israelite army.

Booth   A hut made with branches from a tree. Jacob lived in a booth (NIV: “shelter”) on his journey to Sukkoth, a place named after booths (Heb. sukkot [Gen. 33:17]). The Feast of Booths, or Festival of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:33–43; Deut. 16:13–17)—known in Hebrew as Sukkoth—takes place on the fifteenth of Tishri (late September to late October) and is one of the three pilgrimage festivals. It commemorates the Israelites’ living in temporary shelters in the wilderness following their exodus from Egypt (Lev. 23:43).

Booty   See Plunder; Spoils.

Booz   See Boaz.

Bor Ashan   A variation of the name of Ashan found in 1 Sam. 30:30. Ashan was a town belonging to the tribe of Judah but later given to the tribe of Simeon. The name “Bor Ashan” means “well of Ashan.” The location of this site is unknown. See also Ashan.

Born Again   See New Birth; Regeneration.

Borrow   The practice of borrowing and lending was strictly regulated in ancient Israel. Money could be lent to foreigners at interest, but money lent to other Israelites was regarded as charitable giving, and no interest could be charged on this (Lev. 25:35–37; Deut. 23:19–20). Although Israelite law included a system of debt cancellation every seven years, the expectation was that debts normally would be repaid before this time, since borrowing without repayment was the action of a wicked person (Ps. 37:21). Other laws governed a system of restitution related to damage on borrowed property (Exod. 22:15).

Borrowing took place only from a position of dire need, not for commercial purposes. In part, this was because of the perceived relationship between the debtor and the creditor: the one who owed money became like a servant (Prov. 22:7). Those who mortgaged their lands and homes during a time of famine were compelled to send their sons and daughters into slavery (Neh. 5:2–5). By contrast, freedom from borrowing was considered to be a sign of God’s blessing (Deut. 15:6; 28:12).

In the NT era, borrowing and lending took place more freely, for commercial purposes as well as in cases of immediate need, as indicated in several of Jesus’ parables (e.g., Matt. 25:14–30; Luke 16:1–9). Jesus gave instructions for lending generously without expectation of repayment (Matt. 5:42; Luke 6:33–35), though the issue is not addressed from the perspective of the borrower in the NT.

Boscath   See Bozkath.

Bosor   See Beor.

Bossed, Bosses   The word “bossed” (NRSV, RSV, ESV) or “bosses” (KJV) occurs only in Job 15:26 in the description of the shield with which the wicked person “defiantly charg[es] against” God. Bosses are convex projections. Here, “bossed” or “bosses” is a more literal translation of the underlying Hebrew word (gab), but some modern versions convey the sense of the text by rendering the Hebrew less literally as “strong” (NIV, NET) or “massive” (NASB [a combination of the Hebrew words for “bosses” and “thick”]).

Botch   The KJV rendering of the Hebrew word shekhin, referring to the Egyptian plague of boils (Deut. 28:27, 35). More-recent versions translate it as “boils” (NIV, NRSV, NET).

Bottle   In antiquity, pliable animal skin bottles (for ease of transport) were most commonly used to hold water or wine. Jesus refers to wineskin bottles in the saying about new wine and old wineskins, where fermentation from the wine would have burst the old, dry skins (Matt. 9:17; Mark 2:22; Luke 5:37). Clay or glass bottles were used to hold (often valuable) substances such as oil (Num. 4:9) and perfume (Mark 14:3). Bottles made of harder substances generally consisted of a spherical container with a narrow, elongated, cylindrical opening.

Ointment bottles discovered in graves from a necropolis near Akko (third–first century BC)

Bottomless Pit   Some English versions (NRSV, NLT) use this designation to translate the occurrences in Revelation of the Greek word abyssos, otherwise translated in the NIV as “abyss” (Luke 8:31; Rev. 9:1, 2, 11; 11:7; 17:8; 20:1, 3) and once as “the deep” (Rom. 10:7). It can refer generally to the place of the dead (Rom. 10:7), but more often it indicates a temporary sphere of torment and incarceration for demons whose final destination is the lake of fire (Rev. 20:7–10). See also Abyss.

Boundary Stone   A boundary stone (KJV: “landmark”; NRSV: “boundary marker”; Heb. gebul literally means “border”) is an object used to mark the boundaries of property. Boundary stones were to remain in place over generations (Deut. 19:14). Moving a boundary stone was a serious offense; those who move boundary stones were cursed in the same breath as those who dishonor their parents and those who lead the blind astray (Deut. 27:16–18). Wisdom literature speaks strongly against those who move boundary stones. Job cites the moving of boundary stones as an indication of the depravity of humankind (Job 24:1–4). Proverbs assures that God will not allow such an act of theft to go unnoticed (Prov. 22:28; 23:10).

Ancient Babylonian stone kudurru recording a gift of land with its boundaries carefully defined

Bowels   An approximate literal meaning of Hebrew and Greek terms used to refer to the seat of the emotions (sometimes translated as “intestines” or “stomach”). The literal meaning is apparent in a few passages (Ezek. 7:19; 2 Chron. 21:15–19; Jon. 1:17; Acts 1:18). More often the terms are used to refer to a variety of strong emotions (Jer. 31:20; Lam. 1:20; 2 Cor. 6:12; Phil. 1:8; Philem. 7). Elsewhere the words refer to the womb or are related to progeny (Gen. 25:23; 2 Sam. 16:11; Isa. 49:1).

Bowl   See Basin.

Box   The KJV word for the container that held the oil in 2 Kings 9:1, 3 (Heb. pak; NIV, NRSV: “flask”) and the alabaster container of precious oil in Matt. 26:7 pars. (Gk. alabastron; NIV, NRSV: “jar”), and the NRSV word for the container of perfume in Isa. 3:20 (Heb. bayit; NIV: “bottle”).

Box Tree   A possible identification of two of the types of trees named in Isa. 41:19; 60:13. The KJV renders the Hebrew word (te’ashur) underlying the NIV’s “cypress” as “box tree/box” in these instances, and the NASB renders the Hebrew words (berosh tidhar) underlying the NIV’s “fir” as “box tree.” Both trees denoted by these Hebrew words were native to Lebanon (see Isa. 60:13) and not to the desert (see 41:19). The various species of the box tree genus are evergreen small trees or shrubs.

Bozez   A steep cliff along a rocky pass through which Jonathan traveled in order to reach the Philistine garrison. It was located between the Philistine garrison at Mikmash and Saul’s camp at Gibeah. The cliff opposite Bozez was called “Seneh” (1 Sam. 14:4).

Bozkath   A city in the Shephelah, the lowlands of Judah. This is part of the territory allotted to the tribe of Judah during the division of the land (Josh. 15:39). This place was home to Jedidah (daughter of Adaiah of Bozkath), the mother of King Josiah (2 Kings 22:1).

Bozrah   (1) A city in northern Edom (Gen. 36:33; 1 Chron. 1:44), located thirty miles north of Petra at modern Buseirah. It controlled the traffic on the King’s Highway. The city was protected by cliffs on three sides, making it almost unconquerable. It was periodically the capital of Edom. Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Amos prophesied that it would fall pending God’s judgment on Edom (Isa. 34:6; 63:1; Jer. 49:13, 22; Amos 1:12). (2) A city in Moab mentioned in Jer. 48:24. Jeremiah prophesied that it would fall when Moab did. It is most likely the same place as Bezer, although its exact location is unknown.

Bracelet   A piece of jewelry worn on the wrist(s), typically made from precious or semiprecious metal. Bracelets are known from texts, from depictions on statues and figurines, and from archaeological excavations. They might be fashioned as complete loops or with an opening, and crafted from gold, silver, bronze, or even iron. Isaac’s bride-to-be, Rebekah, received two golden bracelets as a gift (Gen. 24:22–47), and golden bracelets also appear in Num. 31:50 as plunder offered to God by Israelite army officers for atonement. Ezekiel 16:11; 23:42 includes bracelets as part of the figurative jewelry that God gave to Israel, later used for adornment as a prostitute.

Braiding   Both Paul and Peter exhort Christian women to adorn themselves not with “braided hair,” expensive clothes, and fine jewels, but with an inner beauty expressed in good works and spiritual grace (1 Tim. 2:9–10; 1 Pet. 3:3–4 NASB, RSV). The terms used here refer not to simple hair weaves, but to the elaborate bejeweled coiffures of upper-class Greco-Roman women. The NIV uses the phrase “elaborate hairstyles,” since the point is not the braids themselves but rather the ostentatious behavior and emphasis on outward beauty.

Bramble   One of several common thorny or prickly plants, also translated as “brier,” “thorn,” or “thistle.” Brambles grew as weeds in grain fields (Job 31:40) and among ruins (Isa. 34:13). They were considered unattractive (Song 2:2), insignificant (Judg. 9:14–15; 2 Kings 14:9), and unproductive (Luke 6:44).

Branch   Besides its normal, literal usage, “branch” is often used figuratively in the Bible to refer to descendants. The image that is created is usually that of a tree or tree stump from which new growth (“the branch”) emerges. The branch is thus both connected to the tree and yet still distinct and unique. In several OT passages the term “branch” is used to describe the coming Messiah, often stressing his descent from King David (Isa. 11:1; Jer. 23:5; 33:15; Zech. 3:8; 6:12–13; perhaps Isa. 4:2). Closely connected to the branch imagery of the Messiah is fruitfulness (Isa. 4:2; 11:1) and the dual concepts of justice and righteousness (Jer. 23:5; 33:15). Zechariah 6:12–13 states that “the Branch,” clothed in majesty, will rebuild the temple and take his seat on the throne to rule. In Rom. 11:17–24 Paul uses the branch/tree imagery to explain how Israel (the natural branch) and the Gentiles (the ingrafted branch) both relate to the overall plan and people of God (the tree with its roots).

Brasen Sea, Brazen Sea   See Molten Sea.

Brasen Serpent, Brazen Serpent   See Bronze Serpent.

Brass   An alloy of copper and zinc that was not widely used in the ancient Near East, although some samples of brass from around 1500 BC have been found at Gezer, about forty miles from Jerusalem. A much more commonly used alloy was bronze, formed from copper and tin. Most of the instances in which the KJV translates “brass” probably refer to bronze or possibly copper.

Bread   Generally made of grain, this staple of foods has been known to be in existence since prehistoric days, being mentioned in the oldest literatures of humanity. Though usually made of wheat, it can be made of any grain and also some kinds of beans or lentils. The Hebrew term, lekhem, is first used in Gen. 3:19 (see KJV) and is found throughout the Bible. The NIV uses the English word “bread” over 250 times.

To make bread, grain must be ground into flour, mixed with salt and water, kneaded into a dough, and baked. Most breads included a leaven to add substance. As a food staple, it became a symbol of hospitality (Neh. 13:1–2; Matt. 14:15–21) and community as people ate together (Acts 2:42). Bread was considered a gift from God, so it was treated with special deference. Unleavened bread was required during Passover feasts and in most occasions related to the worship of God. The “bread of the Presence” (KJV: “shewbread”), representing the twelve tribes of Israel in the temple, was made of unleavened bread (Exod. 25:30) with special flour and was carefully eaten by the priests.

Bread was such a basic part of life that it often was used in Scripture to represent the daily aspects of life and people’s most basic needs. During the days of Moses and the Israelites wandering in the desert, God provided for them special bread, manna, which they collected and ate each day, demonstrating God’s consistent care for them as they traveled (Exod. 16). Jesus used bread in the Lord’s Prayer to represent asking God to meet our basic needs (Matt. 5:11), and he called himself the “bread of life” to show that he is the one who “gives life to the world,” our ultimate sustenance (John 6:33–35). During this exchange with the Jews about the bread of life, Jesus foreshadows what takes place at the Last Supper with his disciples, suggesting that believers must “eat [his] flesh” (represented by bread) and “drink [his] blood” (represented by wine) (John 6:53–59; cf. Luke 22:19). Additionally, bread was used symbolically to represent those things that were present in daily life (Pss. 127:2; 80:5; Prov. 4:17; 20:17).

Bread of the Presence   Twelve loaves of unleavened bread that were to be on continuous display (replaced every Sabbath) in the holy place of the sanctuary (Exod. 25:30; Lev. 24:8). The loaves were to be placed in two rows of six on the table of pure gold constructed for the holy place. The bread symbolized the covenant between God and his people, with a specific emphasis probably being placed upon his provision and sustenance. The name “bread of the Presence” (lit., “bread of the face”) arises from the close proximity in which they were placed to God’s presence in the sanctuary. Because of their holy nature, only priests were allowed to consume them (Lev. 24:5–9; 1 Sam. 21:1–6; Matt. 12:4 pars.; Heb. 9:2).

Breastpiece of the High Priest   A pouch, nine inches square, woven of the same colorful material as the ephod. Gold rings were attached to each corner so that it could be firmly fastened to the ephod with gold cords at the top and blue cords at the bottom. Mounted on its front, in four rows, were twelve precious stones engraved with the names of the tribes of Israel and mounted in gold settings. Since it held the Urim and Thummim by which God revealed his judgments for Israel, it was sometimes called the “breastpiece of judgment” (NRSV; NIV: “breastpiece for making decisions”). By wearing it, the high priest signified that he bore the names of all the tribes whenever he entered God’s presence, and that he would bring God’s judgments or announce his will to the people. It is mentioned twenty-three times in Exodus (mainly chaps. 28; 35) and twice in Leviticus.

Breastplate   A piece of armor used to protect a soldier against shock sustained from other weapons. This imagery is used figuratively by Isaiah to describe how God wears his righteousness (Isa. 59:17). Paul uses it to describe believers, who put on “the breastplate of righteousness” (Eph. 6:14) and “faith and love as a breastplate” (1 Thess. 5:8).

Breath   In the OT, the Hebrew words ruakh (“breath, spirit”) and neshamah (“blast, spirit”) are the standard terms, even collectively translated “wind.” Constructively, these terms reflect the vibrant relationship between God and humankind. However, God’s “breath” can also be an agent of judgment. So “breath/wind” is the invasive power of God—proof of his supremacy—capable of disruption or transformation of human life.

It is in human creation that God’s breath is given one of its most dynamic illustrations. Formed of “dust” (’apar), the human being must be enlivened by the Creator’s breath. In the OT, human flesh remains dormant and helplessly passive until God breathes; then a living human being (nepesh) is animated (Gen. 2:7; 6:17; cf. Pss. 33:6; 104:29). “Soul” (nepesh) must be thought of in a holistic way in the OT, not as part of a dualism: “Praise the LORD, my soul; all my inmost being, praise his holy name” (Ps. 103:1). For human existence, “breath” is God’s gracious gift that mortals cannot “possess.” Reflecting on this, the psalmist writes, “When you take away their breath, they die and return to the dust” (Ps. 104:29; cf. Gen. 7:22). Theologically, Israel understood that life is utterly dependent on God; the “self” has no permanent properties of its own.

“Breath/wind” is also a powerful force in God’s anger, when a “blast of breath from his nostrils” can undo and destroy (2 Sam. 22:16). Similarly, a “strong east wind” rolls back the Red Sea for the Israelites’ crossing (Exod. 14:21), but the very same force is the undoing of Pharaoh’s army, which was destroyed as God, Israel’s warrior, “blew” with his “breath” (Exod. 15:10). Whether in the aimless waters of creation (Gen. 1:2; 8:1) or the mighty waters of “un-creation” (Exod. 15:10), the same cosmic might of God’s ruakh is evident.

Not surprisingly, themes combining breath, wind, and spirit are also used to describe new creation (Ezek. 37:9). The life-generating force of the ruakh/spirit emerges in the NT as the Holy Spirit, manifested in wind, a breath, or Spirit (Gk. pneuma). At Pentecost “a violent wind came from heaven,” enacting another creation (Acts 2:2). John clearly symbolizes Jesus’ “breathing” on the disciples (John 20:22). Not only does this illustrate John’s theology of being born “from above” (3:3 NRSV), but also “he breathed” reenacts the enlivening of Gen. 2:7. The two creations are connected: God’s enlivening in Gen. 2:7 and Jesus’ creation of eternal life following his own resurrection.

Breath of Life   The life of all creatures is sustained by breath (Gen. 1:30; Job 12:10; Ps. 104:29). When God formed Adam from dust, God breathed into him the breath of life (Gen. 2:7), infusing the image of God into Adam. In Ezekiel’s vision, God put breath into dry bones, symbolizing the resurrection of the house of Israel (37:1–14).

Breeches   In the KJV, linen clothing worn by the Israelite priests (NIV, NRSV: “undergarments”). The clothing sat against the skin, “from the waist to the thigh” (Exod. 28:42). Many believe that the priestly breeches were two separate garments, one for each leg (as the English word “breeches” indicates). They were prescribed for service at the tabernacle (Lev. 6:10; 16:4) and at the temple of Ezekiel’s vision (Ezek. 44:18).

Bribe   A gift given in order to influence a decision or judgment. The OT law prohibits giving a bribe with the result that a false judgment (the innocent proclaimed guilty or vice versa) is delivered (Exod. 23:8; Deut. 16:19; 27:25; see also Ps. 15:5). God, as the ultimate giver of justice, accepts no bribes (Deut. 10:17). The prophets condemn God’s people for accepting bribes and perverting justice (Isa. 1:23; Amos 5:12; Mic. 3:13). Proverbs 6:35; 17:23 associate the bribe with foolish behavior. Some proverbs (Prov. 17:8; 18:16; 21:14), however, speak more positively about bribes (or gifts). Perhaps the circumstance of a gift is the issue. The giving of a gift in order to circumvent justice is wrong, but there are some situations where bribes can open doors to good ends.

Brick   Bricks are first mentioned in the Bible at Gen. 11:3 (the tower of Babel), which says that “they used brick instead of stone,” a note that rings true to geographical differences in the use of bricks. In Mesopotamia, however, fire-hardened bricks could be used for monumental structures; thousands of these have survived, some even being taken for use in modern buildings. But in Canaan, where stone is common, large ashlar stone was preferred to brick for monumental buildings (a contrast evident in Isa. 9:10), and unhewn stone was common in other structures (e.g., Lev. 14:40–42). Brick was commonly used in superstructures atop stone foundations, including defensive structures, such as casemate walls (cf. Nah. 3:14, but note that Nineveh is in view). Iron Age Ashdod features an example of such, and Neolithic Jericho features brick walls, though these may have been for flood retention. Bricks were made of mud or clay, often mixed with straw (Exod. 5:7), and could be dried in the sun for rudimentary purposes. Making bricks was hard labor, fitting for slaves (Exod. 1:14; 2 Sam. 12:31). Brick altars, like those of hewn stone, were not permitted in the worship of God (Exod. 20:24–25; Isa. 65:3).

Brick Kiln   An oven used for drying bricks to be used in building projects. David forced the conquered Ammonites to make bricks, the act being described as “putting them to work at the brick kiln” (2 Sam. 12:31 NET). Some believe that only sun-dried bricks were used in Israel and thus translate this text as “brick mold” or “brickwork” instead.

Bride   In both Testaments of Scripture, marriage is used to illustrate the relationship between God and his chosen people. Isaiah and Jeremiah portray Israel as the bride of Yahweh, sometimes to emphasize his love for her, sometimes to lament her unfaithfulness to him. Isaiah says that Yahweh will one day rejoice over Israel “as a bridegroom rejoices over his bride” (Isa. 62:5; cf. 61:10). Jeremiah expresses God’s disappointment that his bride (Israel) has lost her first love for him and even forgotten him (Jer. 2:2, 32). Hosea uses this metaphor repeatedly to proclaim Yahweh’s undying love for his adulterous wife, the people of Israel (Hos. 1–3).

In the NT, the church becomes the bride of Christ, both in Paul’s letters and in the book of Revelation (Rev. 21:2, 9; 22:17). Paul compares the church to a bride expressly in Eph. 5, where the love of Christ for his church sets an example for ordinary husbands: they must love their wives “as Christ loved the church,” that is, sacrificially (v. 25). In Revelation the church adorns herself with righteous acts for the sake of Christ, her groom (19:6). Further along in Revelation, the new Jerusalem itself becomes the “bride” of Christ, inhabited by his saved people, the church (21:9–10).

Greek vase depicting a bride and groom

The “bride” metaphor communicates powerfully in these contexts because of the duties that ancient marriages presupposed. Husbands were to lead, protect, and provide for their wives, and God does this perfectly for his people. He leads them safely out of Egypt, through the wilderness, and on to victory in battle. They are blessed in faithfulness, and God is slow to anger in spite of their adultery against him. When his people need a savior, he provides the Bridegroom-Messiah, through whom he gives lasting forgiveness, peace, and rest. On the other hand, the church must honor her Savior-Husband, who finds in her obedience the greatest beauty.

Bride-Price   See Dowry.

Bridle   See Bit and Bridle.

Brier   Being prickly and hardy, this plant carries negative connotations such as torment (Judg. 8:7; John 19:2), vexing enemies (Isa. 27:4; Ezek. 28:24), and judgment (Isa. 5:6; 7:23–25). It is also planted as a hedge for protection (Isa. 5:5).

Brimstone   See Sulfur.

Broad Place   See Spacious Place.

Broad Wall   In Neh. 3:8; 12:38, a section of the rebuilt Jerusalem city wall is called the “Broad Wall.” The name is now also used for the twenty-three-foot wide, eighth-century BC wall apparently constructed by Hezekiah (2 Chron. 32:2–5; Isa. 22:10), excavated in the 1970s.

Broidered   See Needlework.

Bronze Sea   See Molten Sea.

Bronze Serpent   An early, tangible reminder of the goodness of God in rescuing his people from their sins (NIV: “bronze snake”). During the wilderness wanderings, the land of Edom lay in the path of the Israelites. The Israelites requested permission to pass through Edom, which the Edomites strongly denied (Num. 20:14–21). Forced to circle around Edom and head far out of their way, the Israelites began to complain yet again (Num. 21:4–5; see also Exod. 15:22–24; 16:1–3; 17:1–7). God responded by sending venomous snakes that killed many people (Num. 21:6). When the people admitted their sin and asked Moses to pray to God on their behalf, God commanded Moses to do a strange thing: he was to make a snake and put it on a pole. “Then when anyone was bitten by a snake and looked at the bronze snake, they lived” (21:9).

Bronze serpent found in a Midianite temple

This seemingly insignificant and bizarre episode in Israelite history resurfaces twice in the Bible. The good king Hezekiah destroyed the bronze serpent during his purification of the land of Judah from idolatrous worship. The writer of Kings explains that the serpent, which had come to be called “Nehushtan,” had itself become an idol, as the Israelites had been burning incense to it (2 Kings 18:4). Jesus also makes mention of the bronze serpent in his famous dialogue with Nicodemus. In speaking of his impending death, Jesus explains to Nicodemus that he, the Son of Man, must be lifted up from the earth, “just as Moses lifted up the snake in the desert” (John 3:14). Those who believe in Jesus will have eternal life because of his being lifted up—that is, crucified (see John 12:32–34). Jesus’ reference to the bronze serpent emphasizes the simplicity of salvation through Christ. Just as the Israelites needed only to look to the bronze serpent, trusting in God’s provision for their salvation from physical death, so also those who are dying in their sins need only look to the perfect sacrifice of Jesus Christ, trusting in God’s provision for their salvation from spiritual death.

Brooch   An ornamental or functional piece of jewelry that could act as a clasp to fasten garments. Golden brooches were among the offerings brought by the Israelites to be melted down and used for the tabernacle ornaments (Exod. 35:22). Later versions were made in bronze and iron and had both sprung and hinged pins.

Brook of Egypt   See Wadi of Egypt.

Brook of the Arabah   See Valley of the Arabah.

Brook of the Willows   See Ravine of the Poplars.

Brook of Zered   See Zered Valley.

Broom Bush, Broom Tree   A bush shrub (KJV: “juniper”; NIV: “broom bush”; NKJV, RSV: “broom tree”) commonly found in the arid regions of Egypt, Palestine, and Arabia. Growing up to ten feet, it provides shade in the scorching desert (1 Kings 19:4–6). Its exceedingly long roots, which reach down to groundwater sources, are used to make charcoal (Ps. 120:4). In Job 30:4 the deplorable living situation of the poor is described in terms of feeding on its inedible roots.

Brotherly Love   A kind of love described in the NT. The Greek word for this kind of love is philadelphia, from which the city by that name was taken. Some English versions translate this word as “brotherly kindness” or “brotherly affection” to help distinguish it from the other primary word for “love” used in the NT, agapē.

The word philadelphia is composed of two parts: the first is one of the Greek words for “love” ( philia), and the second part refers to the idea of a sibling (adelphē, adelphos). Each of these two parts helps us understand this concept. Sometimes this word for “love” is seen as a lesser kind of love than what the Bible describes as agapē love, but this is an oversimplification. The two words can function as synonyms, both involving strong positive commitments of devotion to another person(s).

The “brotherly” component could refer to a male sibling, but particularly in the plural was used of siblings of either gender (i.e., both brothers and sisters). To bring out this point, some English versions render philadelphia as “mutual love/affection” (NRSV). Especially with the emergence of the NT church as a family (Gal. 6:10) composed of those who are God’s children (and thus brothers and sisters of each other), this expression took on a whole new meaning. “Brotherly love” began to be used to refer to the family-like devotion among fellow believers that should characterize the Christian community. Brotherly love soon became one of the hallmarks of the early Christians, whereby even their enemies were often forced to admit, “Behold how they love one another” (cited by Tertullian, Apol. 39.7).

Paul instructs the church at Rome to “love one another with brotherly affection” (Rom. 12:10 ESV) as a part of his description of the Christian life. He recognizes the supernatural origin of this new love among believers (“You yourselves have been taught by God to love each other”), compliments them on their success in this area, and yet appeals to them to continue to “do so more and more” (1 Thess. 4:9–10). The author of the book of Hebrews, writing to a church that was already counting the cost of persecution and was even then being tempted to give up the Christian faith, says simply, “Keep on loving one another as brothers and sisters” (13:1). Peter addresses this same topic (again to a persecuted church), admonishing them to “love one another deeply, from the heart,” but also reminds them how this love needs to be built on a response of the will to the truth of the gospel and to flow from a right heart (or “purified”) attitude (1 Pet. 1:22). Peter also offers still another appeal to press on in this area when he says, “Finally, all of you, have unity of mind, sympathy, brotherly love, a tender heart, and a humble mind” (3:8 ESV).

The most significant usage of philadelphia is as the penultimate virtue in the list of eight virtues in 2 Pet. 1:5–7: faith, goodness, knowledge, self-control, perseverance, godliness, brotherly kindness, and love. Here brotherly love needs to be built on the foundation of faith, goodness, knowledge, and so on, and at the same time be seen as a stepping-stone leading toward the still higher ultimate goal of agapē love. Brotherly love thus involves a life of faith whereby we learn to demonstrate our love for God by ministering to the needs of the specific fellow believers whom God brings into our lives. Brotherly love is not all that is involved in the second great commandment of loving one’s neighbor as oneself, but it is a key component. As Paul says, we are to “do good to all people, especially to those who belong to the family of believers” (Gal. 6:10).

Brothers   

BROTHERHOOD AND ISRAELITE IDENTITY

Ancient Israelite society was fundamentally organized along the lines of kinship and family. As a result, relations among brothers figure prominently in the biblical construction of Israelite identity, which is conceptualized through a series of fraternal relationships, often rife with conflict: Isaac and Ishmael; Jacob and Esau; and the twelve sons of Jacob, among whom the relationship between Joseph and his brothers is pivotal in the history of Israel. Long after the lifetimes of the patriarchs, the Israelites continued to understand the structure of their society and the relationships between its constituent tribes as a complex of fraternal relationships. The patriarchal stories of Genesis were a mirror of later social and political realities. If the sibling rivalries of antiquity explained competition between later social groups, the memory of the brotherhood of those groups also provided a basis for solidarity both within Israel (“You may not put a foreigner over you, who is not your brother” [Deut. 17:15 ESV]) and with near neighbors (“You shall not abhor an Edomite, for he is your brother” [Deut. 23:7 ESV]). Similarly, the fraternal relationship between Moses and Aaron endured in later Israelite society as a model for synthesizing distinct strands of the religion into a coherent whole.

For later Israelite readers of the Bible, the brotherly relationships of Genesis and Exodus were not simply stories about dead ancestors; rather, they provided a compelling account of the organization of Israelite society as they knew it (see Zech. 11:14) and of the relationship between Israel and its neighbors, several of which were descended from the brothers of the Israelite patriarchs (see Ps. 83:6; Amos 1:11; Obad. 10; Mal. 1:2–4). Even though Hiram and Solomon did not trace their relationship back to a common ancestor, they extended the language of the brother alliance to their own (1 Kings 9:12–13).

Biblical literature cultivates a predilection for the underdog, elevating a long series of younger, disadvantaged brothers: the heroes of Israel included Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Gideon (Judg. 6:15), and David (1 Sam. 16:11).

The brother’s wife represented a special case. Sexual relations with a brother’s wife were strictly forbidden (Lev. 18:16; 20:21; see also Mark 6:18), but under certain circumstances one was compelled to marry a brother’s widow (Deut. 25:5–9; see variations of this practice in Gen. 38:8; Ruth 4:5–6). This custom underlay a question that Jesus was asked concerning seven brothers, each of whom died, repeatedly widowing the same woman (Matt. 22:24; Mark 6:17; Luke 14:26).

BROTHERS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

Among Jesus’ twelve disciples were several pairs of brothers, including Peter and Andrew (Mark 1:16 pars.) and James and John the sons of Zebedee (Mark 1:19). Jesus himself had brothers (Mark 3:31–35; John 7:3–5; Acts 1:14), including James, Joseph, Simon, and Judas (Mark 6:3; see also Gal. 1:19).

In addition to the story of seven brothers mentioned above, several of Jesus’ teachings drew illustrations from the relationship of brothers, including the stories of the prodigal son (Luke 15:11–32) and of the rich man and Lazarus (see Luke 16:28). Jesus singled out the belittling of a brother as a particularly heinous sin (Matt. 5:22). In the Sermon on the Mount and elsewhere, “brother” stands not only for a literal brother but also more generally for one’s fellow human.

In light of the OT conception of Israel as a nation of brothers (see Deut. 17:15 and the discussion above), it is not surprising that Jesus and the NT authors adopted the language of brotherhood to describe the Christian community. The “brotherhood of believers” (1 Pet. 2:17 NIV 1984) derives from the common brotherhood of Christians with Christ himself. Brotherhood with Christ depends not on physical descent but on a shared commitment to obedience to God (Matt. 12:50; 23:8), and this loyalty is deeper than that of the literal family, such that it can turn “brother against brother” (Mark 13:12).

The predominant form of address in the NT Epistles is “brothers,” and in Acts the Christians are most commonly designated as “the brothers.” Paul also refers to fellow Jews, including non-Christians, as his “brothers” (Acts 22:1; Rom. 9:3 ESV). See also Brotherly Love.

Brothers and Sisters, Jesus’   Jesus’ brothers are mentioned several times in the Gospels, Acts, and the Pauline Epistles. In Mark 6:3 (see also Matt. 13:55–56) four brothers are named, and sisters are mentioned, though the name or number of sisters is not given. The people of Nazareth are offended by Jesus’ preaching in the synagogue and express surprise that Jesus, given the dramatic claims that he has made about himself in his sermon there (see Luke 4:16–30), is the son and brother of local villagers (Mary and her sons James, Joses [named “Joseph” in Matthew], Judas, and Simon). In the crucifixion scene in Mark, one of the women present is identified as “Mary the mother of James the younger and of Joseph [NIV mg.: “Greek Joses”]” (Mark 15:40). It is unlikely, however, that this is Jesus’ mother and brothers, since it would be strange to identify Mary as the mother of these two lesser-known siblings rather than of Jesus himself.

In Mark 3:32–35 Jesus redefines what it means to be his brother, sister, or mother in the kingdom of God in response to being notified that his earthly mother and brothers, who at this point in time did not understand his mission (see 3:21), are waiting for him outside the house in Capernaum. Although Mary and Jesus’ brothers appear to have traveled around Galilee with him (see John 2:12), John’s Gospel makes explicit the brothers’ unbelief (7:2–10), which is only implicit in Matthew and Mark. Acts 1:14 shows the dramatic reversal that has taken place in the response to Jesus by his brothers after the resurrection. Mary and Jesus’ brothers are gathered together with the entire body of Jesus’ disciples in prayer, fellowship, and teaching.

James (apparently Jesus’ oldest sibling) became a key leader in the Jerusalem church (Acts 12:17; 21:18) and pronounced the decision at the Jerusalem council (Acts 15:13). He is also traditionally identified as the author of the NT letter that bears his name (James 1:1). Another NT letter may also have been penned by a brother of Jesus, since Jude identifies himself as “a brother of James” (Jude 1), a probable reference to this same James.

In 1 Cor. 9:5 Paul argues (through a rhetorical question) that Christian missionaries have the right to take “a believing wife” along with them in their work, just as the other apostles and Jesus’ brothers had done. Finally, while recounting his first trip to Jerusalem after his conversion, Paul mentions a meeting with James, “the Lord’s brother” (Gal. 1:19).

According to the Jewish historian Josephus, Jesus’ brother James died a martyr’s death at the hands of the Jewish high priest Ananus (Ant. 20.197–200).

Brown   Not one of the common colors of the Bible and rare as a way of description. The color may occur once to describe horses (Zech. 1:8), although some translations use “sorrel” (NRSV, NASB) or “speckled” (KJV). See also Colors.

Bubastis   The Greek name for a city in the delta region of Egypt, about fifty miles northeast of Cairo. Known in modern Egypt as Tell Basta, the name originates from the hieroglyphic Per-Bast, meaning “house of Bastet.” The city was the center of worship for the Egyptian cat-goddess Bastet, who became associated with Artemis and whose cult had developed into a popular and joyous festival for Egyptians and foreigners by the fifth century BC. The sole biblical reference is Ezek. 30:17, where Bubastis (NRSV: “Pi-beseth”; KJV: “Pibeseth”) is named in a judgment oracle against Egypt.

Bucket   A vessel made of animal skin used to draw water from a well or cistern. Two sticks used as crosspieces held the top of the vessel open (Num. 24:7; Isa. 40:15). Similar vessels are still used in Palestine today.

Buckler   A round shield held by a grip, sometimes with straps for the arm. The Hebrew word (magen) is usually translated “shield” in the NIV. “Buckler” appears eleven times in the KJV and occasionally in other versions (RSV, ESV, NRSV, NASB, etc.).

Bud   An ornamental object, probably part of a flower, on the lampstand in the tabernacle (Exod. 25:31–36 [KJV: “knop”; NKJV: “knob”; RSV: “capital”; NASB: “bulb”; NRSV, JPS, NJB: “calyx”]). Some scholars think that the bud (Heb. kaptor) resembled the fruit of the almond tree.

Bugle   A trumpetlike instrument with no valves to control pitch. It appears in some translations of 1 Cor. 14:8 as an instrument used to communicate on the battlefield (NRSV, NASB; NIV: “trumpet”).

Bukki   (1) A tribal leader of Dan assigned to help in the allotment of Canaan under the direction of Joshua and Eleazar (Num. 34:22). (2) Son of the Levite Abishua, a descendant of Aaron through the line of Eleazar (1 Chron. 6:5, 51). Bukki and his son, Uzzi, are also mentioned in the lineage of Ezra (Ezra 7:4).

Bukkiah   The first of fourteen sons of Heman, Levites designated by King David for religious service as musicians, also considered a prophetic role (1 Chron. 25:1, 4). Bukkiah and his sons drew the sixth of twenty-four lots, designating their duties (25:8, 13).

Bul   The Hebrew word bul has several nuances in the Bible, all of which might be related. In 1 Kings 6:38 “Bul” is a month. In Isa. 44:19 bul refers to part of a log that becomes an object of worship, an “abomination,” an idol. “Bul” corresponds to “Bel” and “Baal” as a divine appellation. Job 40:20, in describing Behemoth, states that the mountains provide the beast with bul. Although English versions translate this as “food,” perhaps it is another reference to an idol, with Behemoth being a symbol for wayward humanity.

Bull   An uncastrated male bovine. The bull was an important symbol of the divine in Canaanite religion, and the infamous “golden calves” that were worshiped by the Israelites at Mount Sinai and then at Dan and Bethel were manifestations of this theology (see Ps. 106:20). In Ugaritic religion the god El was associated with the bull, and the god Baal with a bull calf. A cult stand found at the Israelite site of Ta’anach features a bull, possibly in connection with the worship of Yahweh, of the type condemned in the Bible. Although the Bible generally condemns the use of the bull as a depiction of the God of Israel, bull images were featured in the furnishings of Solomon’s temple, including the twelve metal bulls that supported the Sea (1 Kings 7:25). Ahaz later sent these valuable objects as tribute to the king of Assyria (2 Kings 16:17).

Bulls were used in several important sacrifices, including in the consecration of priests (Exod. 29:1–37), the sin offering (Lev. 4:3), the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:3), and the festivals of Weeks (Lev. 23:18), New Year (Lev. 28:11), Passover (Lev. 28:19), First Fruits (Lev. 28:27), and Booths (Lev. 29:13).

Bulls are powerful and dangerous animals (Ps. 22:12), and Israelite and Mesopotamian law codes mandated penalties for the owner of a bull that had harmed a person (Exod. 21:28–32) or another animal (Exod. 21:35–36).

Bulrush   See Reed.

Bulwark   See Fort, Fortification.

Bunah   The second son of Jerahmeel, a descendant of Hezron of Judah (1 Chron. 2:25).

Bundle   See Bag.

Bunni   The name “Bunni” is similar to several other Hebrew names derived from “Benaiah.” (1) One of the “leaders of the people” who sealed the covenant with God following Ezra’s public reading of the law (Neh. 10:15). (2) One of those who participated in a public act of repentance as part of the postexilic covenant renewal (Neh. 9:4). (3) One of those named in a Levite genealogy (Neh. 11:15), several generations before the events narrated.

Burial   Burial can refer to the ritual, body preparation, or interment.

Burial rites. Genesis in particular uses some formulaic phrases: “died and was gathered to his people” and “rest with [one’s] fathers/ancestors” (25:8; 35:29; 47:30; 49:33; cf. Job 14:10). In Abraham’s death (Gen. 25:8), this “gathering” does not refer to his actual burial, since it occurs between his death and burial; nor was Abraham ever buried with his ancestors (cf. Num. 20:26 [Aaron]; Deut. 32:50 [Moses]). This idiom refers to joining one’s ancestors in the realm of the dead. With communal notions, the phrase also refers to elements of family burial (similarly, “gathered to your people” [Num. 27:13]; “gathered to their ancestors” [Judg. 2:10]).

In Jacob’s obituary he “gathered up” his feet and then was “gathered” to his people (Gen. 49:33 KJV), rich imagery because he had “gathered” his sons (cf. 49:1). This expression is also used of depositing the human remains in a collective family burial site (Judg. 2:10; 2 Kings 22:20; cf. Jer. 25:33).

In the genealogically sensitive books of Kings and Chronicles a formula is used for the kings: “X rested with his ancestors and was buried in Y.” Here, “Y” can denote a place such as the City of David (1 Kings 2:10; 11:43; 14:31; 2 Chron. 16:13–14). Authors depart from this formula in order to describe a person’s desecration, such as Jezebel; the dogs consumed her except for her skull, hands, and feet (2 Kings 9:37; cf. 1 Kings 21:23–24).

Jacob and Joseph receive specialized Egyptian embalming. Embalming preserved a more holistic persona through use of special fluids and wrappings for seventy days (Gen. 50:2–3, 26). Death usually required immediate burial, even for criminals (Deut. 21:1–9, 22–23; 1 Kings 13:24–30). Outside Israel, the inclusion of grave utensils (e.g., juglets, cooking pots, bowls, and jewelry) with the deceased was indicative of a person’s status and needs in the afterlife. The OT prophets forbade certain practices of mourning such as self-mutilation (Lev. 21:1–6; cf. Amos 6:6–7).

In the NT, burial could include treatment with spices for odorific and purification reasons (Luke 23:56; John 19:40). Placed on a bench (mishkab, “resting place”), the body was covered in wrappings and a special facecloth (John 11:44). Familial respect required demonstration of grief with laments (Acts 8:2; cf. 1 Kings 13:29–30; Jer. 9:17–22).

Specific locations. In the OT, burial occurred in cemeteries, shaft tombs, rock-hewn tombs, or natural caves. The wealthy procured burial sites for their posterity (Gen. 23:3–20). Middle and Late Bronze Age (2200–1200 BC) examples have been excavated at Jericho, Gibeon, and Hazor. In a process known as secondary burial, older remains were moved to a repository in the rear of the cave to clear room for a new corpse (cf. Matt. 8:21–22). Only Rachel was not buried in the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 35:19–20). Her “stone pillar” may be a rock cairn, in which the body is interred beneath a mound of stones. Well-known landmarks, such as trees, identified the graves of others (Gen. 35:8 [Deborah]; 1 Sam. 31:11–13 [Saul]).

Iron Age I sites (1200–1000 BC) could mark tribal territories (Judg. 8:32), like Joseph’s bones at Shechem (Josh. 24:32). Iron Age II sites (1000–586 BC) show the royal tombs of kings in their capitals or ancestral areas, be it a special garden or Samaria (2 Kings 21:18, 26; 13:13). An inscription was found along the Kidron naming the owner, Shebna (Isa. 22:15–16). Such tombs often included a charnel pit. Here, older bones were placed as more recent corpses were laid out on the bench above the pit. The poor usually were consigned to public cemeteries. The Hellenistic period (332–53 BC) saw the use of shaft tombs. With a sloping entry into a burial chamber, a shaft tomb often contained perpendicular niches (kokhim) for individual bodies. These tombs were common along the coastal plain and sites such as Dor, Gezer, and Lachish.

In the intertestamental period, elaborate structures, arcosolia, were built above or adjacent to the entry, such as Jason’s tomb in southwestern Jerusalem. The loculus was a second type with a central chamber and three sprawling kokhim. The Herodian period employed a strategic entrance guarded with a rolling stone four to five feet in diameter, like that used for Jesus. During the Roman period (37 BC–AD 367), stone sarcophagi (lit., “flesh eaters”) were used, and such have been excavated at Beth She’arim and Jerusalem. Later, bones were placed in ossuaries (boxes for bones) after the corpse had decayed in the burial niche.

Ancient Israelite bone box (ossuary) found near Jerusalem

Burning Bush   Moses’ encounter with God at the burning bush was the first step in God’s plan to bring his people, Israel, out of slavery. During Moses’ time of alienation from Egypt (Exod. 2:11–15), the angel of the Lord manifested himself to Moses on Mount Horeb (Sinai) from a bush that was on fire but not being consumed. From within the bush, God spoke to Moses and ordered him to lead the Israelites out from Egypt. God further explained that his name is “I AM WHO I AM” (3:1–14). This incident forms the backdrop for the Jews’ anger at Jesus in John 8:59: Jesus’ reference to himself as “I am” (8:58) was an allusion to the encounter at the burning bush and thus a claim to be God.

Burning Sulfur   See Sulfur.

Bushel   See Weights and Measures.

Butler   The KJV and RSV rendering of the Hebrew word mashqeh, the term for Pharaoh’s cupbearer (as in most modern versions), who, along with Pharaoh’s baker, was imprisoned by Pharaoh, during which time they were attended by Joseph (see Gen. 40). See also Cupbearer.

Buz   (1) Son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, and his wife, Milkah (Gen. 22:21). (2) The Gadite father of Jahdo (1 Chron. 5:14). (3) An Arabian land condemned by Jeremiah and given to drink the “cup of God’s wrath” (Jer. 25:23).

Buzi   The father of Ezekiel (Ezek. 1:3). His name is associated with the land of Buz, a country in east Arabia.

Buzite   A person from the east Arabian country Buz. Elihu was the son of Barakel the Buzite (Job 32:2, 6).

Buzzard   The Bible mentions many birds of prey (e.g., in Lev. 11:13–19; Deut. 14:11–18, as unclean), but it is difficult to distinguish the species. The NIV does not use “buzzard,” but other English versions use it to render various Hebrew words.

Byblos   An ancient Phoenician city, also known as Gebal (modern Jbeil or Jubayl), situated on a promontory of the foothills of Lebanon, about forty miles north of Sidon. Its historical significance as an international trade hub connecting Egypt, Greece, and Syria-Palestine has been demonstrated by ample evidence. One famous Egyptian tale (Wen-Amon) describes Byblos as the most powerful port and the main exporter of cedar wood to Egypt. Later, Byblos became a major distribution center for the Egyptian papyrus trade and supplied writing materials to the Greek world (thus the Greek name “Byblos,” or “book,” from which the English word “Bible” derives).

Byblos is mentioned in Josh. 13:5 as part of the land still unconquered. The men of Byblos aided the construction of the Solomonic temple (1 Kings 5:18). In an oracle against Tyre, Ezekiel mentions the men of Byblos as skillful shipbuilders (Ezek. 27:9). Byblos, or Gebal (ESV, NRSV, KJV), in Ps. 83:7 has been taken to denote a different place near Petra, southeast of the Dead Sea (based on statements from Eusebius and Josephus), but it is better understood as referring to the Phoenician city.

Byword   A traditional or popular saying used to show scorn. It can be used as a taunt or as a preeminent example of something bad, something that has come to ruin (1 Kings 9:7; Joel 2:17).