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Naam   A son of Caleb the son of Jephunneh, he belonged to the tribe of Judah and was listed in Judah’s genealogy (1 Chron. 4:15).

Naamah   (1) The daughter of Lamech and Zillah and the sister of Tubal-Cain, the bronze and ironworker mentioned in Cain’s genealogy (Gen. 4:22). (2) The mother of King Rehoboam of Judah and therefore one of Solomon’s many wives. The texts list her as an Ammonite (1 Kings 14:21, 31; 2 Chron. 12:13). (3) A town located in the lowlands of Judah near Lachish, it was in the allotment of the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:41).

Naaman   (1) A grandson of Benjamin and the founder of the Naamites (Num. 26:40; 1 Chron. 8:4; see Gen. 46:21). (2) A Syrian military commander healed of leprosy after reluctantly following Elisha’s command to dip himself seven times in the Jordan River (2 Kings 5). Jesus referred to Naaman as a model of faith (Luke 4:27). (3) A descendant of the Benjamite Ehud, he was a family head (1 Chron. 8:6–7).

Relief of a Syrian warrior (Hadatu, Syria, ninth century BC). Naaman was a Syrian military commander (2 Kings 5).

Naamathite   The tribal affiliation of Zophar, one of Job’s three friends (Job 2:11; 11:1; 20:1; 42:9), best identified with the Sabean tribe of the same name in southern Arabia.

Naamites   A clan descended from Naaman from the tribe of Benjamin, present at the time of the second wilderness census (Num. 26:40).

Naarah   (1) One of the two wives of Asshur, the father of Tekoa; she bore him four sons (1 Chron. 4:5–6). (2) A city near Jericho, on the border of Ephraim (Josh. 16:7 [KJV: “Naarath”]), probably the same city as Naaran (1 Chron. 7:28). It is usually identified with Tel el-Jisr.

Naarai   One of David’s elite warriors, a son of Ezbal (1 Chron. 11:37). He is known as Paarai in 2 Sam. 23:35.

Naaran, Naarath   See Naarah.

Naashon   See Nahshon.

Nabajoth   See Nebaioth.

Nabal   A wealthy landowner in Carmel, Nabal, gruff and hard, was married to the beautiful and intelligent Abigail. Nabal treated David contemptuously, even though David had protected Nabal’s shepherds and possessions. Abigail interceded to keep David from avenging the insult. When Nabal heard, he apparently died of shock, so David took the virtuous Abigail as his wife (1 Sam. 25:2–42).

Nabateans   A Semitic people group inhabiting territory south of the Dead Sea, bordering Judea. The terrain and climate forced them to become experts in water control in agriculture. The probable first mention of this group is from 312 BC in conjunction with Antigonus, who oppressed the Nabatean capital, Petra. The book of 2 Maccabees chronicles the kings of the Nabateans (Arabians) and references Aretas I (2 Macc. 5:8). In 40 BC Herod the Great, whose mother was Nabatean, escaped to Petra because the Parthians attacked Jerusalem. Later, Herod Antipas married the daughter of Aretas IV but subsequently divorced her to marry Herodias. It is this Aretas IV whom Paul references when he describes his escape over the wall in a basket in Damascus (2 Cor. 11:32).

Coin of Aretas IV, king of the Nabateans (c. 9 BC–AD 40)

Nabonidus   The last king of Babylon (r. 555–539 BC), Nabonidus was a devoted worshiper of the moon god Sin, which angered the priests of Marduk, chief god of Babylon. He spent ten years in Teima, leaving his son Belshazzar as acting regent in Babylon. Nabonidus is not mentioned in the Bible.

Nabopolassar   Nabopolassar was a Chaldean who established the Neo-Babylonian Empire, which lasted until Babylon’s fall in 539 BC. He began his revolt against Assyria in 626 BC. When the Medes attacked the Assyrian city Assur in 615 BC, Nabopolassar assisted at the end. A coalition continued over several years, defeating Assyria’s capitals as it retreated west. Assyria turned to Egypt’s Pharaoh Necho for help. Necho took Gaza, battled Josiah at Megiddo (2 Kings 23:29–30), and advanced to Carchemish. Nabopolassar’s son, Nebuchadnezzar, defeated Egypt in 605 BC, the same year Nabopolassar died.

Naboth   A Jezreelite of Samaria, he owned a vineyard near the palace of King Ahab in Jezreel. Since Ahab desired to have this vineyard, he asked Naboth to sell or trade it. Naboth refused, in keeping with the law of inheritance (Lev. 25:23). The sullen Ahab reported this to his wife, Jezebel, who succeeded in having Naboth killed by the slander of false witnesses. After Naboth’s death, Ahab took possession of the vineyard. The prophet Elijah predicted the judgment of Ahab and Jezebel for this action, the fulfillment of which came as Ahab’s blood was licked by dogs in Jezreel, as Ahab’s descendant Joram was left for dead in this same vineyard (2 Kings 9:22–26), and as Jezebel met a violent end so that the dogs licked her blood (2 Kings 9:33–37).

Nachon   See Nakon.

Nachor   See Nahor.

Nacon   See Nakon.

Nadab   (1) The firstborn son of Aaron (Exod. 6:23). He served in the priesthood with his father and his brother Abihu (Exod. 24:1). Leviticus 10 notes that Nadab and Abihu offered forbidden fire with the incense. God subsequently destroyed them with fire. Since Nadab and Abihu had no sons, Eleazar and Ithamar, the other two sons of Aaron, served in their stead (1 Chron. 24:1–2). (2) The son of Jeroboam, he became king of Israel upon his father’s death in the second year of King Asa of Judah (1 Kings 14:20; 15:25). Nadab did evil, as did his father, in his two-year reign. Baasha of the tribe of Issachar assassinated him and reigned in his stead (1 Kings 15:25–28). (3) A son of Shammai and the father of Seled and Appaim (1 Chron. 2:28–30), from the tribe of Judah. (4) A son of Jeiel, his brother Ner was the grandfather of King Saul (1 Chron. 8:29–33).

Naggai   An otherwise unknown postexilic ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:25 (KJV: “Nagge”) as the son of Maath and the father of Esli.

Nag Hammadi   A town in Egypt near the location of a 1945 archaeological discovery in which numerous gnostic Christian texts were found, including works such as the Gospel of Thomas, the Apocryphon of James, the Gospel of Truth, the Gospel of Philip, the Dialogue of the Savior, the Apocalypse of Peter, and many others. Nag Hammadi is located over three hundred miles south of Cairo along the Nile River. A group of Egyptian peasants found thirteen papyrus manuscripts at the base of a cliff, and they contained a total of over fifty different works. Nearly all of these writings are gnostic Christian in nature, though a few, such as Plato’s Republic, are not. The manuscripts, dated to the fourth century AD, are written in Coptic (an Egyptian language, written using an adapted Greek alphabet) and are in codex (book) form. They are currently housed in the Coptic Museum in Cairo.

GNOSTICISM

Commonly referred to as the Nag Hammadi Library, this group of texts has shed a great deal of light on the early Christian gnostic movements that were present during the second through fourth centuries AD and beyond. While some early church fathers provided commentary and criticism of gnosticism in their own works, the Nag Hammadi discovery has provided the opportunity to see firsthand the writings and thought of this movement, which was branded heretical by many of the earliest Christian leaders.

The term “gnosticism” derives from the Greek word for “knowledge” (gnōsis). Gnostics, then, were those who placed an emphasis on knowledge, often of a secret or hidden nature. Saving knowledge, according to gnostic belief systems, comes by revelation from a transcendent realm. This revelation typically is available through a revealer who comes to show people the true knowledge of God and self, the two of which are often intertwined, since gnostics consider the true self to be of divine origin. Salvation of the self includes returning to the divine world from which it came. Therefore, in Christian versions of gnosticism Jesus is portrayed as the revealer of this hidden knowledge needed for salvation, the returning of the self to its divine origin. The gnostic movement was not confined to Christianity, as gnostics quite often adapted their myths to make them compatible with other religions with which they came into contact.

THE GOSPEL OF THOMAS

Among the writings found at Nag Hammadi, the Gospel of Thomas is the best known. It contains a collection of 114 sayings attributed to Jesus. Unlike the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Thomas contains no narrative material; Jesus performs no miracles or healings, none of his travels are described, and there is no passion or resurrection story. Instead, it contains only a list of Jesus’ sayings, with the occasional reply or question from his disciples. This has led some to conclude that the Gospel of Thomas is similar in genre to the hypothetical Q document, which may have been a source for the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. However, even Q allegedly includes some narrative material (e.g., Matt. 4:1–11 // Luke 4:1–13; Matt. 8:5–13 // Luke 7:1–10).

Many of the sayings in the Gospel of Thomas have parallels in the NT Gospels, including the following:

Jesus said, “Often you have desired to hear these sayings that I am speaking to you, and you have no one else from whom to hear them. There will be days when you will seek me and you will not find me.” (Gos. Thom. 38; cf. John 7:32–36)

Jesus said, “Whoever blasphemes against the Father will be forgiven, and whoever blasphemes against the Son will be forgiven, but whoever blasphemes against the Holy Spirit will not be forgiven, either on earth or in heaven.” (Gos. Thom. 44; cf. Matt. 12:31–32; Mark 3:28–30; Luke 12:10)

Jesus said, “Show me the stone which the builders have rejected. That one is the cornerstone.” (Gos. Thom. 66; cf. Mark 12:10–11)

Because of these similarities, the question has arisen concerning the relationship between the Gospel of Thomas and the NT Gospels. Some have suggested that, in fact, the Gospel of Thomas is the earliest of all the Gospels. This claim has been rejected by the overwhelming majority of scholars, who have instead concluded that the Gospel of Thomas reflects a later development of the sayings of Jesus that have been largely shaped out of a desire to reflect gnostic ideas. The strong gnostic theology prevalent in the Gospel of Thomas is on display in, for example, sayings 83 and 84:

Jesus said, “Images are visible to people, but the light within them is hidden in the image of the Father’s light. He will be disclosed, but his image is hidden by his light.”

Jesus said, “When you see your likeness, you are happy. But when you see your images that came into being before you and that neither die nor become visible, how much you will have to bear!” (Gos. Thom. 83–84)

APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS AND APOCALYPSES

Other apocryphal Gospels are among the works found at Nag Hammadi. The Gospel of Truth is not of the Gospel genre per se, but rather its title reflects the text’s claim to be telling the “good news” of the salvific work of Jesus, albeit from the perspective of early gnosticism. The Gospel of Philip is concerned primarily with the issue of sacraments within a gnostic understanding of human existence after physical death. In the Gospel of Mary there is a dialogue between the risen Jesus and his disciples, which is followed by Mary Magdalene receiving a special revelation from the Savior.

In addition to Gospels, the Nag Hammadi texts include several apocalypses, including the Apocalypse of Paul, the First Apocalypse of James and the Second Apocalypse of James, the Apocalypse of Adam, and the Apocalypse of Peter. These generally purport to give an account of a revelation seen by a well-known figure, especially an apostle (e.g., Peter, James, Paul). None of these works are considered to be accounts of the actual apostles; rather, they were written pseudonymously.

Nahalal   A Levitical city, one of four given to the Levites from the tribal allotment of Zebulun (Josh. 21:35). Nahalal also appears in Josh. 19:15, where it is listed as a city located within Zebulun’s allotted boundaries, and in Judg. 1:30, which states that Zebulun failed to remove the Canaanite occupants of the city. Possible site locations include Tell el-Beida, which sits on the Esdraelon Plain, and Tell en-Nahl, which is on the Acco Plain. Tell en-Nahl is generally the preferred location, although it is outside of Zebulun’s traditional boundaries.

Nahaliel   One of Israel’s stopping places across the Jordan prior to entering the promised land (Num. 21:19). Its name means “stream of El [God]” or “palm grove of El.” It has been identified with Wadi Wala, which flows into the Arnon River from the north, or with Wadi Zarqa Ma’in, which flows into the Dead Sea.

Naham   The brother of Hodiah’s wife, in the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 4:19).

Nahamani   A leader of the Jews who returned to Judah with Zerubabbel after the exile (Neh. 7:7).

Naharai   One of David’s thirty mighty warriors, he is described as a Beerothite and the armor-bearer of Joab (2 Sam. 23:37; 1 Chron. 11:39), the commander of David’s army.

Nahash   (1) The Ammonite king who attacked the Israelite city of Jabesh Gilead early in Saul’s reign and was subsequently defeated by the new Israelite king (1 Sam. 11). Nahash (lit., “snake”) advanced against Jabesh Gilead and demanded to humiliate Israel by gouging out the right eye of everyone in the city as a condition to end the siege. A copy of 1 Samuel from Qumran includes additional material also found in Josephus’s Antiquities. These versions also state that Nahash had already gouged out the right eye of all the Israelites in the region except for the seven thousand men in Jabesh Gilead. Fortunately for them, as all versions attest, Saul responded by raising an army and defeating Nahash and the Ammonites. The Nahash who is in league with David in later texts (2 Sam. 10:2; 17:27) may well be the same king. (2) The father of Abigal and Zeruiah (2 Sam. 17:25), (half-?)sisters to David (1 Chron. 2:13–16). Apparently, he died, and his widow married David’s father, Jesse.

Nahath   (1) A descendant of Esau through Reuel (Gen. 36:13; 1 Chron. 1:37). One of the clans of the Edomites derives its name from this Nahath (Gen. 36:17). (2) A Levite in the genealogy in 1 Chron. 6:26. He may be the same person as Toah (1 Chron. 6:34) and Tohu (1 Sam. 1:1). (3) A Levite overseer in the time of Hezekiah (2 Chron. 31:13).

Nahbi   A spy from the tribe of Naphtali, one of twelve sent by Moses to reconnoiter the promised land (Num. 13:14).

Nahor   (1) A descendant of Shem, he was the son of Serug, father of Terah, and grandfather of Abraham (Gen. 11:22–25). (2) The son of Terah and the brother of Abraham and Haran (Gen. 11:26). Nahor married Milkah, the daughter of his deceased brother, Haran (Gen. 11:28–32). When Abraham headed west for the land of Canaan (Gen. 12:1, 4), Nahor remained in the city of Harran. Through his wife, Milkah, Nahor fathered eight sons, and he fathered another four through his concubine, Reumah (Gen. 22:20–24). Bethuel, one of Nahor’s sons through Milkah, fathered Rebekah, who became the wife of Isaac, Abraham’s son (Gen. 24:15, 67). Relations between Nahor’s eastern branch of the family and Abraham’s western branch apparently ceased when Laban, Nahor’s grandson, had a falling out with Jacob, Abraham’s grandson, in which Laban called on the Lord (Abraham’s God) and on Nahor’s god to judge between the two parties (Gen. 31:53). (3) “The town of Nahor” is a town in northwest Mesopotamia, where Abraham’s servant encounters Rebekah at the well (Gen. 24:10). “Nahor” may be the name of the town, or the text is simply referring to the town where Nahor once lived (so GNT, NLT).

Nahshon   The son of Amminadab, the father of Salmon, and an ancestor of David and Jesus (Ruth 4:20; 1 Chron. 2:10–11; Matt. 1:4; Luke 3:32). He was a tribal leader for Judah in the exodus (Num. 2:3; 7:12–17; 10:14), a brother-in-law to Aaron (Exod. 6:23 [KJV: “Naashon”]), and an assistant in the census conducted by Moses and Aaron (Num. 1:7).

Nahum, Book of   The seventh of the Minor Prophets, Nahum is striking for its powerful poetry and its hard-hitting message. The prophet glories in God’s coming judgment on Assyria. After all, Assyria’s downfall will bring relief for Judah. Nahum’s focus on divine judgment on Assyria has raised the question of its continuing relevance for modern readers (see “New Testament Connections” below).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Nahum, like many prophetic books, opens with a superscription that includes an authorship attribution: “The book of the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite” (1:1b). Unfortunately, Nahum is unknown elsewhere in the Bible. Indeed, his hometown of Elkosh is not located with certainty and has been associated with sites in Mesopotamia near Nineveh, northern Israel, and Judah. The name “Nahum” in Hebrew means “compassion.” Although his words carry little compassion on the surface, his excitement about Assyria’s future defeat stems from the compassion that he feels for his own people.

Although little can be said about Nahum the person, more is known about the period in which he received his vision. The prophecy foresees the downfall of Assyria, in particular the city of Nineveh. Since Nineveh fell in 612 BC, the vision must be dated before that time. On the other side, 3:8–10 looks back on the fall of the Egyptian city of Thebes, which fell to the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in 664 BC. Thus, the book comes from the time between 664 and 612 BC. If 1:12 is read as indicating that Assyria has not yet visibly weakened, then the book should be dated before 630 BC.

ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The book speaks to events in the seventh century BC. Since at least the mid-eighth century BC, Assyria had been the dominant power in the Near East. Under the effective military leadership of Tiglath-pileser III (r. 744–727 BC), Shalmaneser V (r. 726–722), and Sargon II (r. 721–705 BC), the Assyrians incorporated Syria and the northern kingdom of Israel into their empire and subjected Judah to tribute payments. This policy continued under Sennacherib (r. 704–681 BC), Esarhaddon (r. 680–669 BC), and Ashurbanipal (r. 668–627). However, Ashurbanipal, though starting in a powerful position, found the empire beginning to weaken toward the end of his reign. It was likely during Ashurbanipal’s reign that Nahum wrote concerning Nineveh’s fall.

The fulfillment of this expectation came in the form of a resurgent Babylon under the leadership of Nabopolassar, a Chaldean chief who assumed the kingship of Babylon. He began his insurgency in 626 BC, but it was not until 612 BC that he, with the strong support of the Medes, took the city of Nineveh. A small contingent of Assyrians survived and tried to regroup in Harran, but they were completely defeated in 609 BC at Carchemish, despite help from Pharaoh Necho of Egypt.

An Assyrian relief depicting the siege of Lachish. Nahum predicts judgment against Assyria for its destruction of Israel.

LITERARY CONSIDERATIONS

The superscription uses three terms that help describe the genre: “book,” “vision,” and “oracle.” That the prophecy is a “book” points to the literary rather than oral origins of the work. While many prophetic books begin as sermons, Nahum has all the earmarks of a literary composition. That the prophecy is a “vision” not only underlines the future orientation of its message but also highlights the use of the event-vision form that talks about future events as if they are happening in the present (e.g., 2:3–10). The word translated “oracle” also points to the book’s future orientation. Since it occurs elsewhere as well as here in contexts that envision God’s actions as a warrior against foreign nations, the word may more precisely point to the book’s character as a “war oracle” or “oracle against a foreign nation.”

OUTLINE

I. Superscription (1:1)

II. Hymn to God the Divine Warrior (1:2–8)

III. The Divine Warrior Judges and Saves His People (1:9–2:2)

IV. The Vision of the Fall of Nineveh (2:3–10)

V. The Lion Taunt (2:11–13)

VI. Woe-Oracle against Nineveh (3:1–3)

VII. The Sorceress-Harlot Taunt (3:4–7)

VIII. Historical Taunt against Nineveh (3:8–10)

IX. Further Insults against Nineveh (3:11–15c)

X. Locust Taunt (3:15d–17)

XI. Concluding Dirge (3:18–19)

THEOLOGICAL MESSAGE

Nahum prophetically anticipates the fall of Nineveh. Historically, the city was defeated by a coalition of Babylonians and Medes. Nahum, however, understands that the real cause of Nineveh’s demise and Judah’s relief is none other than God. The book begins with a hymn that praises God as warrior who “takes vengeance on his foes” (1:2–8). The remainder of the book specifies that the warrior is coming against Nineveh.

NEW TESTAMENT CONNECTIONS

Nahum is never directly cited in the NT. Indeed, at first it may be hard to see the relevance of a book that is concerned with the fall of an ancient city. However, the NT also describes God as a warrior who fights against the forces of evil. Jesus Christ takes the battle against the “powers and authorities,” spiritual enemies. He wins this battle by dying on the cross (for an example of a text that uses military language in reference to the death of Christ, see Col. 2:13–15). Furthermore, the apocalyptic texts of the NT (see Rev. 19:11–21) anticipate the return of Christ as a warrior who will bring all evil to an end. The book of Nahum is a witness to God’s warfare against evil, which continues to the final victory at the end of the ages.

Nail   Several different Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek biblical words are translated into English as “nail.” First, there are the common fasteners that attach one item to another (Jer. 10:4), often made of iron to join pieces of wood (1 Chron. 22:3; Isa. 41:7), or even made of gold to overlay sheets of gold (2 Chron. 3:9). The writer of Ecclesiastes speaks metaphorically of wise sayings as “firmly embedded nails” (Eccles. 12:11). Roman soldiers fastened Jesus to the cross with nails (John 20:25). Second, there are pegs either driven into walls from which people hung items (Isa. 22:25; Ezek. 15:3) or used to anchor tents (Isa. 33:20). The tent pegs for the tabernacle were made of bronze (Exod. 27:19), and Jael used a tent peg to kill Sisera (Judg. 4:21–22). Isaiah speaks metaphorically of Eliakim as one whom God will drive “like a peg into a firm place” (Isa. 22:23). Finally, there are the nails of fingers (Dan. 4:33). Deuteronomy prescribes the trimming of nails as part of the purification process for Israelite men to marry captive women (Deut. 21:12).

Nain   Just north of Mount Moreh lies Nain; to the southwest was Shunem. When Jesus brought a widow’s son back to life, the crowd declared that a prophet had arisen (Luke 7:11–17), remembering Elisha’s restoration of the Shunammite woman’s son (2 Kings 4).

Naioth   A site in or near Ramah in the central hill country of Benjamin. The prophet Samuel lived in Ramah, approximately six miles north of Jerusalem. Samuel and David fled from Saul to “Naioth at Ramah,” perhaps a section of the town or a house of instruction in Ramah, or even a shepherds’ camp nearby where Samuel supervised a prophetic community (1 Sam. 19:18–20:1).

Naked   Refers to genitals and buttocks (Nah. 3:5) and, since Adam’s sin, is synonymous with shame. The image of God, originally created good, was damaged by sin and death.

Nakon   Located between Baalah of Judah (Kiriath Jearim) and Jerusalem, the “threshing floor of Nakon” is mentioned in the account of David’s transport of the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6:6). Here Uzzah reached out his hand to steady the ark and was struck dead by God for his irreverence. “Nakon” may be a place name or the name of the owner of the threshing floor. It is identified as the threshing floor of Kidon in the parallel account in Chronicles (1 Chron. 13:9).

Names of God   The names of God given in the Bible are an important means of revelation about his character and works. The names come from three sources: God himself, those who encounter him in the biblical record, and the biblical writers. This article is concerned mainly with the names that occur in the OT, though the NT will be referenced when helpful.

In the Bible the meaning of names is often significant and points to the character of the person so named. As might be expected, this is especially true for God. The names that he gives to himself always are a form of revelation; the names that humans give to God often are a form of testimony.

YAHWEH: THE LORD

Pronunciation. Unquestionably, for OT revelation the most important name is “(the) LORD.” In English Bibles this represents the name declared by God to Moses at the burning bush (“I AM WHO I AM” [Exod. 3:13–15]) and the related term used elsewhere in the OT; in Hebrew this term consists of the four consonants YHWH and is therefore known as the Tetragrammaton (“four letters”). Hebrew does not count vowels as part of its alphabet; in biblical times one simply wrote the consonants of a word and the reader supplied the correct vowels by knowing the vocabulary, grammar, and context. However, to avoid violating the commandment in the Decalogue that prohibits the misuse of God’s name (Exod. 20:7; Deut. 5:11), the Jews stopped pronouncing it. Consequently, no one today knows its correct original pronunciation, but the best evidence available suggests “Yahweh,” which has become the conventional pronunciation (consider the Hebrew word “hallelujah,” which actually is “hallelu-Yah,” hence “praise the LORD”). In ancient Jewish tradition, “Adonai” (“my Lord”) was substituted for “Yahweh.” In fact, when Hebrew eventually developed a vowel notation system, instead of the vowels for “Yahweh,” the vowels for “Adonai” were indicated whenever YHWH appeared in the biblical text, as a reminder. Combining the consonants YHWH with the vowels of “Adonai” yields something like “Yehowah,” which is the origin of the familiar (but mistaken and nonexistent) “Jehovah.” English Bibles typically use “LORD” (small capital letters) for “Yahweh,” and “Lord” (regular letters) for “Adonai,” which distinguishes the two.

Meaning. More vital than the matter of the pronunciation of YHWH is the question of its meaning. There seem to be two main opinions. One sees YHWH as denoting eternal self-existence, partly because it is suggested by the grammar of Exod. 3:14 (the words “I am” use a form of the Hebrew verb that suggests being without beginning or end) and partly because that is the meaning Jesus apparently ascribes to it in John 8:58. The other opinion, suggested by usage, is that YHWH indicates dynamic, active, divine presence: God’s being present in a special way to act on someone’s behalf (e.g., Gen. 26:28; 39:2–3; Josh. 6:27; 1 Sam. 18:12–14). This idea also appears in the episode of the burning bush (Exod. 3:12): when Moses protests his inadequacy to confront Pharaoh, God assures him of his presence, a reality noted with other prophets (1 Sam. 3:19; Jer. 1:8).

Perhaps the best points of reference for understanding the meaning of YHWH are God’s own proclamations. In addition to Exod. 3:13–15, at least two other passages in Exodus give God’s commentary (as it were) about the meaning of his name. An important one is Exod. 34:5–7. A key passage in the theology proper of ancient Israel, its themes echo in later OT Scripture (Num. 14:18–19; Ps. 103:7–12; Jon. 4:2). What is noteworthy about the texts cited is that all of them say something remarkable about the grace of God. This fits, for the revelation of Exod. 34:5–7 is given in the context of covenant renewal after the incident of the golden calf. Moses invokes God’s name in the Numbers text to avoid catastrophic judgment when the Israelites refuse to enter the promised land. The psalm text picks up this theme and connects it with God’s revelation of his ways to the chosen people. Jonah, remarkably, affirms that the same grace extends even toward a wicked Gentile city such as Nineveh.

Another such passage is Exod. 6:2–8. Here God reaffirms his redemptive purpose for captive Israel, despite the fact that Moses’ first encounter with Pharaoh has not gone well. God assures the prophet that he has remembered his covenant with the patriarchs, whom he says did not know him as “Yahweh,” which probably means that the patriarchs did not experience him in the way or character that their descendants would in the exodus event (though it is possible to translate the Hebrew here as a rhetorical question with an affirmative idea: “And indeed, by my name Yahweh did I not make myself known to them?”). God then proceeds to outline the redemptive experience in its fullness: deliverance from bondage, reception into a covenant relationship, and possession of the land promised to their ancestors (vv. 6–8). The statement is bracketed with this declaration: “I am the LORD” (vv. 2, 8). One stated purpose of this redemptive work is that Israel might come to understand this (v. 7). This is important to note because a central theme of Exodus as a book is the identity of the God of Israel. This concern prompts Moses to ask for God’s name at the burning bush (3:13), and this contempt for the God of the enslaved Hebrews causes Pharaoh to be dismissive at his first meeting with Moses and Aaron (5:2). Moses asks with the concern of a seeker and receives one of the most profound declarations of God’s identity in the Bible. Pharaoh asks with the contempt of a scorner and receives one of the most powerful displays of God’s identity in the Bible (the plagues). The contrast is both striking and instructive. The meaning of God’s name, then, is revealed in works as well as words, and his purpose is that not just his people but all peoples may come to understand who he is. Yet another majestic statement in the book of Exodus (9:13–16) makes this abundantly clear.

Based on this pattern of usage, the name “Yahweh” seems to signify especially the active presence of God to bless, deliver, or otherwise aid his people. Where this presence is absent, there is no success, victory, protection, or peace (Num. 14:39–45; Josh. 7:10–12; Judg. 16:20; 1 Sam. 16:13–14). The message that God not only is but also is present to save and deliver may well be the most important truth communicated in the OT, and it is only natural to see its ultimate embodiment in the person and work of Christ (Isa. 7:14; cf. Matt. 1:21–23).

Name used in combination. The name “Yahweh” also is used in combination with other terms. After God grants a military victory to Israel over the Amalekites, Moses names a commemorative altar “Yahweh Nissi,” meaning “the LORD is my Banner” (Exod. 17:15). In Ezekiel’s temple vision Jerusalem is called “Yahweh Shammah,” meaning “THE LORD IS THERE” (Ezek. 48:35). A familiar expression is “the LORD of hosts,” which is generally comparable to the expression “commander in chief” used in American culture (cf. 1 Kings 22:19–23).

ELOHIM

This is the first term for God encountered in the Bible, right in the opening verse. It is a more generic term, denoting deity in contrast to humans or angels. “Elohim” is a plural form; the singular terms “El” and “Eloah” are used occasionally, particularly in poetic texts. “El” is a common term in the biblical world; in fact, it is the name for the father of Baal in the Canaanite religion. This may explain why the Bible commonly uses the plural form, to distinguish the one true God, the God of Israel, from his pagan rivals. Others explain the plural form as a “plural of majesty” or “plural of intensity,” though it is uncertain just what this would mean. Some see the foundation for NT revelation of the Trinity (Gen. 1:26–27; 11:6–7; cf. John 17:20–22), but this is unlikely. The plural form also can serve simply as a common noun, referring to pagan deities (Exod. 12:12), angels (Ps. 97:7, arguably), or even human authorities (Exod. 22:28, possibly).

“El” also occurs in combination with other descriptive terms. The best known is “El Shaddai,” meaning “God Almighty” (Gen. 17:1). The precise meaning of “Shaddai” is uncertain, but it seems to have the notion of “great/powerful one.” The distressed Hagar, caught, comforted, and counseled by the mysterious personage at a well, calls God “El Roi,” which means “the God who sees me” (Gen. 16:13). One of the most exalted expressions to describe God is “El Elyon,” meaning “God Most High.” This title seems to have particular reference to God as the owner and master of creation (Gen. 14:18–20).

ADONAI

As noted above, this common word meaning simply “(my) lord/master” is used regularly in place of the personal name of God revealed to Moses in Exod. 3:14. And in the OT of most English Bibles this is indicated by printing “Lord” as opposed to “LORD” (using small capital letters). However, “Adonai” is used of God in some noteworthy instances, such as Isaiah’s lofty vision of God exalted in Isa. 6 and the prophecy of Immanuel in Isa. 7:14. In time, this became the preferred term for referring to God, and the LXX reflected this by using the Greek word kyrios (“lord”) for Yahweh. This makes the ease with which NT writers transfer the use of the term to Jesus (e.g., 1 Cor. 12:3) a strong indication of their Christology.

Naming   The act of giving a specific term of identification to someone or something. Naming is a notable feature of biblical narrative. From the beginning, God orders and structures creation by naming the things that he makes, from the elements of nature to humankind (Gen. 1:5, 10; 5:2). As his ruling representative, Adam is granted the privilege of naming the animals (1:27–28; 2:19–20). He later names his wife, both as a being and as a person (2:23; 3:20). Eve, in turn, names Seth after losing Abel to the murderous rage of his brother Cain (4:25). With the naming of people, what is notable is that in each case the name clearly is chosen for a reason: the name has significance for the person, revealing something significant about character, role, or destiny.

The patriarchal narratives of Genesis are notable in this regard. In Gen. 17 both Abram and Sarai receive name changes, to the more familiar “Abraham” and “Sarah.” No particular explanation is given in her case, but “Abraham” is explained in terms of God’s promise of numerous descendants, “father of many” (17:5). Later in the conversation, God decrees that the name of the promised son will be “Isaac.” The name means “he laughs,” and it is chosen initially in response to Abraham’s laughter at the idea of having a son in his old age (17:17, 19). When Isaac is born, Sarah describes it as the laughter of joyful surprise (21:6–7). But when Ishmael engages in some less innocent “laughing” about Isaac, it becomes the occasion of Ishmael’s expulsion along with his mother (21:8–14). In the next generation, Esau is named for his red, hairy appearance—something that will be important on a later occasion (25:25; 27:5–23). His twin brother’s name is both more symbolic and more suggestive of character, as Esau himself acknowledges (25:26; 27:34–36).

The NT also has its cases of notable naming. The apostles express appreciation for the edifying spirit of a believer named “Joseph” by calling him “Barnabas,” which means “son of encouragement” (Acts 4:36). Likewise, Jesus marks Simon’s recognition of his identity by naming him “Peter” (Aram. Cepha; Gk. Petros—both mean “rock”). Jesus himself is the supreme example of having been given a meaningful name (Matt. 1:20–21), though it should be noted that his Hebrew name, “Joshua” (yehoshua’, “Yahweh saves/is salvation”), was common in Jewish culture. This is why others usually referred to him by some descriptive phrase, such as “Jesus of Nazareth” or “Jesus, who is called Messiah.”

Places also receive names, often as a result of some encounter with God. Jacob gives the name “Bethel” to the spot where God first spoke with him (Gen. 28:16–19). The names that Moses gives to some locations of the wilderness journey are tragically indicative of Israel’s frequent disobedience during that time (Exod. 17:1–17; Num. 11:3–5, 18–20, 31–34).

Naomi   A woman of Judah whose family fortunes are the focus of the book of Ruth. Her name means “pleasant,” though when her circumstances turned difficult, she asked to be called Mara (“bitter”) instead. When her family lived in Moab for a time to escape a famine, she eventually became the mother-in-law of Ruth. She and Ruth returned to her hometown of Bethlehem after the deaths of her husband and sons. Naomi arranged for Ruth’s eventual marriage to Boaz, which provided redemption for her family property.

Naphath-dor   See Naphoth Dor.

Naphish   A descendant of Ishmael, Abraham’s son through Hagar. He is listed in the genealogies of Gen. 25:15; 1 Chron. 1:31. His descendants were defeated by the eastern Israelite tribes prior to the conquest (1 Chron. 5:19).

Naphoth Dor   This expression means “hills or heights of Dor.” It occurs in Josh. 11:2; 12:23; 1 Kings 4:11. Dor was an important city on the northern coastline of Israel, about fifty miles southwest of Hazor and just south of the Phoenician border. It fell within the tribal territory of western Manasseh (Josh. 17:11).

Naphtali   The fourth son of Israel (Jacob) and the progenitor of the tribe that bears his name. He was the second surrogate son of Rachel through her maidservant Bilhah (Gen. 30:7–8).

Naphtali, Tribe of   The tribe descended from Naphtali, son of Jacob and Bilhah. This tribe settled in northern Israel, east of Asher and south of Dan, not far from the Sea of Kinnereth (Sea of Galilee). It is noted that, like other tribes, it failed to completely drive out the Canaanites in its designated territory, which contributed to the difficulties that the nation experienced after the passing of Joshua’s generation (Judg. 1:33). Naphtali has a quiet history in Scripture but is mentioned in the prophecy of Isa. 9:1–7, which Matthew cites in connection with Jesus’ ministry in Galilee (Matt. 4:12–17). Ezekiel also describes an assigned land area for Naphtali in his temple vision (Ezek. 48:3–4).

Naphtuhites   Descendants of Ham mentioned twice in the Bible, both in genealogies (Gen. 10:13; 1 Chron. 1:11). They are traced from Ham through “Mizraim,” which is the Hebrew word for “Egypt.” This seems to suggest an origin in northern Egypt (the Nile Delta). “Naphtuhite” may contain the name of the Egyptian god Ptah, whose sacred city was Memphis, in the Nile Delta area.

Narcissus   The believers within the household of Narcissus are mentioned in Paul’s greetings in Rom. 16:11. The phrase “those in the household of Narcissus” refers to the slaves and freedmen or freedwomen of Narcissus, while the phrase “in the Lord” specifies those of them who were Christians. The servants of Narcissus’s household who became Christians formed a house church in Rome. Other house churches mentioned by Paul in these closing greetings include that of Priscilla and Aquila. Paul does not specify whether Narcissus himself was a Christian.

Nard   A high-quality and fragrant ointment or perfume, also known as spikenard. Song of Songs includes nard among fragrant items used metaphorically by the lover to describe his beloved (Song 4:13–14). Mark 14:3 and John 12:3 refer to the same incident, the anointing of Jesus at Bethany a few days before the crucifixion, and emphasize the high monetary value of the nard.

Mosaic depicting the anointing of Jesus with nard, at the Church of Saint Lazarus in Bethany

Nathan   (1) The prophet Nathan was consulted by David when he contemplated building a temple to house the ark (2 Sam. 7). Without consulting God, Nathan encouraged David in this laudable project, suggesting that in the prophet’s mind the project was so obviously right (acknowledging as it did God’s supreme kingship over the nation) that there was no need to ask God. However, an unexpected divine refusal came that same night. A divine speech, long by biblical narrative standards (twelve verses), was required to explain the baffling divine refusal. The problem with the project was that the time was not ripe (2 Sam. 7:11; cf. 7:1), for David still had battles to fight.

Nathan reappears in biblical narrative in 2 Sam. 12, sent by God to rebuke David for taking Bathsheba (this confrontation is alluded to in the superscription of Ps. 51). These interventions of Nathan came at David’s high point and low point. Nathan’s parable about the “little ewe lamb” caused David to incriminate himself and pronounce his own sentence. David, on his immediate repentance, was forgiven (v. 13), but the rest of his reign was the working out of the punishment pronounced by Nathan: “The sword will never depart from your house” (v. 10). Nathan predicted the death of the son born from the illicit union (v. 14). Later, God sent word through Nathan that a second son, Solomon, was to be named “Jedidiah” (“loved by the LORD”) (v. 25; see NIV footnote). Nathan, in collusion with Bathsheba, took Solomon’s part in the competition for the throne (1 Kings 1). Nathan and the priest Zadok anointed Solomon king at Gihon (1 Kings 1:45). He also had a role in David’s ordering of the Levites (2 Chron. 29:25). Nathan is the reputed author of a book of chronicles about David’s reign (1 Chron. 29:29) and a history about Solomon’s (2 Chron. 9:29).

Presumably, the Nathan of 1 Kings 4:5 is the prophet, whose son Azariah was in charge of Solomon’s district officers. Zabud, another son, was a priest (here this refers to a chief officer) and personal adviser (cf. Hushai’s role in 2 Sam. 15:37) under Solomon. There is mention of “the house of Nathan” as still prominent in the postexilic period (Zech. 12:12).

(2) A son of David, born in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:14; 1 Chron. 3:5; 14:4), he is in the genealogy of Jesus (Luke 3:31). (3) The father of Igal, one of David’s thirty mighty warriors (2 Sam. 23:36). (4) A Judahite, the son of Attai and father of Zabad (1 Chron. 2:36). (5) The brother of Joel, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:38). (6) One of the leaders enlisted by Ezra to seek Levites willing to return to Jerusalem (Ezra 8:16). (7) One of the men who were guilty of taking a foreign wife during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:39).

Nathanael   One of Jesus’ disciples, mentioned by name only in John 1:45–49; 21:2. He was from Cana in Galilee (21:2), where Jesus changed water into wine. Nathanael was initially skeptical of Philip’s claims about Jesus because Jesus was from Nazareth (1:45–46), but his skepticism turned to belief when Jesus, who called Nathanael “truly . . . an Israelite in whom there is no deceit,” demonstrated miraculous knowledge of where Nathanael had been sitting before he met Jesus (1:47–49). Nathanael quickly declared his faith in Jesus. As a result of Nathanael’s ready faith, Jesus promised him that he would be witness to Jesus’ salvific work and the miraculous transformation of the broken relationship between God and humankind (John 1:50). Nathanael was one of the first disciples to see the risen Jesus (John 21:1–4).

Nathanael was most likely the same person as Bartholomew (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14; Acts 1:13), given that John never mentions Bartholomew and the Synoptic Gospels never mention Nathanael, and that the Synoptic Gospels list Bartholomew’s name directly after Philip’s, while John connects Nathanael and Philip in his narrative.

Nathan-Melech   See Nathan-Melek.

Nathan-Melek   An official who lived in the Jerusalem temple and whose room was in close proximity to an object used for sun worship. King Josiah removed it from the temple during his reformation (2 Kings 23:11).

Nations   See Gentiles.

Native(s)   As an adjective, “native” refers to being born or originating in a particular place (Gen. 24:7; 31:13; Num. 22:5). As a noun, it refers to those who were born in or are original inhabitants of a particular place. Several Bible versions refer to local people of Malta, where Paul stops on his journey to Rome, as “natives” (Acts 28:4 NASB, RSV, NRSV, NAB [Gk. barbaroi, meaning “barbarians, foreigners”]). Other versions use “islanders” (NIV), “local people” (HCSB), or “people of the island” (NLT).

Nativity of Christ   See Jesus Christ.

Natural   When God completed his work at creation, all that he made he pronounced “very good” (Gen. 1:31). The world was functioning harmoniously, and most important, the humans God had created in his own image lived in a sinless relationship with him. In one sense this universe before the fall represents its “natural” state. Evil and suffering enter the creation as fundamentally alien elements. However, through Adam and Eve’s disobedience (Gen. 3) what was unnatural has become natural. “Sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned” (Rom. 5:12). For this reason, God sent his Son to die on a cross and rise again, to redeem his people from their unnatural (against God’s revealed will [cf. Rom. 1:20–27]) yet natural (inborn and pervasive [cf. Rom. 6:19]) state of sinfulness.

Naum   In Luke 3:25 the KJV rendering of the Greek name for Nahum (Naoum), an ancestor of Jesus.

Nave   Most commonly, the long central hall of a cross-shaped church where the congregation sits. Some Bible versions use the term to refer to the central hall of the Jerusalem temple between the vestibule and the most holy place (1 Kings 6:3, 5, 17, 33; 7:21; Ezek. 41:1–2 RSV, NASB, NRSV, NAB). The NIV has “main hall” in most of these passages. The KJV uses the word “naves” in 1 Kings 7:33 in an archaic sense, referring to the “rims” (NIV) of a wheel.

Navel   One particular Hebrew word for “navel,” shor, occurs three times in the OT. In Song 7:2 the male character lists his lover’s navel among the physical attributes that he praises. In Prov. 3:8 shor (NIV: “body”) is probably used figuratively to refer to the body receiving nourishment. In Ezek. 16:4 shor is used to refer to the umbilical cord (NRSV: “navel cord”).

Another Hebrew word, tabbur, occurring in Ezek. 38:12 (also Judg. 9:37) and translated “center” in the NIV, might best be translated as “navel,” thus connecting to an ancient Near Eastern tradition that views the mountain where a deity dwells as the “navel” or nexus between heaven and earth. In this verse, then, Mount Zion in Jerusalem, where God dwelt among his people, would be referred to as the “navel of the earth.”

Navy   See Fleet; Ships, Sailors, and Navigation.

Nazareth, Nazarene   In the first century, Nazareth was a small village in the extreme southerly part of lower Galilee, midway between the Sea of Galilee and the Mediterranean Sea. It was near Gath Hepher, the birthplace of Jonah the prophet to the Gentiles (2 Kings 14:25), and Sepphoris, one of the three largest cities in the region. Not far was the Via Maris, the great highway joining Mesopotamia to Egypt and ultimately the trading network that linked India, China, central Asia, the Near East, and the Mediterranean. The village was perched 1,150 feet above sea level, overlooking the Jezreel Valley, with several terraces for agriculture cut into the mountain. A Nazarene could look south across the grand Plain of Esdraelon, west to Mount Carmel on the Mediterranean coast, east to nearby Mount Tabor, and north to snowcapped Mount Hermon. The community, whose population may have averaged around five hundred, subsisted from agriculture. Capital resources included almonds, pomegranates, dates, oil, and wine. (Excavations have located vaulted cells for wine and oil storage, as well as wine presses and storage jar vessels.) Nazareth appears to have been uninhabited from the eighth to the second centuries BC, until it was resettled during the reign of John Hyrcanus (134–104 BC), probably by a Davidic clan of army veterans. The claim that Jesus’ adoptive father, Joseph, was a descendant of David and a resident of Nazareth is therefore plausible (Matt. 1:20; Luke 2:4–5). Today, Nazareth is the largest Arab city in Israel.

Although Jesus’ ministry was unsuccessful in Nazareth, he and his followers were called “Nazarenes” (Mark 1:24; 10:47; John 18:5, 7; Acts 2:22; 3:6; 24:5). Descendants of Jesus’ family continued to live in the area for centuries. The epithet “Nazarene” probably was intended as a slur. Nathanael is unimpressed by Jesus’ origin in Nazareth (John 1:46). The village is not mentioned in the OT. Some even doubted its existence, until 1962, when the place name “Nazareth” was discovered on a synagogue inscription in Caesarea Maritima.

Nazirite   Both men and women could take the Nazirite vow (Num. 6:1–21), consecrating themselves to God and abstaining from all grapevine products, avoiding contact with corpses, and allowing their hair to grow long. The first two stipulations mandate separation from conditions reflective of decay and corruption, clearly an affront to God’s holiness (cf. Amos 2:11–12). Long hair was the sign of the vow, symbolic of the power of God (Judg. 16:17).

Inadvertently touching a corpse interrupted the vow. Rededication necessitated shaving the head and sacrificing sin and burnt offerings, along with a guilt offering for having defiled something holy (Lev. 5:14–19). The vow could last one’s entire life, as was intended for Samson (Judg. 13:7) and Samuel (1 Sam. 1:11), or it could simply be for a period of time (Acts 18:18; 21:24). In the latter case, the vow was terminated with the presentation of sin, burnt, and fellowship offerings and shaving and burning the hair at the tabernacle.

An individual could take the vow by personal volition, or it could be imposed by others. Most of the biblical examples fall into the latter category. The angel of the Lord declared that Samson would be a Nazirite for his entire life, although Samson despised the sanctity of the vow in just about every way (Judg. 13–16). Hannah dedicated Samuel for his life (1 Sam. 1:11). John the Baptist was also apparently given over to these conditions by the word of the angel Gabriel (Luke 1:15).

Neah   A town within the tribal boundaries of Zebulun (Josh. 19:13).

Neapolis   The harbor town for the larger city of Philippi, on the Aegean coast. Paul, after receiving a vision, set out with his companions to Macedonia. During the journey, they passed through Neapolis (Acts 16:11) before traveling approximately ten miles on to Philippi. Their arrival in Neapolis marks Paul’s first entry into Europe.

Neariah   (1) A leader of the tribe of Simeon during the reign of Hezekiah who helped drive the remaining Amalekites from Mount Seir (1 Chron. 4:42). (2) One of the four sons of Shemaiah, a descendant of David (1 Chron. 3:22).

Nebai   One of the leaders who sealed the covenant with God following Ezra’s public reading of the law (Neh. 10:19).

Nebaioth   (1) The name of the firstborn son of Ishmael (Gen. 25:13; 28:9; 36:3; 1 Chron. 1:29) and an Arabic tribe mentioned in cuneiform sources. (2) The place from where rams will be gathered, mentioned in the context of future blessing for Jerusalem (Isa. 60:7).

Nebajoth   See Nebaioth.

Neballat   A town at the western end of the hill country of Ephraim that members of the tribe of Benjamin repopulated after the Babylonian exile (Neh. 11:34). The site is apparently identified with Beit Nabala (Horvat Nevallat), located approximately twenty-two miles northwest of Jerusalem and four miles northeast of Lod, near the edge of the coastal plain.

Nebat   The father of Jeroboam, the first king of the northern kingdom of Israel. His name appears only in the phrase “Jeroboam son of Nebat” and serves to distinguish him from Jeroboam II.

Nebo   (1) Mount Nebo is located in Abarim, a mountain range in northwest Moab separating the Transjordan Plain from the Jordan Valley. Nebo is usually identified with a mountain of the same modern name that is five miles northwest of Madaba and is well over four thousand feet in elevation. This was the mountain that God commanded Moses to ascend to get a glimpse of the promised land before he died (Deut. 32:48–52; 34:1). On a clear day, it offers a spectacular view. In the period right after the entry into the land, the area was controlled by the Reubenites (Num. 32:3, 38). Later, it is mentioned as a prominent location in the land of Moab (Jer. 48:1, 22). (See also Abarim.) (2) The god Nebo was considered the son of the Babylonian chief god, Marduk, and was himself the god of wisdom and writing. He was thus the patron god of scribes (Isa. 46:1). (3) Nebo is listed as an ancestor of seven men who had married foreign women during the postexilic period (Ezra 10:43). (4) The hometown of fifty-two men returned from the Babylonian exile (Ezra 2:29).

Nebo-Sarsekim   A Babylonian official identified in Jer. 39:3. The division and significance of the names in the list is disputed. Some versions treat “Nebo” (Heb. nebu) as the second half of Samgar’s name, and read this part of the list as “Nergal-sharezer, Samgar-nebo, Sarsechim the Rab-saris” (NRSV, HCSB; similarly, NASB). The NIV and others (see NLT, REB, NET) instead read the Hebrew as two names, with a place name and a title: “Nergal-Sharezer of Samgar, Nebo-Sarsekim a chief officer.”

Nebuchadnezzar   The king of Babylon from 605 to 562 BC. Information about his life and reign comes from the Bible as well as ancient Babylonian sources. Nebuchadnezzar had many military and political accomplishments. The following material focuses mainly on those that illumine the biblical text.

Nebuchadnezzar’s father, Nabopolassar, was a Chaldean (Aramaic-speaking) tribal chief from the extreme south of Babylon (near what is today the Persian Gulf). In 626 BC he rebelled against Assyria, which for many years had subjugated Babylon to vassal status. In 612 BC the Babylonians, along with the Medes, defeated the Assyrian capital, Nineveh. Remnants of the Assyrian army fled to the region around Harran in northern Syria under the leadership of Ashur-uballit. In 609 BC Pharaoh Necho of Egypt attempted to bolster the Assyrian army, but the Babylonians soundly defeated them at the battle of Carchemish. At this point, Babylon inherited what was the Assyrian Empire, which included Syria and the northern kingdom of Israel. In 605 BC Nabopolassar died of natural causes, and his son Nebuchadnezzar succeeded him as king.

In the same year, according to Dan. 1:1–3, Nebuchadnezzar “besieged” Jerusalem. The Hebrew verb (tsur) could indicate a military siege or simply a diplomatic coercion. In any case, the pro-Egyptian Judean king, Jehoiakim, had no recourse but to submit, turning over to the Babylonian king the temple vessels and also political hostages from the royal family, including Daniel and his three friends.

A cylindrical inscription of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (605–560 BC)

In 597 BC Jehoiakim revolted against Nebuchadnezzar. By the time the Babylonian army mobilized and made the long march to Jerusalem, Jehoiakim had been replaced by his son Jehoiachin. The city of Jerusalem was then taken. Jehoiachin, along with many leaders, including the priest Ezekiel, were taken into exile in Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar then placed on the throne Jehoiachin’s uncle, who took the name “Zedekiah.”

Yet, in 586 BC even Zedekiah presumed to rebel against Nebuchadnezzar. This time Nebuchadnezzar defeated Jerusalem, and he killed Zedekiah’s sons, gouged out his eyes, and carted him off to Babylon. He also destroyed much of the city, including the palace, walls, and temple. The book of Lamentations records the horrified reaction of the faithful to the destruction of the city. He exiled many of the leading citizens, but he left most of the people in the land under the leadership of Gedaliah, a Judean-born governor. Jeremiah records the account of later atrocities of an insurgent, Ishmael (Jer. 40:7–41:15). Ishmael’s assassination of Gedaliah and murder of the Babylonian soldiers in Jerusalem led to yet another Babylonian incursion into Judah in 582 BC.

Nebuchadnezzar died in 562 BC. He was succeeded by his son Amel-Marduk (known in the Bible as Awel-Marduk [2 Kings 25:27]).

The most intimate portrait of Nebuchadnezzar comes from Dan. 1–4. After taking Daniel and the three friends into captivity, he trained them for royal service. Daniel became a trusted adviser to the king. In the end, it was Daniel who taught the king rather than the other way around. It is doubtful that Nebuchadnezzar ever worshiped the true God exclusively, but he came to recognize Yahweh’s great power and wisdom.

Nebuchadrezzar   See Nebuchadnezzar.

Nebushasban   See Nebushazban.

Nebushazban   The chief officer of King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (r. 605–562 BC), he was one of several Babylonian officials who ordered Jeremiah’s removal from the courtyard during the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC (Jer. 39:13 [KJV: “Nebushasban”]).

Nebuzaradan   A Babylonian official, “the commander of the guard” (2 Kings 25:11), who appears in the biblical text at the fall of the city of Jerusalem in 586 BC. Nebuzaradan is credited with the complete razing of the temple, city structures, and defenses of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:8–10). He also took many of the notable citizens into exile and left the poor behind (2 Kings 25:11–12). On instructions from Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuzaradan treated Jeremiah well (Jer. 39:11–14). Nebuzaradan returned to the land of Judah a few years later and took another 745 captives into exile (Jer. 52:30).

Necho   Necho II was the third pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt (r. 610–595 BC). In 609 BC Necho led the Egyptian army through Syria-Palestine to help support the crumbling Assyrian Empire at Harran against the encroaching Babylonians. Necho’s goal was to consolidate Egyptian power over the region from Egypt to the Euphrates. While Necho was traveling through Israelite territory, King Josiah of Judah led his army to confront Necho and forced a battle near Megiddo (2 Kings 23:29–35; 2 Chron. 35:20–36:4; cf. Jer. 46:2). Necho had warned Josiah that he was only passing through, but the battle went forward, and Josiah was killed. Three months later, after the Egyptian and Assyrian armies were unsuccessful in battle, Necho summoned Josiah’s son Jehoahaz to Riblah in Syria and deposed him, taking him into exile in Egypt. In his stead, Necho renamed Josiah’s older son Eliakim, calling him “Jehoiakim,” and placed him on the throne of Judah. This made Judah a vassal of Egypt, and Necho required a heavy tribute of gold and silver from Jehoiakim. Four years later, Necho again led the Egyptian army in battle against Babylon at Carchemish and shortly thereafter at Hamath, both serious defeats for Necho. Soon Nebuchadnezzar was campaigning in Palestine, and Jehoiakim switched his allegiance (and vassal loyalty) from Egypt to Babylon. Necho II was able to prevent Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian army from invading Egypt, but he never came farther east than Gaza from that time forward.

Nechoh   See Necho.

Neck   In the Bible, the neck often is associated with a burden. In several places the Bible refers to oppression or servitude as a yoke around one’s neck (Gen. 27:40; Deut. 28:48; Jer. 28:10–14). The apostle Peter even likened following the Mosaic law to bearing a yoke on one’s neck (Acts 15:10). The neck was also associated with adornment. Having jewelry placed around one’s neck was a sign of honor (Gen. 41:42; Dan. 5:16). Similarly, good instruction or moral character could be described as jewelry around one’s neck (Prov. 1:8–9; 3:21–22).

Necklace   A neck ornament, often of high value, used to enhance beauty (Song 1:10; 4:9; Ezek. 16:11). Occasionally, a necklace signifies high office (Gen. 41:42; Dan. 5:29). See also Jewels, Jewelry.

Syrian necklace  (fourth or fifth century BC)

Neco   See Necho.

Necromancy   The divination practice of consulting with the dead. Along with other forms of divination, sorcery, and magic, necromancy is strictly prohibited in Deut. 18:9–13. An example of necromancy, however, is recorded in 1 Sam. 28, where King Saul, devoid of any word from God due to the king’s repeated disobedience, persuades a “medium” to bring up Samuel from the dead to give guidance.

Nedabiah   One of the sons of King Jehoiachin (Jeconiah) of Judah, who was carried off into Babylonian exile (1 Chron. 3:18).

Needle   No biblical texts describe an ancient needle, but archaeologists have found needles made of bronze, bone, and ivory. The needle would have been sharp at one end, with an eye for thread at the other, similar at least in basic form to the modern needle. Simple sewing is the obvious use for needles, but they also played a larger role in embroidery, which was seen as a gift from God (Exod. 35:35; cf. 31:6; see also Needlework). The use of the needle is implied in certain contexts where sewing is present, such as Gen. 3:7.

The only mention of the word “needle” in the Bible is in the reference to the “eye of a needle” in the Synoptic Gospels (Matt. 19:24; Mark 10:25; Luke 18:25). The purpose here is to contrast one of the smallest openings common to the household with one of Palestine’s largest animals. This comparison is an example of hyperbole, expressing the great difficulty that the rich would encounter in abandoning all to follow Christ.

Needlework   Also called “embroidery,” the interweaving of various colors of thread to form decorative patterns, as seen in the tabernacle curtains. A high degree of skill was involved, as is evident in descriptions of these curtains: “Make the tabernacle with ten curtains of finely twisted linen and blue, purple and scarlet yarn, with cherubim woven into them by a skilled worker” (Exod. 26:1). Needlework was viewed as a skill given by God (Exod. 35:35). Embroidered garments were a sign of luxury, worn by the affluent and the high priest (Exod. 28:39). They were a trade commodity (Ezek. 27:16) and a spoil of war, prized by many (Judg. 5:30).

Neesings   In Job 41:18 the KJV translates the Hebrew ’atishah as “neesings,” referring to the “snorting” (NIV) or “sneezing” (NRSV) in the description of Leviathan.

Negeb   See Negev.

Negev   This arid region, whose name sometimes is translated as “the south,” extends from Judah to the Gulf of Aqaba and includes the Desert of Paran. Abraham and Isaac both lived in the northern part of the Negev (Gen. 20:1; 24:62). Part of Israel’s wilderness wanderings took place in the Negev (Num. 13:17), and they encountered the Amalekites there (Num. 13:29). Joshua conquered this region and allotted it to Judah and Simeon (Josh. 10:40; 15:21; 19:8). When David conducted raids against the Geshurites, the Girzites, and the Amalekites, he told the Philistines that he was attacking the Negev (1 Sam. 27:10). The Negev is also referenced in poetic and prophetic texts (Ps. 126:4; Isa. 21:1; 30:6; Jer. 13:19; 17:26; Zech. 7:7).

Neginah, Neginoth   A transliteration of a Hebrew word (sg. and pl.) that appears in the superscription of a number of psalms (Pss. 4; 6; 54–55; 61; 67; 76). While the KJV transliterates the term in these psalm superscriptions as “Neginah, Neginoth” (but cf. Hab. 3:19 KJV), most modern versions, like the NIV, understand it to mean “stringed instruments.” In several other passages the Hebrew term refers to a mocking song or taunt (Job 30:9; Ps. 69:12; Lam. 3:14).

Nehelam, Nehelamite   This name is associated with Shemaiah, a false prophet in Babylon of Jeremiah’s day (Jer. 29:24–32). It is uncertain whether “Nehelam” is a family name or a place name. Shemaiah had sent a letter to the priest Zephaniah, criticizing him for not reprimanding Jeremiah for his negative prophecies. In response, Jeremiah pronounced judgment from God against Shemaiah and his descendants. See also Shemaiah.

Nehemiah   (1) The son of Hakaliah, he was a prominent leader of the people of God in the late postexilic period (Neh. 1:1–7:73; 8:9–10; 10:1–13:31). He returned to Jerusalem from the Persian capital, Susa, in order to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem and to fortify the morale of its citizens.

Before his return to Jerusalem, Nehemiah worked as the cupbearer to the king of Persia, Artaxerxes. There are three kings by that name during the history of the Persian Empire, but scholars are generally agreed that Nehemiah worked for Artaxerxes I (r. 464–424 BC). The job of the cupbearer was an important one. The king needed to rely on a close confidante to serve him his drink, since poisoning was an occupational hazard for ancient kings.

Although he was in a powerful position in Persia, Nehemiah was deeply saddened to hear the condition of Jerusalem from his visiting brother Hanani. In particular, the city’s walls were torn down and its gates were burned. While we might assume that the condition of the gates was the result of the Babylonian incursion into the city decades before (587/586 BC), it is possible, though not provable, that a more recent event was responsible.

In either case, Nehemiah could not hide his grief as he served Artaxerxes. Artaxerxes then granted him permission to return to Jerusalem and see to the restoration of the city. The king appointed Nehemiah governor of the Persian province of Yehud (Judah), and he returned to Jerusalem in the king’s twentieth year (445 BC).

A contract from the time of Artaxerxes I, king of Persia during the time of Nehemiah

Even though Nehemiah had the support of the Persian king, the inhabitants of the land and its leaders, notably Sanballat, did everything they could to undermine his efforts. These people were Samaritans from the north who were the descendants of intermarriage between the people of the north and those whom the Assyrians forced to immigrate there after their defeat of the northern kingdom of Israel in 722 BC. In spite of this opposition, Nehemiah successfully led the people in their efforts to rebuild the walls. In doing so, he showed great leadership skills and courage.

Although they are not often mentioned together, Nehemiah’s work in Jerusalem overlapped with that of Ezra. Both men were passionately concerned about the integrity and faithfulness of the people. Both of them at different times confronted Jewish men who divorced their wives and married pagan women. Nehemiah forcefully compelled them to divorce these foreign wives out of fear that the wives would lead their Jewish husbands to worship false gods.

Nehemiah worked hard, and God blessed him and his efforts in many ways. Even so, the account of Nehemiah’s work ends on a note of continuing problems as the people continued sinning (Neh. 13).

(2) A man who returned to Jerusalem from Babylon along with Zerubbabel in 539 BC (Ezra 2:2).

(3) The son of Azbuk, ruler of a half-district of Beth Zur, he helped rebuild the walls and gates of Jerusalem under the direction of Nehemiah son of Hakaliah (Neh. 3:16).

Nehemiah, Book of   Nehemiah son of Hakaliah is one of the most colorful figures in OT history. He is passionate and aggressive; he works hard to achieve the goals that God has set for him. He does not tolerate the sins of others and fights his way through the obstacles that people set in his path. In many ways, he is a study in contrasts with Ezra, his near contemporary. When Ezra discovers sin among his fellow Judeans, he pulls his hair out. When Nehemiah encounters the same problem, he pulls out the hair of the sinners.

The books of Ezra and Nehemiah were originally a single composition, not broken into two parts until the Middle Ages. Thus, many issues, such as date and authorship, are discussed in the introduction to the article on the book of Ezra. Here, the conclusions will be stated for ease of reference, but the evidence is presented in the article on Ezra. The additional details to follow are particularly relevant to the study of Nehemiah.

LITERARY CONSIDERATIONS

Author and date. Ezra-Nehemiah is an anonymous composition that reached its present form sometime between 400 and 300 BC.

Genre and structure. Ezra-Nehemiah is a theological history, a book that intends to communicate what actually happened in space and time but is selective, with the purpose of showing how God was working among his people in the postexilic period. As a theological history in the OT, however, Ezra (and Nehemiah) are unique in that they contain the memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah as detailed by the first outline below. The structure of the book of Ezra makes sense only when paired with the book of Nehemiah, again since they were originally a unit. The structure may be explained on the basis of its sources, as follows:

I. A Historical Review (Ezra 1–6)

II. Ezra’s Memoirs, Part 1 (Ezra 7–10)

III. Nehemiah’s Memoirs, Part 1 (Neh. 1–7)

IV. Ezra’s Memoirs, Part 2 (Neh. 8–10)

V. Nehemiah’s Memoirs, Part 2 (Neh. 11–13)

Or it may be explained on the basis of its content:

I. Zerubbabel and Sheshbazzar Lead the People in Rebuilding the Temple (Ezra 1–6)

II. Ezra Leads the People by Reestablishing the Law (Ezra 7–10)

III. Nehemiah Leads the People in Rebuilding the Wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 1:1–7:3)

IV. Renewal, Celebration, Remaining Problems (Neh. 7:4–13:31)

THEOLOGICAL MESSAGE

The book begins with Nehemiah serving as the cupbearer of King Artaxerxes of Persia. Nehemiah hears a distressing report from his ancestral homeland in Judah and feels called to return to Jerusalem. Receiving permission from Artaxerxes to go back to Judah, he arrives intent on building the walls of the city, thus completing the physical reconstruction of the city. In spite of the efforts of neighboring groups and provinces to block their efforts, the Jews under Nehemiah’s leadership are remarkably successful at accomplishing their task. In this, the postexilic people of God surely must have recognized that the prophecies of salvation in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel were coming to fulfillment.

The book of Nehemiah also records Ezra’s leadership in guiding the people to reaffirm their commitment to Yahweh and his law. They confess their sin. One might think of the physical wall that Nehemiah built not only as protection but also as a means of physical separation from the Gentiles. Also, then, Ezra’s reestablishment of the law of God would serve as a spiritual separation from the lawless Gentiles.

Even with all the success, the book of Nehemiah ends in chapter 13 on a note of disappointment. Nehemiah recounts the strenuous efforts that the faithful under his leadership have made to get right with God, but many people persisted in their sin.

CONTEMPORARY SIGNIFICANCE

Ezra narrates two returns: first under Zerubbabel and Sheshbazzar to rebuild the temple, and second under Ezra to reestablish the law. In the first part, the book of Nehemiah focuses on a third return under Nehemiah to build the walls and thus complete the physical reconstruction of the city. Nehemiah’s leadership provides an alternative model of leadership to that of Ezra. Nehemiah is more assertive and demanding. It is not that one mode of leadership is right or wrong; the contemporary Christian leader looking to Ezra and Nehemiah for a model of leadership should read the situation to know what will best accomplish God’s purposes. Also, the purpose of building the walls was a matter of military defense, but it was also a matter of separation. True, Christ breaks down the wall of separation between Jews and Gentiles (Eph. 2:14–18), but the NT also recognizes that Christians (whether from a Jewish or a Gentile background) must lead holy and distinct lives.

Surprisingly, the book of Nehemiah does not end with a sense of completion, a feeling of mission accomplished. The last chapter finds Nehemiah in prayer for the continuing sin of the people, reminding contemporary readers that repentance is not a onetime act, but a lifestyle.

Nehiloth   The KJV transliteration of a word of uncertain meaning that occurs in the superscription of Ps. 5. Most modern versions render the word as “flutes” or “pipes” (NIV).

Nehum   A leader who returned with Zerubbabel from the Babylonian exile (Neh. 7:7). He may be the same person as the Rehum of Ezra 2:2.

Nehushta   The mother of King Jehoiachin (2 Kings 24:8). She was the daughter of Elnathan and from Jerusalem. She was taken to Babylonia with her son when Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem in 597 BC (2 Kings 24:15; Jer. 29:2). She is likely mentioned in Jer. 13:18.

Nehushtan   In 2 Kings 18:4 the name given to the bronze snake that Moses made during the wilderness journey. In one of many incidents in which the Israelites grumbled against Moses, God sent poisonous snakes against the people (Num. 21:4–9). When they confessed their sin and cried out to Moses for relief, God directed him to make the bronze snake and erect it on a pole. Anyone who looked at it would live. Apparently, this object was kept and preserved over the centuries, for it still existed in King Hezekiah’s time. Being a sacred relic, it had become an object of idolatry. The king destroyed it as part of his spiritual reforms.

Neiel   A town on the eastern border of the land allotted to Asher (Josh. 19:27). Most identify Neiel with Khirbet Yanin, located approximately nine miles west of Akko, near where the Plain of Akko gives way to the hills of Galilee.

Neigh   A cry characteristic of a horse (see Jer. 8:16). It is used in a figurative sense in Jer. 5:8 (cf. 13:27) to depict Judah’s lust.

Neighbor   In the OT, “neighbor” is derived from the verb “to associate with.” This is an important connection because relationships of various kinds are central to the issue of neighbor. Depending on the context, a neighbor can include a friend (2 Sam. 13:3), a rival (1 Sam. 28:17), a lover (Jer. 3:1), or a spouse (Jer. 3:20). However, “neighbor” essentially defines someone who lives and works nearby, those with shared ethical responsibilities, rather than a family member (Prov. 3:29). Eventually, “neighbor” acquired the more technical meaning of “covenant member” or “fellow Israelite” (= “brother” [Jer. 31:34]). The legal literature prohibits bearing false witness against a neighbor (Deut. 5:20) as well as coveting a neighbor’s house, animal, slave, or wife (Deut. 5:21). Fraud, stealing, or withholding from a neighbor are prohibited (Lev. 19:13; Ps. 15:3). These are the negative stipulations. The theological ethics that arise from Lev. 19 are climactic—ethically, politically, socially, and economically. Positively, Israelites are to judge their neighbors justly (Lev. 19:15), loving their neighbors as themselves (19:18). Even the resident alien is to be protected by these core moral virtues (Lev. 19:33–34; cf. Exod. 12:43–49).

When the NT addresses the topic, not surprisingly it is Lev. 19:18 that is routinely cited. Asked about the greatest commandment, Jesus quotes Lev. 19:18 as the horizontal counterpart to loving the Lord (Matt. 19:16–30). A lawyer’s question put to Jesus, “Who is my neighbor?” elicits the parable of the good Samaritan (Luke 10:29). Jesus teaches that extending mercy is more important than conveniently defining “neighbor.” A neighbor was anyone someone met in need—Jew, Gentile, or Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37). Jewish law came to define “neighbor” in purely legal terms within Judaism. Jesus addressed the limits of one’s responsibility, challenging the particularism of Judaism, denouncing prejudiced love, and including non-Jews. Beyond “in” or “out” groups, believers are now to pray for their enemies (Matt. 5:43–48). Mission work continues to expand social, political, and economic boundaries. The OT reality of relationships is still in force, but “neighbor” in the NT now prioritizes fellow believers (Rom. 13:8–10; 15:2; Gal. 6:10; Eph. 4:25; James 2:8).

Nekeb   In Josh. 19:33 the KJV takes “Nekeb” as a place name in the description of the tribal allotment given to Naphtali: “from Allon to Zaanannim, and Adami, Nekeb, and Jabneel.” Most modern versions treat “Adami” and “Nekeb” as two parts of one name: “Adami Nekeb” (NIV) or “Adami-nekeb” (NRSV, NLT). Adami Nekeb is identified as a city or town between the Sea of Galilee and Mount Tabor. Its precise location is uncertain.

Nekoda   (1) One of the ancestors of the temple servants (Nethinim) who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:48; Neh. 7:50). The fact that many of the names in the list are foreign has led to the belief that they were originally prisoners of war who were pressed into service to perform menial tasks as they assisted the Levites. (2) The patronymic ancestor of a family that could not establish its Israelite background after the exile (Neh. 7:62).

Nemuel   (1) The first of the three sons of Eliab, a Reubenite. His brothers, Dathan and Abiram, rebelled against Moses and Aaron and died in the Korah rebellion (Num. 26:9). (2) A son of Simeon and the eponymous ancestor of the Nemuelites (Num. 26:12; 1 Chron. 4:24). In Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15 his name is “Jemuel.”

Nemuelites   See Nemuel.

Nepheg   (1) A Levite, one of the three sons of Izhar, who was a brother of Amram, Moses’ father (Exod. 6:21). (2) A son of David born to an unnamed wife during the time he reigned from Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:15; 1 Chron. 3:7; 14:6).

Nephesh   See Naphish.

Nephew   The son of one’s brother or sister. Many modern versions use the term of Lot as Abraham’s nephew (Gen. 12:5; 14:12) and in Ezra 8:19 of the nephews of Hashabiah, a descendant of the Levite Merari, returnees to Jerusalem. The KJV uses “nephew” in an archaic sense of a descendant, usually referring to grandson (Judg. 12:14; Job 18:19; Isa. 14:22; 1 Tim. 5:4).

Nephilim   The Hebrew word nepilim occurs only in Gen. 6:4; Num. 13:33. Some translations render the word as “giants.” Literally, it means “fallen ones.” Some scholars have considered the Nephilim to be offspring from the unions between the “sons of God” and the “daughters of humans,” but it is also possible that the writer was distinguishing between the Nephilim and the children of those unions who became the “heroes of old” and “men of renown” (Gen. 6:4). Descendants of the Nephilim were purported to have also lived after the flood (Deut. 2:10–11, 20–23; Josh. 14:15; 15:13–14; 2 Sam. 21:16–22; 1 Chron. 20:6–8). Since the entire human race, except for Noah and his family, was destroyed in the deluge, these descendants who lived in Canaan at the time of the exodus most likely descended through Ham, one of Noah’s sons (Gen. 10:8–20).

Nephish   See Naphish.

Nephishesim, Nephisim   See Nephusim.

Nephthalim   A variant spelling of “Naphtali” used in the KJV (Matt. 4:13, 15; Rev. 7:6). “Nephthalim” transliterates the Greek spelling of the Hebrew name.

Nephtoah   A spring of water that formed part of the northern geographical boundary of the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:9) and part of the southern geographical boundary of the tribe of Benjamin (18:15). The spring is a few miles northwest of Jerusalem.

Nephushesim   See Nephusim.

Nephusim   A person listed among the returnees from the Babylonian captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:50; Neh. 7:52). In some English translations the name is spelled differently in Ezra and in Nehemiah (e.g., KJV, ESV, NRSV, NASB).

Nephussim   See Nephusim.

Ner   (1) The father of Abner, Saul’s general and cousin (1 Sam. 14:50–51; 2 Sam. 2:8; 1 Chron. 26:28). (2) Saul’s grandfather (1 Chron. 8:33; 9:39).

Nereus   An individual greeted by the apostle Paul in Rom. 16:15. “Nereus and his sister” are named immediately after Philologus and Julia, and so they may have been son and daughter to this couple. All three names were common for slaves in Rome, especially for slaves in service to the emperor, so the family may have been either slaves or freedmen and freedwomen.

Nergal   A Sumerian deity of Kuthah, a city approximately twenty miles northeast of Babylon. A god of the underworld, Nergal is associated with famine, sudden death, and fire. Akkadian literature identifies Nergal with Erra and designates Ereshkigal, the sister of Inanna/Ishtar, as a consort. In the OT, the name of the deity appears as part of the name of a Babylonian official, Nergal-Sharezer, in Jer. 39:3, 13. Nergal is considered an idol imported into the northern kingdom through the people of Kuth (2 Kings 17:30).

Nergal-Sharezer   A Hebrew rendering of the name of the Babylonian official Nergal-shar-usur (“may Nergal protect the king”), who sat in the Jerusalem gate (Jer. 39:3, 13), married the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, and later assassinated his brother-in-law, assuming the Babylonian throne in the years 559–556 BC.

Neri   An otherwise unknown ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:27 as the son of Melki and the father of Shealtiel.

Neriah   The father of two men who assisted the prophet Jeremiah. Seraiah was a staff officer of the king who accompanied King Zedekiah of Judah to Babylon to deliver an oracle from Jeremiah (Jer. 51:59–64). Baruch was Jeremiah’s scribe and personal assistant (Jer. 32:12, 16; 36:4, 8, 14, 32; 43:3, 6).

Nero   The Roman emperor in the years AD 54–68, he is widely considered to be among the most ruthless emperors. Upon the death of the emperor Claudius in AD 54, Nero was crowned as ruler at the age of seventeen. In AD 59 he ordered that his mother be killed, a move that came as a result of her constant interference in political affairs. She would be one of many family members and close associates to be murdered by Nero.

A Roman coin depicting the emperor Nero

A massive fire destroyed a significant portion of Rome in AD 64, and many citizens believed that the fire was ordered set by the emperor. Nero himself, however, blamed the fire on the Christians, and he pursued an agenda of persecution against them, executing many of them in extremely gruesome ways. Some early Christian tradition holds that the apostles Peter and Paul died in this wave of violence.

Due in large part to Nero’s growing despotism, his own armies eventually revolted against him, and he committed suicide in AD 68. The rumor arose soon after Nero’s death that he did not die but rather had fled to the Parthians, one of Rome’s archenemies. Another rumor spread that in fact he had died but had been resurrected; this myth is known as Nero redivivus.

Although Nero does not appear explicitly in the NT, he looms large in its background. He was reigning when Paul, while on trial before the Roman governor Festus, made the request that his case be brought before the emperor (Acts 25). Whether Paul ever did have his appeal heard by Nero is unknown, as the ending of Acts leaves this question open (see Acts 28). The Letter of 1 Peter may have been written during or shortly after Nero’s persecution of Christians in Rome, with the reference to the letter being written from “Babylon” (1 Pet. 5:13) likely functioning as a code for Rome. The memory of the Neronian persecution lies behind the book of Revelation, which contains several pieces of imagery and concepts alluding to Nero, the most notable of which appear in chapters 13 and 17. In Rev. 13 the Nero redivivus myth is echoed in the miraculous return to life of one of the heads of the beast, who then is given power to “make war” against Christians. Revelation 17 indicates that the beast symbolizes the Roman Empire, with its heads representing the emperors who demanded worship.

Nest   The image of a bird’s nest implies God-given security (Deut. 32:11; Ps. 104:17; Ezek. 31:6), yet no “nest” made by human hands protects from God’s judgment (Jer. 49:16; Obad. 4; Hab. 2:9). Exiles exchange “nesting” places with the wilderness birds (Isa. 34:11; Jer. 48:28), but Jesus had no “nest” at all (Matt. 8:20).

Net   Nets, probably manufactured from thread fiber made from the bark of trees and knotted together, are used in the OT mostly for warfare or hunting/trapping people (literally and figuratively) (Job 18:8; 19:6; Ps. 10:9; Prov. 29:5; Lam. 1:13; Ezek. 12:13; 17:20; 19:8; 32:3; Hos. 5:1; 7:12; Mic. 7:2) and for trapping wildlife and birds (Prov. 1:17; Isa. 51:20; Ezek. 13:20). The methods of entrapping prey, including humans, involved digging and covering a pit with a net into which prey would fall and be trapped (Pss. 9:15; 35:7; 57:6; 140:5; 141:10); thus, in Ps. 9:15, “The nations have fallen into the pit they have dug; their feet are caught in the net they have hidden.”

There is also reference to use of nets for fishing in the OT, though these are more limited (Eccles. 9:12; Isa. 19:8; Ezek. 47:10; Hab. 1:15–17). In Hab. 1:15–17 nets (kherem) and dragnets (mikmeret) become symbolic objects of idolatry as they supply the needs of the users who in turn offer sacrifices to them in gratitude.

In the NT, nets are mentioned only in connection with fishing (Matt. 4:18–21; 13:47; Mark 1:16–19; Luke 5:2, 4–9; John 21:6, 8, 11).

Netaim   A location, along with Gederah, where descendants of Judah’s son Shelah worked as pottery makers (1 Chron. 4:23). The KJV does not take it as a place name but rather translates the Hebrew as “among plants.”

Nethanel   There are at least seven and perhaps as many as ten different people with the name “Nethanel.” (1) The son of Zuar and head of the tribe of Issachar during the wandering in the wilderness, he was chosen to help Moses with the Israelite census (Num. 1:8; 2:5; 7:18, 23; 10:15). (2) King David’s older brother, the fourth son of Jesse (1 Chron. 2:14). (3) A Levite trumpeter who was part of the group that brought the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:24). (4) The father of the scribe Shemaiah, a Levite who recorded the names of the Levites (1 Chron. 24:6). He may be the same person as the Nethanel of 1 Chron. 15:24. (5) A Levite gatekeeper, a descendant of Asaph, the son of Obed-Edom (1 Chron. 26:4). He may be the same person as the Nethanel of 1 Chron. 15:24. (6) An official sent by King Jehoshaphat to teach people in Judah the Book of the Law (2 Chron. 7:17). (7) A Levite during Josiah’s reign who celebrated Passover with large offerings (2 Chron. 35:9). (8) A priest listed among those who had married a foreign wife (Ezra 10:22). (9) The head of a priestly family during Nehemiah’s governorship (Neh. 12:21). (10) A musician who played at the dedication of Jerusalem’s wall (Neh. 12:36). He may be the same person as the Nethanel of Neh. 12:21.

Nethaniah   (1) A musician from among the “sons of Asaph,” who performed on harps, lyres, and cymbals during the time of David (1 Chron. 25:2, 12). (2) A Levite sent by King Jehoshaphat during the third year of his reign, together with eight other Levites, five royal officials, and two priests, to teach the Book of the Law to the towns of Judah (2 Chron. 17:8). (3) The father of Jehudi (Jer. 36:14), who was sent by the princes of Judah as their liaison to the prophet Jeremiah. (4) The father of Ishmael, a military official who assassinated Gedaliah, the governor of Judea appointed by the Babylonians (2 Kings 25:23–25; Jer. 40:8, 14–16; 41:1).

Nethinim   One of five classes in Israel assigned to the task of temple service. They were designated as assistants to the Levites (Ezra 8:20). The name “Nethinim” (NIV: “temple servants”; KJV: “Nethinims”) comes from a Hebrew word meaning “to give,” likely signifying that they were given to the service of the temple.

All eighteen references to the Nethinim are postexilic, though Scripture traces their roots to the time of David (Ezra 8:20). Other attempts to associate their origins with Moses, Joshua, and the Babylonian exile lack textual evidence. In addition, their close association with the sons of Solomon’s servants (Ezra 2:58; Neh. 7:60; 11:3), and the specific parenthetical clarification of their role as “workers at this house of God” (Ezra 7:24), coupled with their subsequent disappearance from the text, suggests that they were designated for a limited, temple-related purpose.

They inhabited Judah’s houses and cities after the Babylonian exile (1 Chron. 9:2), appeared in the census list in Ezra 2, were requested by Ezra (Ezra 8:17–20), and assisted in the rebuilding of the wall (Neh. 3:26–31). They also responded to the reforms of Nehemiah (Neh. 7:46–56). They were assigned living arrangements near the temple while in active service (Neh. 3:26) and were exempt from taxes (Ezra 7:24).

The appearance of foreign names among their descendants suggests the possibility of foreign derivation. Moreover, Nehemiah specifically points out that they were not among those chosen to repopulate Jerusalem after the exile, but rather lived in the towns of Judah and had overseers appointed over them (Neh. 11:3, 21).

Netophah   A town and the surrounding region in the hill country of Judah. Netophah is associated with Bethlehem and probably was located nearby (1 Chron. 2:54; Neh. 7:26). Netophah usually is identified with modern Khirbet Bedd Faluh (three and a half miles southeast of Bethlehem), where a nearby spring, ’Ain en-Natuf, likely preserves the name. Two of King David’s mighty warriors were from Netophah (2 Sam. 23:28–29). Several of those who returned from the exile were from Netophah (Ezra 2:22), and some of the Levites settled there (1 Chron. 9:16; Neh. 12:28).

Netophathites   Descended from Caleb (1 Chron. 2:54), the Netophathites were residents of Netophah (Neh. 12:28; cf. 2 Sam. 23:28–29).

Nettle   A wild plant with serrated-edged leaves covered with fine hairs or spines that sting when touched. This and similar terms (“weed,” “thorn,” “thistle”) are used in Scripture especially with reference to the desolation and neglect of formerly inhabited places following their judgment and destruction. Precisely identifying the meaning of Hebrew botanical terms in Scripture is difficult, and various Hebrew words are translated as “nettle” in different English versions. The NIV uses “nettle” only once, translating the Hebrew word qimmos, in association with the thorns and brambles that will overrun desolate Edom (Isa. 34:13). Another Hebrew word, kharul, is translated as “nettle” in several versions (NRSV, NASB, NET, NAB), though it is rendered as “undergrowth,” “weed,” or “thistle” in others (Job 30:7; Prov. 24:31; Zeph. 2:9 NIV, NLT, HCSB).

New   “New” basically carries three senses in the Bible: (1) the beginning of a cycle of time such as the new moon, the beginning of the month; (2) fresh, pristine, or unused; (3) formerly unknown or recently coming into existence. Often, the latter two senses overlap and become difficult to distinguish. In certain cases the second sense is emphasized, and the actual age is not of primary concern: new grain (Lev. 23:16), new wine (Josh. 9:13), new ropes (Judg. 15:13), new cart (1 Sam. 6:7), new cloak (1 Kings 11:29), new bowl (2 Kings 2:20), and new tomb (Matt. 27:60). The third sense often is associated with the time of final restoration: God will do a new thing (Isa. 43:19), make a new covenant (Jer. 31:31), and create a new heavens and a new earth (Isa. 65:17).

The Bible places a high priority on the new works that God accomplishes, for there is little hope that people are capable of doing anything new (cf. Eccles. 1:9–10). These new works are contrasted with the old. There is continuity between them as the former establishes a foundation for the latter, but there is also discontinuity as the latter surpasses the former. Therefore, God will make a new (better) covenant (Jer. 31:31; Heb. 8:13), a new (better) heart (Ezek. 36:26), a new (better) creation (2 Cor. 5:17), and a new (better) heavens and earth (Isa. 65:17; Rev. 21:1).

New Age   See Age to Come.

New Birth   One of the many pictures of salvation that the Bible uses is new birth. Peter praises God because “he has given us new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead” (1 Pet. 1:3). In his conversation with Nicodemus, Jesus states, “No one can see the kingdom of God unless they are born again” (John 3:3). He goes on to explain further that this act of new birth is the work of the Spirit (John 3:5–8). What Jesus speaks of, God had promised in the OT (Ezek. 36:25–27). Paul uses similar language when he asserts that God “made us alive with Christ even when we were dead in transgressions” (Eph. 2:5). Because of our sinful rebellion against God, humanity is spiritually dead. God the Father makes alive those who are spiritually dead by the work of the Spirit through the resurrection of Jesus. This new birth is the starting point for the believer’s moral transformation. See also Regeneration.

New Covenant   See Covenant.

New Jerusalem   Both Ezekiel and Revelation envision a new Jerusalem and use similar imagery to describe it and to emphasize God’s presence in the city (Ezek. 48:30–35; Rev. 21:1–22:5). According to Revelation, the throne of God, the Lamb, and the river of life are present in the new Jerusalem, which comes down from heaven, is made of gold and glass, is adorned with jewels, and is in the shape of a cube. Only those with names in the Lamb’s book of life will dwell in the city (Rev. 21:27). The city represents a new, spiritual order (Gal. 4:25–26; Heb. 12:22). See also Eschatology; Jerusalem.

New Quarter   The northern section of Jerusalem, also referred to as the Second District (HCSB) or Second Quarter (ESV, NRSV, NASB) (2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chron. 34:22; cf. Zeph. 1:10).

New Testament   The collection of twenty-seven books and letters that along with the OT comprises the Christian Bible. The NT contains accounts of the life and ministry of Jesus Christ, the story of the expansion of the early church, and letters to Christian individuals and churches. The name “New Testament” is derived from the “new covenant” between God and humankind instituted by Jesus Christ (Luke 22:20) through his atoning crucifixion and confirmed through his subsequent resurrection. In AD 397 the NT books were formally adopted by the third Council of Carthage. Prior to its official approval, the canonical list was suggested by Athanasius in his thirty-ninth Paschal letter, dated AD 367, though these same books had been in circulation in the early church for many years. See also Bible Formation and Canon.

New Testament Use of the Old Testament   The appropriation and adaptation of an OT text in the NT, often labeled “biblical intertextuality,” “innerbiblical exegesis,” or “biblical allusion,” reflects the exegetical process whereby biblical writers deliberately appeal to the OT in order to elucidate, expand, or lend authority to NT revelation. This hermeneutical process finds its origins in the reuse of earlier OT texts by later OT writers. Later, the process was refined by the practices of scribal exegetes and rabbinical writers from the postexilic period well into the first century AD. This approach to interpretation recognized the dynamic character of Scripture and sought to contemporize its messages to address the issues facing changing audiences.

The biblical reader should keep in mind that as far as the NT writers were concerned, the OT texts comprised the authoritative corpus of material identified as the “Scriptures.” Consequently, the NT authors appeal to the authority of these accepted texts as the basis upon which to build or expand their theological argument, to reinforce their credentials as God’s spokesmen, and to appropriate and adapt OT revelation to address contemporary circumstances. The NT citation of an OT text assumes the familiarity of the audience with that earlier text, since the recollection of a specific Scripture by the NT writer in the formulation of his later message necessarily evokes in the minds of the audience a literary and logical connection. By drawing on the OT corpus, the NT author reinforces the continuity of God’s message and forges the identification of the NT audience with the experiences and promises made to their Israelite ancestors.

The most frequently cited OT books in the NT are Deuteronomy, Psalms, and Isaiah, underscoring the significance and importance of these early Israelite texts to the reformulation, expansion, and elucidation of NT revelation. In addition, the numerous NT references to these books indicate that they must have played a key role in the memories of the NT audience, forming the foundation for developing faith and doctrine.

IDENTIFYING QUOTATIONS AND ALLUSIONS

One critical and often difficult task facing the reader centers on locating potential intertextual references in the NT, since not all scriptural citations and allusions are obvious, and the practice does not conform easily to an exacting scientific process. Familiarity with the OT increases the ability to recognize the borrowing of OT themes and passages by the NT. In addition, many NT writers understandably quoted from the LXX, the Greek translation of the OT, rather than from a Hebrew text tradition, since they themselves were writing in Greek. Consequently, some variations in wording based on the type of text tradition employed by the NT writer add complexity to the enterprise. In addition, NT writers often modeled the exegetical methods of their Jewish counterparts, which, though typical of their culture and environment, seem unorthodox to some scholars.

Richard Hays, in his 1989 book Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul, presents seven criteria against which to evaluate the presence of biblical allusions: (1) availability (did the original author and readers have access to the source?); (2) volume (how extensive is the repetition of words from a previous text?); (3) recurrence (how often does the writer explicitly refer to the same passage?); (4) thematic coherence (does the quotation support the surrounding context?); (5) historical plausibility (could the writer have intended the alleged meaning?); (6) history of interpretation; and (7) satisfaction (does the citation illuminate the meaning of the surrounding text?). These principles provide a sufficient, if minimalistic, methodology for determining authentic instances of biblical intertextuality.

QUOTATIONS, ALLUSIONS, AND TYPOLOGY

The NT use of the OT generally falls into three broad categories: direct quotations (or citations), allusions, and typology.

Direct quotations. Quotations normally are identified by an introductory formula, such as “it is written” or “you have heard it said,” which serves to mark the upcoming quotation. In many instances the NT writer identifies the OT source, either by genre (e.g., “as it was spoken by the prophets”) or by the name of the author (“this was to fulfill what was spoken by the prophet Isaiah”). Occasionally, the NT writer relates his scriptural quotation or teaching to an individual, as in the case of the treatise on divorce in Matt. 19, where the Gospel writer repeatedly mentions Moses. In some instances the NT author combines parts of two different citations derived from two separate sources, attributing the entire quotation to one author, sometimes the more obscure of the two. For example, in Matt. 27:9, a discussion of the betrayal of Judas and the thirty pieces of silver, Matthew conflates Zech. 11:12–13 and Jer. 19:1–13 or (18:2–12 or 32:6–9) but assigns the entire citation to Jeremiah. The absence of a formal marker does not negate the possibility of textual borrowing; however, the literary connection between a NT passage and an OT predecessor would have to be established on the basis of literary affinities, rare terminology or expressions, thematic similarities, and associative concepts connecting the OT and the NT contexts.

Allusions and echoes. In contrast, biblical allusion employs no introductory or formulaic introduction identifying or marking the OT reference. While all direct quotations may be classified as biblical allusions, not all biblical allusions include direct citation formulas. Both direct citation and biblical allusion denote the deliberate borrowing and recontextualizing, transformation, or reinterpretation of a specific text, which has been incorporated into the later text in order to accommodate the writer’s message to a contemporary audience. The contextual environment of the antecedent, or OT text, influences and informs the interpretation of the NT text. The NT author intentionally evokes in the minds of his knowledgeable audience a specific textual referent along with its contextual associations, reformulating them in an innovative manner.

In a biblical echo, words or images are employed by a biblical writer in order to evoke conscious memories associated with multiple texts or with general themes. For example, the formulaic expression “the living God, who made the heavens and the earth and the sea and everything in them” (Acts 14:15) recalls multiple OT texts (e.g., Ps. 96:5; Isa. 42:5; Jon. 1:9) connected to incomparability statements reinforcing the sovereignty of God. The echo in Acts 17:26 generally recalls the creation account in Genesis, without invoking a specific verse or phrase. Although a NT writer may draw on biblical echoes without necessarily invoking a specific context of an individual passage, echoes may consist of interconnected layers of meaning that arise from differing historical settings and circumstances, each of which contributes additional meaning to the echo.

Typology and analogy. The NT writers often sought to employ OT texts by means of typology, reinforcing links between an OT event or concept and the subsequent development and transformation of that “type” in the NT. A “type” is a divinely appointed person, place, thing, or institution that has significance in its original literary and historical context but also points toward someone or something in later biblical revelation. The “antitype” denotes that which is prefigured by the original type. By means of typology, and to some degree, analogy, the NT writers demonstrate later revelation as superseding or fulfilling OT prophecies, underscoring the continuity of the NT with the OT and emphasizing its role as theologically transformative and expansive. Some predominant examples include the Passover lamb as a type of Christ (1 Pet. 1:19; cf. Rev. 5:11–14), the Aaronic priesthood compared and contrasted as a precursor of Christ’s priestly ministry (Heb. 5; 7–9), and the earthly tabernacle as a pattern for the heavenly tabernacle (Heb. 9).

The NT writers were also fond of analogy, delineating points of comparison between OT characters and accounts with NT teachings. For instance, Rom. 4 sets forth a lengthy discourse comparing Abraham’s justification by faith and the new relationship experienced by believers who are justified by faith through Christ. Analogy and typology are not mutually exclusive, as in the case of Rom. 4. Closely related to these hermeneutical methods is the infrequent use of allegory by the NT writers, such as the allegory of Sarah and Hagar in Gal. 4:21–31. The distinction lies in the nature of allegorical approach, which focuses on symbolism, or a “ ‘this’ really means ‘that’ ” interpretational framework.

THE ROLES OF CONTEXT AND AUTHORIAL INTENT

Scholars continue to debate the extent to which the OT context influences and affects the NT message, particularly in the case of citations or allusions. Some suggest that biblical quotations are purely incidental and should be divorced from their original contextual moorings and evaluated independent of those contexts, while others understand the original context of an OT passage to contribute information that leads to correct NT interpretation. The question revolves around determining the degree of authorial intent. In other words, to what extent can today’s reader, historically removed by time and culture, recover the original intention behind the biblical writer’s calculated and deliberate use of an OT text as an interpretational tool? Current scholarship continues to debate the role of authorial intent in the innerbiblical exegetical process.

Neziah   One of the ancestors of the temple servants (Nethinim) who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel in 539 BC or soon after (Ezra 2:54; Neh. 7:56). The fact that many of the names in the list are foreign has led to the belief that they were originally prisoners of war who were pressed into service to perform menial tasks as they assisted the Levites.

Nezib   A town, whose name means “garrison” or “post,” located in the Shephelah (lowlands) of Judah, mentioned only in Josh. 15:43 in a list of towns in Judah’s tribal allotment. It usually is identified with modern Khirbet Beit Nesib, approximately nine miles east of Lachish and seven miles northwest of Hebron.

Nibhaz   The Hebrew name for the Elamite deity Ibnahaz. The Avvite deportees created an image of Nibhaz, along with another Elamite deity, Tartak, to worship in Samaria (2 Kings 17:31).

Nibshan   One of six towns in the Judean wilderness allotted to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:62). Nibshan may be identified with Khirbet al-Maqari, located approximately six miles southwest of Qumran.

Nicanor   One of the seven chosen to help distribute food to widows in the Jerusalem church (Acts 6:1–6). In extrabiblical literature “Nicanor” was also the name of a military leader fighting against Judas Maccabeus (2 Macc. 8) and of a governor of Cyprus (2 Macc. 12:2).

Nicodemus   Nicodemus is mentioned by name five times in Scripture, only in the Gospel of John. He was a Pharisee and a member of the ruling council of the Jews (the Sanhedrin), and most of what we know about him comes from John 3. He came for discussion with Jesus at night, presumably to avoid being detected while having an amicable interaction with Jesus. Unlike his colleagues, Nicodemus recognized the authority of God in Jesus because of the miracles. Yet Nicodemus failed to understand the true nature of spiritual things (3:4–9) that Jesus subsequently explained to him (3:11–21). Jesus noted that since Nicodemus was a teacher in Israel, he should have understood such things (3:10).

Italian depiction of Nicodemus holding the body of Christ, by Stefano Maderno (seventeenth century AD)

Later, Nicodemus showed a sympathetic disposition toward Jesus when the rulers of the Pharisees aligned themselves against Jesus. Nicodemus noted that the law forbade condemnation before examination, and the other leaders reproached him for his defense of Jesus (John 7:50–52).

Then, after Jesus’ crucifixion, Nicodemus helped Joseph of Arimathea with the preparation and entombment of the body of Jesus (John 19:38–42). The testimony of Nicodemus prior to this time had been silent or less overt in front of the council, and this more overt act at the burial may testify to his conversion to discipleship of Jesus.

Nicolaitans   The Nicolaitans are mentioned exclusively in Rev. 2:6, 15. In the first text, Christ commends the Ephesian church for hating the practices of the Nicolaitans as he does. In the second text, Christ calls the church in Pergamum to repent for tolerating some among them who hold to Nicolaitan teaching. There, he compares the Nicolaitans to the Balaam/Balak group, which urged people toward the unholy combination of eating meat sacrificed to idols and sexual immorality. We know little else about this group. Some early church fathers linked it to the perversion of teachings by Nicolas (Acts 6:5), but this is unproven.

Nicolas   One of seven Hellenistic Jewish Christians chosen to distribute food to the poor Hellenistic widows of the Jerusalem church in order to free up the twelve apostles to continue their ministry of teaching the word of God (Acts 6:1–6; ESV, NRSV: “Nicolaus”). Nicolas was a proselyte (convert) to Judaism from Antioch. Like the other six, Nicolas was chosen because he was “full of faith and of the Holy Spirit.” Some church traditions identify Nicolas with the heretical sect of the Nicolaitans, referred to in Rev. 2:6, 15 (Irenaeus, Haer. 1.26.3; Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.29.1–3). This connection is dubious, however, and may have arisen from the similarity of the names.

Nicolaus   See Nicolas.

Nicopolis   The name of at least nine cities in the entire Mediterranean region and beyond, one of which is Emmaus, near Jerusalem and Bethphage in Judea. There is one mention of a city named “Nicopolis” in Scripture, probably a reference to the Nicopolis on the western coast of Greece. Paul noted to Titus that he intended to winter in Nicopolis, and he asked Titus to visit him there (Titus 3:12).

Niger   The second name of Simeon, a church leader at Antioch (Acts 13:1). Literally translated from Latin as “black,” it probably means that Simeon was of North African descent and designated “Niger” for his dark skin. People of dark skin were a common sight particularly in the North African portions of the Roman Empire. His inclusion as one of the “prophets and teachers” of the Antiochian church indicates that the church had a multinational and multiethnic identity. Perhaps the conscious awareness of the nations coming together in worship of Christ motivated their encouragement of Paul’s continued missionary activities. Some scholars have suggested that this individual and the Simon of Cyrene mentioned in Mark 15:21 are the same person.

Night   God created and named the darkness “night” (Gen. 1:5). OT writers associated night with aberrant behavior, fear, suffering, sorrow, and terror (Pss. 6:6; 30:5; 42:3; 77:2; 91:5), but they also knew that God worked throughout the night to deliver his people (Exod. 12:29–32; Deut. 16:1). Night is also associated with secrecy and danger, as seen in the Israelite exodus (Exod. 12:31) and the holy family’s flight to Egypt (Matt. 2:14). In OT times night was divided into three watches, but four in the NT Roman world. Night often was chosen to highlight divine activity (Matt. 2:12, 22; Acts 5:19; 12:6–7), but it also served to depict Judas’s betrayal of Jesus as a deed of spiritual darkness (John 13:30). Figuratively, night is used to refer to this present age (Rom. 13:12), and people of the world “belong to the night” (1 Thess. 5:5). There will be “no night” in the new heaven and earth (Rev. 21:25; 22:5).

Night Creature, Night Monster   In Isa. 34:14 the meaning of the Hebrew word lilit (NASB: “night monster”; NRSV: “Lilith”; ESV: “night bird”; KJV: “screech owl”) is uncertain. The LXX translates the Hebrew word with onokentauros, a sort of centaur, while the Vulgate has lamia (“witch”). It appears to be related to the Hebrew word for “night” but likely is drawn from ancient Near Eastern mythology, in which a lilith was a type of female demon, sometimes connected with sexual activity (hence Lilith’s portrayal in the Babylonian Talmud: Nid. 24b; B. Bat. 73a; Shabb. 151b; ‘Eruv. 100b). In later Jewish folklore, Lilith is depicted as Adam’s first wife, but outside of this text from Isaiah the name appears nowhere in the Bible.

Night Watch   For timekeeping, ancients divided the night into three (as in the OT) or four (as in the NT) “watches.” The NT mentions the second, third (Luke 12:38), and fourth (Matt. 14:25; Mark 6:48). The OT mentions watches (Pss. 63:6; 90:4; 119:148; Lam. 2:19), often in military contexts (Exod. 14:24; Judg. 7:19; 1 Sam. 11:11). The OT watches are not numbered but rather are referred to with terms such as “middle” or “last.” This system did not preclude the counting of hours during the night (Acts 23:23).

Nile   The Nile River is the lifeblood of Egypt and was pivotal for the life and culture of the ancient Egyptians. Annual flooding began during late June or August, inundating the land with water, bringing in nutrient-rich silts, and washing away salts from the soil. The annual flooding made the Nile Valley a fertile region, especially suited for growing cereal grains. The Nile floods also replenished the marshes, an important habitat for fish and birds and another important resource to the ancient Egyptians. Because of the meager annual rainfall in the region, agriculture was virtually impossible outside the Nile floodplains. Therefore, Egyptian settlement patterns tended to cling close to the river. However, fluctuations in the Nile’s flood levels could bring devastation. An unusually low flood would mean poor crop yields for the year, and an unusually high flood could destroy homes, livestock, and property. Such variations in flood levels are alluded to as the cause for the seven years of famine foreboded in the pharaoh’s dream in Gen. 41:1–4, 17–21.

The Nile is fed by three main tributaries. The Blue Nile and the Atbara originate in Ethiopia, while the White Nile carries its waters from Lake Victoria in northern Tanzania. All three rivers converge before the fifth of six cataracts, or rapids, along the Nile. These cataracts, numbered from north to south, acted as a natural barrier against hostile incursions from the south.

The Nile River

The Nile flows from south to north, but a prevailing wind along the Nile flows from north to south. These two factors mean that transportation north of the cataracts, where the Nile is calm for about 530 miles, was possible in both directions. Travelers could float without a sail, using the current to bring them northward (downstream), or ride the prevailing winds by use of the sail in order to travel southward (upstream). In Egyptian hieroglyphics, northward travel was illustrated via a symbol of a boat with a folded sail and a steering oar, while southward travel was shown as a boat with its sail unfurled.

To the ancient Egyptians, the Nile Valley was thought of as two halves. “Upper Egypt” referred to the part of the Nile south of the Nile Delta, while “Lower Egypt” referred to the Nile Delta itself. The ancient Egyptians oriented their world with regard to the Nile, not, as moderns do, by compass directions.

The Nile is mentioned frequently within the Bible, especially concerning Joseph and Moses, but also within the prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Amos, and Zechariah. Apart from the aforementioned reference in Gen. 41, the Nile is also referenced as the river into which Pharaoh ordered the Israelite infant boys be thrown, which led to Moses’ fortuitous float into the arms of Pharaoh’s daughter (Exod. 1:22; 2:3, 5–6, 10; Acts 7:22). Several plagues are also associated with the Nile (Exod. 4:9; 7:15–24; 8:3–11, 20; 17:5; Ps. 78:44–45). In 2 Kings 19:24 Sennacherib brags that he dried up the streams of Egypt. Prophetic references to the Nile occur in Isa. 7:18; 19:5–8; 23:3, 10; Jer. 46:7–8; Ezek. 29:3–10; Amos 7:8; 9:5; Zech. 10:11.

Nimrah   See Beth Nimrah.

Nimrim   Waters that become “dried up” in the oracles against Moab in Isa. 15:6; Jer. 48:34. The location of the waters would be east of the Dead Sea, in the land of Moab. One possibility may be the stream of Wadi en-Numeira to the southeast, at which lie the ruins of the ancient city Numeira. However, Nimrim may be linked to the name of Tell Nimrin, an ancient city northeast of the Dead Sea and one mile southwest of Beth-nimrah.

Nimrod   Nimrod is described in more detail than any other individual in the Table of Nations in Gen. 10. One of the sons of Cush, he was a warrior and proverbial as a “mighty hunter” (Gen. 10:8–9; 1 Chron. 1:10). He also founded eight cities in Babylonia and Assyria, regions that became Israel’s archenemies (Gen. 10:10–11). At the time of the exile, the Assyrians destroyed Israel, and the Babylonians destroyed Judah, but Micah promised redemption from Assyria and “the land of Nimrod” (Mic. 5:6).

Nimrod’s name probably comes from a Hebrew word meaning “to rebel.” Various attempts have been made to identify Nimrod with figures from other ancient Near Eastern sources, whether Mesopotamian (to maintain the Assyrian and Babylonian connection) or Egyptian (to maintain the connection with Cush and Africa). However, none of these is conclusive.

Nimshi   Apparently the grandfather of Jehu, the eleventh king of the northern kingdom of Israel. Jehu is called both “son of Nimshi” (1 Kings 19:16; 2 Kings 9:20) and “son of Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi” (2 Kings 9:2, 14). Perhaps Nimshi was better known than Jehoshaphat, making it easier to identify Jehu with his grandfather.

Nineveh   An Assyrian city near modern-day Mosul in Iraq, it is first mentioned in the Bible in Gen. 10:11–12. It became the capital of the Assyrian Empire during the reign of Sennacherib (705–681 BC). Because of Assyria’s threat during the late eighth and seventh centuries BC, Nineveh was the target of prophetic oracles that predicted its downfall (Nahum; Zeph. 2:13) and is the setting for the prophetic story of Jonah. The city was sacked and destroyed by the Medes and the Babylonians in 612 BC.

Ninevites   The inhabitants of the city of Nineveh. Their repentance in response to Jonah (Jon. 3:5) became emblematic of the proper response to Jesus’ preaching, and they are pictured at the final judgment as condemning the evil, sign-seeking generation of Jesus’ time (Matt. 12:39–42 // Luke 11:29–32).

Nippur   The site of the ancient city of Nippur is approximately seventy miles south of Baghdad, on the banks of the Euphrates River. The site was first explored and excavated at the end of the nineteenth century under the sponsorship of the University of Pennsylvania. Through the years the site also has been explored by teams sponsored by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago and the American Schools of Oriental Research.

Standing at the boundary between Sumer and Akkad, the city was considered by the Sumerians to be one of the most sacred cities. It was the site for the temple of Enlil (the Ekur), the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon, from the fourth millennium. The temple of Inanna was also located at Nippur. Although the city was never considered a capital, its religious prominence lent prestige to any ruler who would gain control of it. Furthermore, Nippur was a center for scribal activity. The site has yielded the majority of tablets inscribed with the Sumerian language. The types of texts witnessed include literary, legal, administrative, and economic documents.

The city experienced development in stages in its long history. Enmebaragesi, a Sumerian ruler, constructed the temple of Enlil in the fourth millennium. Under the Sargonid dynasty and the Third Dynasty of Ur in the latter half of the third millennium BC, the temple became the object of royal efforts in construction. Under the supervision of Ur-Nammu, a three-leveled structure (ziggurat) was added to the temple of Enlil. Despite the shift of focus in religious veneration to Marduk in the eighteenth century BC under the auspices of the Old Babylonian dynasty, Nippur remained a sacred site under care and development. Through the second millennium BC, the city passed through the hands of the Kassites, who built a palace there. The city and the palace were abandoned in the thirteenth century BC, most likely because of Elamite aggression. Under Assyrian control and the sponsorship of Ashurbanipal, a major restoration was accomplished in the seventh century BC. In the latter portion of the first millennium BC, the city continued to thrive under the control of first the Babylonians, then the Persians. In the period of Hellenistic hegemony, Nippur was the focus of activity in construction under the aegis of the Parthians; the city, including the ziggurat and the temple of Enlil, was fortified. Little is known of the city’s fortunes beyond the third century AD. Beyond the seventh century AD, in the period of Islamic expansion in the region, the site eventually was abandoned.

Nisan   A Babylonian name by which postexilic Israelites referred to what was formerly called “Aviv,” the month of the exodus and Passover. It corresponds roughly to latter March to early April. See also Aviv.

Nisroch   See Nisrok.

Nisrok   The god of King Sennacherib of Assyria (r. 704–681 BC), in whose temple Sennacherib was assassinated by two of his sons (2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38). No such deity appears in Assyrian sources, making Nisrok’s identity highly problematic, with suggestions including Ninurta, Enlil, and Nusku.

Niter   See Lye.

No, No-Amon   The ancient name for the Egyptian city identified by the Greeks as “Thebes.” “No” means “city,” so the name means “City of [the god] Amon.” The full Hebrew name, “No-amon,” appears only at Nah. 3:8. Elsewhere the city is called “No” (Jer. 46:25; Ezek. 30:14–16). Most English versions translate the name as “Thebes” for all these occurrences, though at Nah. 3:8 the KJV has “populous No” (cf. NASB: “No-amon”; NKJV: “No Amon”).

Located on the Nile about four hundred miles south of the Mediterranean, Thebes rose to its greatest glory during the New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC) and the rise of Egypt’s Eighteenth Dynasty, which originated in Thebes. Magnificent royal tombs and temples were built throughout the city. After the death of Ramesses IX (c. 1070 BC), Thebes was no longer directly connected to the royal family, and its prominence diminished. A revival of the city’s prominence and considerable growth occurred during the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (760–656 BC), when Thebes was revered by the Amon-worshiping Sudanese kings of the Kushite Dynasty.

Thebes was sacked by the Assyrian army in 663 BC and suffered raids by the Persians in 525 and 343 BC. The prophets Jeremiah (46:25), Ezekiel (30:14–16), and Nahum (3:8) pronounced judgment against Thebes, a city that epitomized Egypt’s pride and defiance of God. See also Thebes.

Noadiah   (1) The son of Binnui, a Levite in Ezra’s time, he was one of those responsible for counting out the gifts for the temple at the return of the Israelites under Ezra (Ezra 8:33). (2) A prophetess, she was one of those who tried to intimidate and discourage Nehemiah in his rebuilding efforts in Jerusalem (Neh. 6:14).

Noah   (1) The eighth descendant listed in the line of Seth and the grandson of Methuselah, Noah was used by God to preserve the human race through the flood. His name means “rest,” chosen because his father, Lamech, believed that God would use his son to bring rest from the toil of life resulting from the fall (Gen. 5:29). Enoch was his great-grandfather, and like him, Noah is described as one who “walked faithfully with God” (Gen. 6:9; cf. 5:22, 24). He was the father of Shem, Ham, and Japheth.

His story is told mainly in Gen. 6–9. Because of its great wickedness, God resolved to destroy the human race. But Noah found grace in God’s sight, so God instructed him to build a large boat as directed and to take aboard provisions for his family as well as selected representatives of animal life. Noah dutifully obeyed, and his family thus was preserved through the ensuing catastrophe. From them the earth was repopulated (Gen. 10), and Noah was the recipient of various directives for the governance of the postdiluvian world, often referred to as the Noahic covenant (Gen. 9:1–17). Noah’s personal story ends with the curious episode of him getting drunk and subsequently cursing a son of Ham for some offense that Ham committed, the nature of which is described only as seeing “the nakedness of his father” (Gen. 9:22 ESV, NRSV, NASB). His age at the time of his death is given as 950.

Noah is mentioned two other times in the OT. God cites his promise that the “waters of Noah” never again would destroy the earth to affirm his covenant faithfulness to Israel (Isa. 54:9), and in another text groups Noah together with Job and Daniel as those who could deliver themselves by their righteousness, but not disobedient Israel (Ezek. 14:14, 20). In the NT, Jesus cites the conditions in Noah’s day as being representative of conditions at the time of his coming (Matt. 24:37–38; Luke 17:26–27). Peter mentions Noah twice, once to refer to the spirits of those who perished in the flood (1 Pet. 3:20) and once to use Noah as an example of God’s ability to deliver his people (2 Pet. 2:5). Hebrews 11:7 lists Noah as a hero of faith.

(2) One of the five daughters of Zelophehad. Their petition for a portion of their deceased father’s property helped set a precedent for inheritance law in ancient Israel (Num. 27:1–11; cf. Josh. 17:1–6). When it came time for the daughters of Zelophehad to marry, a further decree was issued that inherited land must not pass from tribe to tribe (Num. 36).

Nob   A village located a little over a mile north of Jerusalem, home mainly to priestly families. David stopped there briefly while on his initial flight from Saul and received some assistance from the senior priest there, Ahimelek. Unfortunately, one of Saul’s herdsmen, Doeg the Edomite, observed this encounter and informed the king. Saul summoned Ahimelek’s family, and when Ahimelek acknowledged his actions, the king ordered the execution of the priests. His own Israelite servants declined to do this, however, so Doeg carried out the killings. One young priest, Abiathar, escaped and found refuge with David (1 Sam. 21–22).

Nobah   (1) A descendant of Manasseh who conquered Kenath (Num. 32:42). (2) The city formerly named “Kenath” (modern Qanawat) named after its new conqueror (Num. 32:42). (3) A city located near Jogbehah, both of which were used as landmarks for indicating a nomadic route taken by Gideon (Judg. 8:11). This Nobah may be the same site as #2; otherwise, its identification is uncertain.

Nod   After killing Abel, Cain is banished to the land of Nod, the name of which creates a pun on nwd, the Hebrew verb for “wander” (Gen. 4:16). Nod is more a fate than a location (cf. 4:12, 14). Like Adam before him (3:24), Cain is denied the security of place and is exiled “east of Eden”—a phrase symbolizing banishment from God. Israel understood land eviction to be the most severe punishment (cf. Lev. 26:27–32). The LXX mistakenly translates the name as “Naid,” a corruption of Hebrew letters.

Nodab   One of four people groups against which three Israelite tribes wage war in 1 Chron. 5:19. Nodab is a tribe in the north Transjordan that may be related to the Ishmaelite tribe of Abdeel. This war, which 1 Chronicles places during Saul’s reign, pits Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh against the Hagrites, Jetur, Naphish, and Nodab.

Noe   See Noah.

Nogah   A son of David born to an unnamed wife during the time he reigned from Jerusalem (1 Chron. 3:7; 14:6), though his absence from a similar and older list in 2 Sam. 5:13–16 raises questions of whether his name is the result of a textual mistake.

Nohah   According to 1 Chron. 8:2, the fourth son of Benjamin, though his name is missing from a list of Benjamin’s sons in Gen. 46:21.

Non   See Nun.

Noon   The middle of the day (1 Kings 18:26–27; 20:16; 2 Kings 4:20; Neh. 8:3; Job 5:14; Ps. 55:17; Isa. 16:3; Jer. 6:4; 20:16; Amos 8:9; Acts 10:9; 22:6; 26:13), at which point the sun is at or near its meridian and the midday meal is eaten (Gen. 43:16). See also Midday.

Noose   A rope configured in a loop with a running knot that draws tighter as it is pulled. A sign of death, it is used for execution or as a snare (Job 18:10; Prov. 7:22).

Noph   The Hebrew name for Memphis, an important Egyptian city (Isa. 19:13; Jer. 2:16; 44:1; 46:14, 19; Ezek. 30:13, 16). See also Memphis.

Nophah   A place included in a poem about the conquest of the Amorites by the Israelites in their travels on the eastern side of the Jordan (Num. 21:30). This site marked the boundary of the conquest. The location is certain to be in Moab, but exactly where is unknown. There is some discrepancy between the spellings of the name in different versions of the Hebrew Bible.

North   See Directions.

Northeaster   See Euroclydon.

North Gate   A gate of the temple mentioned by Ezekiel in his vision of Jerusalem (Ezek. 8:3, 14; 40:20, 23, 35, 44; 44:4; 46:9; 47:2). It is part of the inner court of the temple precinct. This gate is also mentioned in 1 Chron. 26:14 in the list of temple gatekeepers.

Nose   Mentioned only in the OT in most Bible versions (MSG uses “nose” in the NT as part of English idioms; e.g., Matt. 13:57; 21:32), the nose often is referred to in the context of jewelry, as nose rings for women were a fine adornment in ancient Hebrew culture (Gen. 24:47; Ezek. 16:12), in some cases indicative of extravagance (Isa. 3:16–24). Other times, a stronger party would direct a weaker party by means of a hook or a cord in their nose (2 Kings 19:28; 2 Chron. 33:11; Job 40:24).

The Hebrew word for nose, ’ap, could be used metaphorically for anger, much as English speakers might say that an angry person “has steam coming out of his nose.” Thus, the NIV’s “[he] became angry” can translate the Hebrew phrase “[his] nose burned” (Gen. 30:2; Judg. 10:7). The same Hebrew term can also refer to nostrils. The NIV uses the translation “nostrils” several times in the OT, often in poetry, usually in connection with breath (Gen. 2:7; 7:22; 2 Sam. 22:16 [cf. Ps. 18:15]; Job 27:3) or as a source of smoke (2 Sam. 22:9 [cf. Ps. 18:8]; Job 41:20).

The Hebrews also used ’ap to refer to the entire face, normally when a person was bowing facedown. In such instances, “bowed down with his face to the ground” translates the Hebrew phrase “bowed down with nostrils [’appayim] toward the ground” (Gen. 19:1; 1 Sam. 25:41).

Nostril   See Nose.

Nubia   The African kingdom just south of Egypt, along the Nile River above the fourth cataract. Although referred to as Cush throughout the Hebrew Bible, some historians refer to this region as Nubia, and a few English Bible versions follow the historians and occasionally use the term “Nubia” to designate the kingdom of Cush. See also Cush, Cushites.

Relief of Nubian mercenaries (Deir el-Bahari, 1470 BC)

Nuclear Weapons   Although nuclear weapons are never spoken of as such in the Bible, the proliferation of such weapons after the Second World War—and especially during the Cold War era—led some biblical interpreters to speculate that their use is implicit in various prophetic passages, such as Ezek. 38–39; Mal. 4:1; Zech. 14:12; 2 Pet. 3:10; Rev. 8:7.

Numbers, Book of   Numbers gets its name from two pivotal chapters (1; 26), which give a census—more accurately, a military registration—of the Israelites as they travel through the wilderness. But there is much more to Numbers. It is part four of the five-part Torah and, like Exodus and Leviticus before it, presents law in the context of a narrative of the travels in the wilderness. It is in Numbers that we read the account of one of the most devastating of all events in the travel narrative, the episode of the spies sent to the promised land, but this story is just the apex of a theme of grumbling that seems a constant reaction from the people of Israel in the wilderness period.

AUTHOR AND DATE

See the discussion in the article on Genesis. The book of Numbers is part four of the Pentateuch, so the issues of author and date are the same as for Genesis (see Genesis, Book of; Pentateuch).

GENRE AND STRUCTURE

The book of Numbers is made up of several different types of literature. There are laws, historical accounts, prayers, prophecy, wilderness itineraries, and more. In large measure, however, the book may be described, similarly to Exodus and Leviticus, as law embedded in a narrative of theological history. The initial section, 1:1–10:11, concerns the first day of the second month of the wilderness wandering to the twentieth day of the second month of the second year and is set in the wilderness of Sinai. At this time and in this place, God establishes the community for its long trek. No exact dates are given for the material in 10:12–21:9, but it narrates the journey sometime within the forty years the people spent in the wilderness. Then 21:10–36:13 presents the five months during the fortieth and last year of the wandering, talks of final preparations for the move into the promised land, and geographically describes the trip from Kadesh to Moab.

However, the outline of the book that takes the reader to the heart of its theological message is based on the two military registrations found in chapters 1 and 26.

I. The Sin and Judgment of the First Generation (1:1–25:18)

II. The Hope of the Second Generation (26:1–36:13)

THEOLOGICAL MESSAGE

The book begins with a military registration of all the men of Israel who are twenty years of age and older. There is also a description of the wilderness camp, whose very structure resembles that of a war camp. The tabernacle, God’s symbolic home on earth, is placed in the middle of the camp, similar to the position of the war leader. The tabernacle, God’s tent, is immediately surrounded by his most loyal troops, the Levites, and then the rest of the army, the other tribes of Israel. The militaristic words that Moses speaks on the mornings of the march as the ark of the covenant takes the lead confirm that the wilderness wandering is envisioned as a long march into battle (Num. 10:35).

Although led by a column of smoke during the day and a pillar of fire at night, the Israelites continually rebel and doubt the power and concern of their God. Thus, the first part of the book (chaps. 1–25) is a story of sin and judgment. The people are constantly grumbling against God’s provision in the wilderness (e.g., chap. 11). Lay and priestly leaders rebel against Moses, God’s appointed leader (chaps. 12; 16–17). The apex of this rebellion is found in the spy story in chapters 13–14. Here, twelve spies, one from each tribe, are sent to the land in advance of the rest of the people. When they return, they come with good news and bad news. The good news is that the land is beautiful and rich in resources; the bad news is that it is populated by nations “stronger than we are” (13:31). The latter news sends the people into a panic, showing their doubt of God’s ability to give them the land in spite of this human obstacle. For this rebellion, God dooms them to forty years in the wilderness. Of that original generation, only Joshua and Caleb, the two faithful spies, will be allowed to enter the land, for even Moses on a different occasion has demonstrated his impatience with his divine master (20:1–13).

Forty years was long enough for the original generation to die off and the next generation to mature. The story of the second generation begins with the giving of their military registration in chapter 26. From this point onward, preparations are under way for the entry into the land. Preliminary battles are met with victory, and laws anticipating the Israelites’ entry into a new situation are proclaimed. With hope, however, come questions. Will this new generation really be more faithful than the previous one?

In Numbers the reader learns of God’s continued involvement with his sinful people. God does not leave them to die there. Indeed, even after the transgression narrated in the spy episode, God remains faithful and protects his people from threats, including that from King Balak of Moab, who hires the prophet Balaam to curse them (chaps. 22–24).

CONTINUING SIGNIFICANCE

The book of Numbers continues the narrative of the wilderness wanderings. In spite of God’s displays of power and protection, the people doubt his ability to keep them safe, and so they complain repeatedly and even rebel against him. As a result, God punishes them, condemning that generation (with the exception of the faithful Joshua and Caleb) to die in the wilderness and not enter the promised land. The book of Hebrews (3:1–4:13) reminds Christian readers of these events and draws a comparison between them and the wilderness generation. Christians, after all, are pilgrims in this land and are journeying toward the promised land, in this case heaven. The lesson of the book of Numbers is to trust God and not grumble and rebel as the Israelites did. This book, then, is an encouragement to rely on God in life’s struggles. On the positive side, the book of Numbers also narrates the rise of the younger generation, the generation that would, under Joshua’s leadership, enter into the land of promise.

Number Systems and Number Symbolism   All numbers in the original languages of the Bible are written using words, not numerals. Neither the biblical Hebrew nor the Koine Greek writing system had distinct written numeral forms to represent numbers. Preexilic Hebrew inscriptions record numbers written either with words or in Egyptian hieratic number glyphs. During the exile, exposure to Aramaic resulted in the adoption of the Aramaic script to write Hebrew, but there are no clear indications that an Aramaic number system (as reflected in, e.g., the Elephantine inscriptions) was adopted. Hebrew later emulated Greek in assigning to the letters of the alphabet numerical values and so employing them to record numbers, although the practice of assigning numerical values to glyphs is also attested in pre-Hellenistic times. In Mesopotamia, for example, the practice of assigning numerical values to characters from their syllabic writing system seems to have existed at least as far back as the eighth century BC. The earliest evidence of this practice in Hebrew dates to no earlier than the middle of the second century BC, when it was used on Hasmonean coins.

The value and importance of numbers was widely recognized throughout the ancient world. Sophisticated mathematical texts are attested in both Mesopotamia and Egypt, although no such texts have been discovered originating in ancient Israel. The use of hieratic numbers in preexilic Israel suggests that mathematical knowledge may have been imported, particularly from Egypt. The Akkadian language adapted from Sumerian a hybrid sexagesimal number system, which used cuneiform symbols to represent numbers. Numbers were written in paired glyphs, one representing the values from 1 to 9, the second representing the multiples of 10 up to 50. For example, 59 was written by combining the glyph for 50 with that for 9. Larger numbers were then composed of sets of these paired glyphs. The impact of the sexagesimal system can still be seen in the division of hours and minutes into sixty parts. Most other Near Eastern cultures, including that of ancient Egypt and Israel, used a decimal system.

The decimal system was also used in the Greek-speaking world, and the Greek language, since before the NT era, had employed letters to represent numbers. The use of archaic letters that had otherwise disappeared from general usage by NT times gave the Greek alphabet twenty-seven letters, which provided the basis for representing ranges 1–9, 10–90, 100–900. Numbers were represented by adding letters together, so that the order of letters was unimportant.

When Hebrew started using letters to represent numbers, a similar scheme was adopted, although it necessarily stopped at 400 because the Hebrew alphabet has only twenty-two letters. For some, this suggests that Hebrew may have appropriated the system from Greek, but the same sequence of values in earlier counting indicates that the association of values 1–9, 10–90, 100–900 with the letters of the alphabet was itself not a Greek innovation.

NUMBER SYMBOLISM

Numbers often are used with symbolic significance in the Bible. Particularly prominent are the numbers 7 and 12, together with variations scaled by powers of 10. Other numbers occur frequently and also appear to have some symbolic significance, including 4, 40, and 1,000. A note of warning is pertinent, however, because there is a danger both of finding number symbolism where there is none and of overlooking the symbolic significance of numbers where it is appropriate.

Perhaps the most prominent symbolic association in the Bible occurs with the number seven. Broadly speaking, seven denotes completeness, perfection, or consummation. The number first appears in the creation account in association with the first Sabbath, in which it is tied to completion and rest. Linked to this are the working week, which concluded with a Sabbath, the sabbatical year for the land (Lev. 25:2–7), the duration of the major feasts over seven days (e.g., Passover [cf. Lev. 23:6, 34; Ezek. 45:21]), even the number of years Jacob worked for Leah and then Rachel (Gen. 29:15–30). God’s promise of comprehensive vengeance upon those who harm Cain is reflected in the use of seven (Gen. 4:15; cf. Pss. 12:6; 79:12; Prov. 6:31; Isa. 30:26). The idea that seven represents completeness can be seen in the seventy nations recorded in Gen. 10 and in the description of Yahweh as having seven eyes (Zech. 4:10). In the NT, the symbolic use of seven is expanded: it is used by Jesus in explaining unlimited forgiveness (Matt. 18:21–22) and most extensively by the author of Revelation, where reference is made to seven churches (1:4, 11, 20), spirits (1:4; 3:1; 5:6), golden lampstands (1:12; 2:1), stars (1:16; 2:1), seals (5:5; 6:1), eyes (5:6), angels (8:2, 6; 15:6, 7, 8; 16:1; 17:1; 21:9), trumpets (8:2, 6), thunderclaps (10:3, 4), crowns (12:3), heads (12:3; 13:1; 17:3, 7, 9), plagues (15:6, 8; 21:9), golden bowls (15:7; 16:1; 17:1), mountains (17:9), and kings (17:10).

Arising out of the observations relating to the symbolic use of the number seven are the manner in which its significance also applied to related numbers such as 7 × 7 = 49 (cf. Lev. 25:8–55) and 7 × 10 = 70 (cf. Exod. 24:1, 9; Jer. 25:12; 29:10; Dan. 9:2, 24; Luke 10:1–17).

The next most significant number with symbolic associations is twelve. In the OT, the primary association is with the tribes of Israel, and this association later develops to encompass God’s people in their entirety. It is likely that such an association is deliberately made in Jesus’ choice of twelve apostles.

The number ten is also associated with the practice of tithing, which was common throughout the ancient Near East. The number ten alone does not have a clear symbolic usage, although when a power of ten (e.g., 1,000 or 10,000) is used, these can represent any vast or unnumbered quantity (see “Large Numbers” below). Ten is also used in combination with other symbolic values to express the same symbolic notion emphatically; for example, 70 (7 × 10) or 77 (7 × 10 + 7) become emphatic affirmations of completeness, perfection, or consummation (e.g., Gen. 4:24; Matt. 18:22).

The number four appears to have some symbolic significance, perhaps due to the typical enumeration of the four cardinal directions, suggesting geographical or cosmological entirety (cf. Isa. 11:12; Jer. 49:36; Zech. 6:5). For example, four rivers leave Eden to water the entire land (Gen. 2:10–14).

The number forty appears frequently in association with long periods of endurance, such as Moses on the mountain (forty days [Exod. 24:18]), the time in the wilderness (forty years [Exod. 16:35]), Elijah’s journey to Horeb (forty days [1 Kings 19:8]), Jesus’ time in the wilderness (forty days/nights [Matt. 4:2; Mark 1:13; Luke 4:2]), and his time with his disciples following the resurrection (forty days [Acts 1:3]).

LARGE NUMBERS

Some scholars have argued that the large numbers in the OT present a particular problem in several places. Based on the figures in Num. 1, for example, there were 603,550 men of fighting age among those in the exodus, suggesting a total population of between one and three million (not counting livestock). Taken at face value, this number presents some difficulties: based on estimates of Egyptian population, it represents a very significant proportion of the entire population of that country; taken in conjunction with the number of firstborn recorded in Num. 3:43, it implies a very large average family size; it seems difficult to reconcile with the claim that the seven nations in the land of Canaan were greater than Israel (Deut. 4:38; 7:1; 9:1–2); and the logistics of moving that many people would pose significant problems.

However, if the observation made by Pharaoh in Exod. 1:9, that the Hebrews were more numerous than the Egyptians, was even approximately accurate, then a population of between one and two million would be appropriate. Nonetheless, various attempts have been made to mitigate the perceived difficulties by suggesting approaches that interpret the text in ways that result in significantly smaller population estimates for the Israelites.

The largest single-number word used in the OT is rebabah, which is used to represent large values greater than ten thousand but otherwise often lacks precision and is better understood to refer to a vast unnumbered multitude (e.g., Pss. 3:6; 91:7; Song 5:10). Similarly, the number one thousand can be used rhetorically without demanding mathematical precision (e.g., 2 Pet. 3:8, which should not be understood to provide a mathematical equation). It is this latter number that appears in the difficult passages in Numbers. The best solution to the problems lies in the meaning of the Hebrew term in question, ’elep (“thousand”). Several scholars have suggested that ’elep can also refer to a military unit or some other group (cf. Num. 1:16). Although the precise numbers in question are debated according to varying understandings of the sizes of the groups, the best solutions put the total number of Israelites in the exodus at around thirty thousand.

GEMATRIA

Gematria is a system for calculating numerical values for words by assigning specific values to the letters of an alphabet. As noted above, the practice was used for legitimate numerical notation in Greek and, in some periods, in Hebrew. Letters were assigned values based on their order within the alphabet, the first nine letters assigned values 1–9, the next nine assigned values 10–90, and the subsequent letters assigned multiples of 100.

Although numerology of various forms, and in particular gematria, has formed the basis of many misguided attempts to discover hidden meanings within the biblical text, there appear to be explicit uses of gematria in Rev. 13:18 and, some suggest, in John 21:11. If the number 666 is an actual example of gematria, no consensus has been reached over the identity of the referent.

Most of the other supposed examples of gematria within the pages of the Bible are unconvincing, largely because the texts wherein such examples are found make good sense without resorting to obscure and uncertain interpretations, and partly because it runs counter to the notion that God speaks to make his will known (e.g., Deut. 29:29).

Nun   Descended from Ephraim, Nun was the father of Joshua, the successor of Moses (Exod. 33:11; Neh. 8:17).

Nunc Dimittis   The Latin title given to the psalm of praise recited by Simeon in Luke 2:29–32. The phrase comes from the Vulgate translation of 2:29 and means, literally, “now you are dismissing” (NIV: “you may now dismiss”), which is the first part of Simeon’s thanksgiving in seeing the “consolation of Israel” (2:25).

Nurse   In biblical times, high-status mothers employed nurses to feed and care for children (Exod. 2:7; 2 Sam. 4:4; 2 Kings 11:2). In contrast, women of lower status nursed their own children (1 Sam. 1:23; 1 Kings 3:21). Rebekah’s nurse, Deborah, remained with her into adulthood (cf. Gen. 24:15). The dignity of her burial suggests that she was a beloved household member (Gen. 35:8). Naomi cared for the child of her daughter-in-law, though this did not necessarily involve breast-feeding the child (Ruth 4:16), since grandparents may have played a large role in child rearing. Isaiah plays on the social dimension of nursing and child care when he declares to Israel, “You will . . . be nursed at royal breasts,” reversing the expected roles (Isa. 60:16; cf. 49:23).

Nurture   A type of training, generally referred to in the NIV as “discipline” (Prov. 3:11–12; 15:5; Heb. 12:5, 7, 10). For children, it encompasses the cultivation of the mind and morals, which includes essential corrections, reproofs, punishment, and restraint that exhibits godly character toward Christian growth (Eph. 6:4). For adults, Scripture has a role in this “training in righteousness” (2 Tim. 3:16). Even as earthly fathers discipline their children, God “disciplines the one he loves” (Heb. 12:6). Disciplinary sufferings are a demonstration of sonship (Heb. 12:5–11). Nurturing is also a type of care that can be shown to plants, akin to the proper care of children (Ps. 144:12).

Nuzi   A provincial and administrative center of the land known as Arraphe, during the late second millennium BC. The population of Nuzi seems to have been predominantly Hurrian, and the location was also ruled by the Mitanni for at least part of its existence. The site is located less than fifteen miles from modern-day Kirkuk in Iraq and is best known for the almost four thousand cuneiform tablets that have been unearthed there.

A Nuzi tablet listing barley rations given to Hurrians and their animals (1500–1400 BC)

The texts unearthed at Nuzi come from administrative and family archives, among the most important of which is that of Apil-Sin (1767–1749 BC). They are written in a Hurrian-influenced dialect of Akkadian and convey a great deal of information about the social structure of Nuzi, especially its political, economic, legal, and military components. From them we learn that the king of Arraphe was a vassal of Mitanni, and that he stood at the top of a social ladder that included the queen and concubines, landowners, businessmen with military obligations, wealthier private citizens, governmental officials, and a relatively large class of property owners and slaves (including prisoners of war and private citizens who were forced to sell themselves into slavery because of their poverty; on occasion, these “slaves” seem to have been able to amass considerable personal fortunes in spite of their social standing). Women seem to have held a somewhat higher social standing at Nuzi than in other locations across the ancient Near East. They were able to engage in real-estate transactions and sometimes were extended significant protections in legal documents. Other significant legal and economic information comes from the so-called tablet of sonship, tablet of lease, and tablet of brothership. These tablets created important legal fictions aimed at the acquisition of land by adoption, transaction, or inheritance among otherwise unrelated citizens. Along with these, marriage contracts have also been discovered, providing additional valuable information about those practices. For example, marriage contracts indicate that marriages were legally arranged by fathers or brothers, dowries were paid to brides, and bride-prices were paid to the families. Moreover, they indicate that husbands sometimes were forbidden from taking a second wife, and that if subsequent wives were permitted, the original bride’s children remained the primary heirs of the husband.

Initially, the discovery of these texts generated a great deal of interest among biblical scholars because of the ways in which they seemed to confirm a number of different practices attested in the Hebrew Bible during the patriarchal period. Among these are the adoption of Eliezer of Damascus by the childless Abraham (Gen. 15:2), the series of negotiations over the marriage between Isaac and Rebekah (Gen. 24), and the practice of levirate marriage (book of Ruth). More recent research, however, has indicated that these customs are also clearly reflected throughout the ancient Near East during the second and first millennia BC, often with clearer parallels than the ones reflected at Nuzi. Thus, the evidence from Nuzi has not proved to be as clear-cut a case of direct influence as some had assumed. Nevertheless, it is not as if these subsequent findings have negated the apparent parallels with Nuzi, and a cautious reliance on the data as broadly suggestive of historical reliability is clearly the best course of action for the time being.

Nympha   The host of a house church mentioned in Paul’s closing greetings in Colossians, along with “the brothers and sisters at Laodicea” (Col. 4:15). Since Paul names the household as Nympha’s, she most likely was a widow, but it is not impossible that she was single or married. Being the only one from her church personally addressed by Paul, she may have also been the head of her house church. The gender of Nympha has been debated, as some Greek manuscripts say that the house belongs to “her” (autēs), while others say that it is “his” (autou). However, the manuscript support for the feminine pronoun is generally considered better.