Religious Architecture

The richness of religious architecture in Myanmar reflects the continuity of Buddhist tradition over at least the last 2,000 years. It embraces a range of structures, from wooden monasteries to gilded pagodas. Similarly, the everyday religious life of Buddhist Myanmar incorporates a great array of offerings, festivals, and other acts of devotion. The importance of religious donation has long encouraged innovation, and contemporary architectural embellishments include brightly coloured paint, constant white-washing to renew a temple, glittering mirrors and neon lights.

However, throughout the country, the forms remain much the same as in the past. The most frequently seen is the stupa or zeidi (the "golden pagodas" of Myanmar). There are many types, all based on the same combination of elements. The anda or bell-likened to the thabeik or begging bowl carried by Buddhist monks-of the pagoda rests on square and octagonal terraces. Above the bell are a series of shapes: rings, petals of the lotus flower, the hngetpyaw-bu or banana bud. Some people say the form of the banana bud comes from the shape made by two hands held in prayer although there is no proof for this. Above the banana bud is the umbrella or hti, and the flag-like vane. At the summit of the pagoda is the orb, symbol of Nirvana, ultimate enlightenment and release from rebirth.

The stupa evolved from burial mounds in India, before the time of the 6th-century BC Buddha Gotama. After his enlightenment, his relics were distributed and enshrined within stupas. Stupas in India are solid structures, but in Myanmar there are some that may be entered. Temples in Myanmar were more common at the 9th-13th-century royal city of Bagan (Pagan) than in subsequent eras. These temples range from small single-celled shrines to massive two-storey edifices. Most temples have one principal entry with false doors on the other façades, although others may be entered on all four sides. Whatever the size and plan of the temple, it sheltered an image. In nearly all cases, this was an image of the Buddha, although typically in Myanmar, there are exceptions to the rule!

The 12th-century Ananda temple, now considered the apogee of Bagan's architectural heritage.

Details drawn using a white steatite crayon on a "black" parabaik or folding manuscript illustrate the importance of roofs in Burmese religious architecture, including the many variations of the multiple-storied pyat-that. Black parabaik were folded accordion-style with the long strips of handmade paper made from the bark of the mulberry tree. The paper was then coated with a mixture of powdered charcoal, rice water and animal hide glue. The coating process allowed the parabaik to be re-used several times. Courtesy of Beikthano Gallery, Yangon.

Old photographs from the 1880s record the ornate carving of the Mandalay palace. Pyat-that tiered roofs graced the many throne rooms, and also, as here, over the main image of the Queen's monastery. The pyat-that is seen today in the recently reconstructed Mandalay palace, and over countless images of the Buddha in the monasteries of Myanmar. This use in both royal and religious contexts typifies the close links between kingship and Buddhism in forming Myanmar's cultural heritage. Photograph from a private collection.

The ancient city of Bagan stretches out along the bank of the Irrawaddy River. Although rich and green during the summer monsoon months, the rains reaching the Bagan plain are sparse compared to the delta region of Yangon During the rest of the year, Bagan receives virtually no rain. Scholars once wondered if the environment was lush during the city's 9th-13th century heyday, but it is now agreed that today's arid ecology was also present in the past.

Stupas and temples are found within the same enclosure at ancient and modern Buddhist sites in Myanmar. Today, many stupas sit at the centre of a rectangular or square compound made up of many smaller shrines, each within its own building. Some may house images other than the Buddha, for example, the territorial spirit of the pagoda, the Bo Bo Gyi. There are also planetary posts associated with different days of the week. A visit to the pagoda may include not only veneration of the central stupa but offerings made within a number of shrines and at one of the planetary posts. We cannot be certain, but this array of ritual locales probably characterized ancient pagoda compounds as well.

Continuous traditions are also found in Burmese monastery architecture. Certain forms within the area of the monastery mirror those of the pagoda compound. Both monastery and temple may be crowned by a tiered roof, the pyat-that. Images or relics of the Buddha occupy the spiritual heart of monastery and pagoda enclosures, and monasteries may have an associated stupa or temple. An outer wall attached to the temple, with in which the monks undoubtedly lived, surrounds many of the temples and stupas of Bagan. Evidence for this is seen in recesses on the sides of brick temples meant to support wooden structures. Reconstructions show these would have been similar to more recent wooden monasteries.

Some of the earliest religious buildings are found at sites of the Pyu peoples, a race later absorbed by the Tibeto-Burmans. Brick structures at Thayekhittaya (Srikshetra, Prome or Pyay) are dated to the 5th-8th century. At the 9th-13th-century city of Bagan, the religious remains number in the thousands. Further north is the last royal capital, Mandalay. The city was founded in the 19th century, although pagodas such as the Bagan-period Shwekyimyint testify to earlier settlement. The country's most sacred image of the Buddha rests within the Mahamuni (Hpayagyi) pagoda in Mandalay. Clustered around Mandalay, on the same bank of the great Irrawaddy River, are many earlier sites. There is Ava (lnwa), capital in the 13th and 17th centuries. Between Ava and Mandalay is Amarapura, the seat of the Konbaung Dynasty in the late 18th and early 19th century. On the opposite bank of the Irrawaddy is Sagaing, long renowned as a centre of retreat and religious meditation. King Bowdawpaya, who reigned from 1782-1819, built many temples at Sagaing, and further north, at Mingun. The most revered pagoda of all, the Shwedagon, lies far to the south at the heart of the present capital, Yangon. According to traditional history, the Shwedagon was founded during the lifetime of the Buddha and enshrines eight sacred hairs brought back from India by two merchant brothers.

The earliest remaining brick buildings are found at Pyu sites dating from the 1st-11th centuries. Some of these, such as the complex of monastic cells at the ancient Pyu city of Beikthano (a Burmese corruption of "Vishnu City") dated 1st-5th century, southeast of Bagan, clearly derive from Indian prototypes. In the case of the Beikthano monastery, the complex is likened to those at Nagarajunakonda in South India. The script on a terracotta seal from the site has been used to date it to the 2nd century.

Other Pyu buildings present more difficult attributions in their form and use. For example, at Hal in (9-11th century, north of Mandalay), there are unusual remains of square brick structures with a central stupa. Both inhumation burials and cremation urns have been recovered around the shrines. The heads of two recently excavated skeletons pointed to the southeast, with urns grouped around their heads. The southeast is generally the direction of the house spirit or ein-saung nat, and south the location of village spirit shrines.

Neither of these architectural forms is seen in later periods, illustrating the gaps in our knowledge of early lndic influences in Burmese religious architecture. The stupa, however, not only continued, but dominated religious construction after Bagan. Thayekhittaya has three bulbous stupas dating to about the 9th century. All three are outside the 12-km long circular brick wall that surrounds the ancient city. Their position, and later alterations, makes a firm dating impossible. However, their presence is used to place the few bulbous stupas at Bagan early in the city's history.

The image of the Buddha glows in the dimly lit interior of the Shwenandaw monastery in Mandalay. It sits upon an elaborately carved throne, gilded and adorned with mirrors. The massive teak columns and carved surround are also gilded, aptly recalling its name "royal golden" monastery. A saing-baung, the form of a wild ox's haunch, curves on both sides at the top of the surround. The roundels flanking the Buddha contain carvings of a peacock and rabbit, symbols of the sun and moon.

One of the Bagan bulbous stupas is aptly called Ngakwe-na-daung, or "ear ornament of Nga-kywe", in reference to the plug-like earrings of the Bagan period. Traces of green glazing remain on the Nga-kwe-nadaung, evidence of a ceramic expertise that has yet to be fully documented. Another bulbous stupa, the Bupaya, has received donations over the centuries, for it also houses the guardian spirit of the Irrawaddy River on whose bank it stands. It was greatly damaged in the earthquake of 1975, but today is smooth and gilded, pristine and beautiful, but an archaeological enigma. The dating of both bulbous stupas is uncertain but they are commonly placed in the 9th-10th century, as the city wall of Bagan is traditionally dated to the mid-9th century.

Brick temples or gu are found at pre-Bagan Pyu sites, most notably Thayekhittaya. As with the bulbous stupas it is their location rather than any epigraphic evidence that has given rise to a pre-Bagan dating. In fact, they are little different in form from many of the single-celled brick temples attributed to later periods. Eclecticism and variation mark all of Myanmar's religious architecture. The variation in temple form encouraged an equally broad repertoire of interior donations. Mural paintings once covered the walls and ceilings of Bagan's temples; some of these remain today, making them the earliest surviving wall paintings in the region.

Myanmar has a long and rich woodcarving tradition. The wooden shrines which house many of the animistic spirit or nat figures suggest that forms of religious architecture preceded the adoption of lndic norms. Given the tropical climate, we have little remaining evidence of wooden structures. Even at Bagan, where thousands of brick temples survive, we know little of the wooden palaces and houses that would have made up the ancient city.

Bagan does, however, provide evidence of contemporary wooden architecture in its mural paintings and temple architecture. For example, at the 11th-century Nanpaya and other early temples, a pyat-that surmounts the windows. At later temples, monasteries and palaces, the pyat-that recurs again and again. The number of tiers of a pyat-that varies, but is always uneven. In monastic compounds (kyaung) the pyat-that crowns the room housing the main image, while in palace architecture it crowned not only images of the Buddha but throne rooms of the king. It is recognized as the hallmark of monastery architecture, and is seen in countless examples from the massive Bagaya kyaung at Ava to the many monasteries (excluding the Atumashi) of Mandalay.

Myanmar's religious shrines are part of the landscape. All are dedicated to the hpaya or Lord Buddha, their verticality replicating the towering Mount Meru at the centre of the Buddhist cosmos. The religious architecture creates the spaces for sacred relics and to accommodate ritual. All evoke man's earthly hopes and his relationship to the divine. Whether the rounded form of a stupa or the tiered roof of a pyat-that, each marks a venerated place in the terrain. When the locales, structures, images, relics and offerings are multiplied to include all the country, one begins to understand the power and significance of religious architecture in historic and present-day Myanmar.

Many of Myanmar's splendid wooden monasteries have sadly fallen victim to fire and war. One casualty has been the beautifully carved Queen's monastery. (The pyat-that over the main image of the Buddha is seen on page 21.) The queen ordered its construction inside the palace grounds in 1885. In addition to the wood-carving, detailed glass mosaics set in the wood panels added to the rich decoration. Private collection.

Bagan

Bagan (Pagan) is unique in many respects. The ancient royal city was and is renowned as a centre of Buddhism. It is located along the bank of the Irrawaddy River in an extremely arid region of the country. Undoubtedly the dry climate attracted ancient settlement of the site. It has also assisted in its preservation, notably of mural paintings on the interior of a great number of its temples. More than 13,000 stupas and temples may be dated to its zenith, the 11th to 13th century. Today more than 5,000 of these structures remain, presenting an extraordinary variety of form and ornamentation.

Bagan is not a concentrated urban area, although part of it is enclosed within a city wall dated to the mid-9th century. The temples are not, however, restricted to the walled enclosure, but spread over some 30 square km along the east bank of the river. The legendary founding of the city dates it to the early 2nd century, but its history and temples become better documented from the reign of King Anawratha (r. 1044-77). The role of Bagan diminished after the 1283 Mongol invasion from the north; nonetheless, royal and religious donations continued. There are, for example, mural paintings in temple libraries dated to the 17th century, and simple wooden monasteries dated to the 20th century.

The earliest religious structures at Bagan are stupas, but there are more temples than stupas amongst the multitude of buildings. The first temples are lower, usually only single storied, whereas the later temples include huge edifices of two stories or a series of pyramidal tiers surmounting the base. The temples are rich in Buddhist, and to a lesser extent, Brahmanic images. These include relief carvings, paintings, and the image at the heart of the shrine. Many of these principal images of the Buddha are brick, coated in stucco and painted. Others were finely carved from sandstone, sometimes covered in lacquer and gilt. A few are hollow lacquer, delicately created over a core. Later images may be concrete, gilded, or painted.

The Bupaya stands proudly on the shores of the Irraw addy River. Its fresh painted and gilded superstructure are the result of repairs following damage to the stupa in the 1075 earthquake. The Bupaya is dated to the 9th century based on similarities to Pyu stupas. It is located at one end of the city wall that is also traditionally dated to the same period.

The early 12th-century Ananda continues today as a centre of worship. Pilgrims flock to this temple for the annual pagoda festival held on the Full Moon Day of January. The four arms of the temple point in towards the central core. Glazed plaques adorn the exterior at both ground level and along the upper terraces. As there is no access to the upper levels, it seems the primary motivation of the builder, King Kyanzittha, was to accumulate merit rather than to spread the wisdom of the Buddha.

The 11th-century Shwesandaw is one of the four massive stupas built by King Anawratha to mark the limits of his city. The tall terraces and proportions of the anda (bell) differ greatly from the Shwezigon, another of Anawratha's stupas. The absence of norms for contemporary structures make it difficult to establish a stylistic progression amongst Bagan's stupas.

The principal image of most temples is that of the last Buddha, the 6th-century BC Gotama. However, at the Ananda temple the central pillar is flanked by the last four Buddhas of our era. The Buddha or Buddhas, are the reliquary core of the temple, just as the stupa marks the location of precious relics. The main image is seated on a throne at the heart of the temple, both literally and spiritually.

Guardian or dvarapala figures flank the tall arched doorway of the 11th-early 12th-century Nagayon temple. Their graceful curves are formed from stucco applied over brick. Traces of mural paintings remain on the walls behind.

The form of the Nagayon temple typifies much of the so-called early architecture of Bagan. Several broad terraces lead the eye up to the rounded sikhara that surmounts its base.

One of three images of the Buddha in the Nagayon's inner shrine. The tall standing image displays the abhaya mudra, the Buddha dispelling fear.

Most of Bagan's stupas and temples are constructed of brick. There are a few notable exceptions, such as the sandstone Nanpaya. Bricks were donated by the surrounding villages, and some were stamped with a village name. When a building was completed, it was coated both inside and out, using a combination of glazing, stuccowork and painting. Some pagodas have traces of a green ceramic glaze, including the 9th-10th century bulbous stupa, the Nga-kywe-na-daung. Terracotta plaques were often used to adorn stupa exteriors, while temples were coated with stucco on the outside and decorated with mural paintings within.

The stucco was beautifully applied to the brick surfaces. Swirling floral curves contrast with the strong and straight horizontal lines of tiered roofs or pyat-that over many of the windows along the sides of the temples. The origins of Bagan's stuccowork are uncertain, and even though stucco from the 6th-9th century remains at Nakhon Pathom in the central zone of neighbouring Thailand, pre-Bagan stucco has yet to be found in Myanmar. Stucco reliefs of the Jatakas (life stories of the Buddha) are fluidly executed, with lively, lithe figures.

The stone of the 11th-century, sandstone Nanpaya temple has been cut to form brick-like shapes. These have weathered to a soft golden brown hue. The perforated windows are surmounted by the tiers of a pyat-that executed in stone. Above, a row of hintha or hamsa birds make a further decorative band. Each hintha sits within a roundel or tondo.

An empty plinth sits at the centre of the inner shrine of the Nanpaya. Four massive pillars mark the corners of the plinth. The inner face of each pillar is carved with a graceful figure generally identified as Brahm a with his four faces. Some identify the figures as bodhisattvas or Buddhas-to-be. As the central plinth is thought to have held an image of the Buddha, guardian bodhisattvas rather than Brahmanic deities would give the temple a totally Buddhist attribution. Both identifications must be considered, especially as Brahmanic and Buddhist iconography was often used within the same temple.

The enormous Dhammayangyi temple lies east of Bagan's city wall. Dated to the second half of the 12th century, it was never completed. Like the Ananda, the plan is that of a Greek cross with four arms projecting from the central core.

The Buddhas within the interior niches depart radically from earlier images. Here the large rounded head of the Buddha sits firmly on rounded shoulders. Earlier images had V-shaped faces, pointed chins, slender necks, broader shoulders.

The same skill may have formed part of the Mon contribution to Bagan. When King Anawratha captured the southern Mon port of Thaton in the 11th century, he brought Mon artisans to Bagan. The 10th-early 12th-century one-storey temples of Bagan are often called "early" and labelled "Mon". Many have Mon inscriptions, but the term is also used to describe a love of dark and mysterious interiors. This is an aesthetic and qualitative judgement for which evidence is lacking.

The one-storey temples have a very different atmosphere from the later two-storey structures. However, we cannot be sure this is a reflection of Mon taste at the time. Mons, Pyus, and Burmans all contributed to the architecture, sculpture and mural paintings which illustrate admirably the cosmopolitan life of the ancient city. Particularly apparent are interaction with Bengal in Northeast India, Tibet to the north of Myanmar, and traders arriving along the Silk Route. In addition to overland trade, changes also came via the massive Irrawaddy River. The religious architecture of Bagan beautifully displays all these influences.

Even though some forms-such as the bulbous stupa-disappear in later Bagan architecture and towering two-storey temples appear only in the last phases of the city's history, a clear architectural evolution cannot be defined. Generalizations diminish its stupendous architectural breadth. The sheer range of forms and motifs may be the result of patronage with each donor perhaps wishing to outdo his or her predecessor in order to accumulate ever-greater merit, or they may be a result of religious preferences. Not only are the plans of each temple different, but there is an equal degree of innovation in the content of the mural paintings within many of the interiors.

The 12th-century Thatbyinnyu temple rises high above the dry plain of Bagan. The main image is sheltered in the tall upper storey, its square form clearly separated from the lower terraces.

Countless images of the Buddha are found within the temple. The posture of the bronze image here mirrors the sweeping curve of the arch that shelters it.

The Mahabodhi temple takes its form from the famous structure at Bodhgaya. Its truncated sikhara provides a contrast to the more usual rounded sikhara of Bagan. Architects from Bagan travelled to Bodh-gaya in previous centuries to carry out repairs. Here the early 13th-century structure faithfully follows the original.

Bagan is alone among the ancient capitals of Southeast Asia in the preservation of mural painting from this period (see pages 154-161). The paintings were applied to dry plaster walls in colours that came from natural sources such as charcoal, ochres and lime. Other materials-many of which were vegetal and animal substances-were mixed with the pigments to help them adhere to the wall.

There is extraordinary variety in the mural paintings. Scenes from the life of the Buddha often surround the temple's main image, with eight events usually shown. These are: the Buddha's birth; his enlightenment; the first sermon; the twin miracles; the descent from Tavatimsa heaven; the Parileyyaka retreat when the Buddha is honoured by an elephant and a monkey; the taming of the Nalagiri elephant; the Buddha's death and ascent or Parinirvana.

The 550 previous lives of the Buddha are also depicted. Each is framed in a square with a schematic representation of the story elements. The size of the rows of Jatakas varies. At some temples the squares are five cm on each side, at others as much as a foot. In still other temples, only the last ten Jatakas are shown, in long continuous narrative strips. In eras before our own, Buddhas also existed and Myanmar Buddhism counts 28 previous Buddhas. At Bagan these are often shown in a row at the top of a wall covered with mural paintings accompanied by an explanatory legend. The rich interior decoration is completed by the floral and vegetal motifs. These fill the wall spaces, the deep-set arches over windows, and the ceiling. The overall effect is sumptuous as if the temple is swathed in textiles and carpets.

Exterior decoration is equally diverse, but much has been lost over the centuries. When Bagan was a living city, a complex urban area, a royal capital as well as a centre of religious education, it was a clear demonstration of pious donation and merit making. Today, however, only the mass of Bagan's brick structures remain stretching out over the arid plain. Yet from the curves of the stupas, sikharas and vaulted arches to the peaks of the umbrellas or htis reaching heavenwards, they endure as a testimony to the living tradition of Buddhism in contemporary Myanmar.

The late 11th-early 12th century Gawdawpalin on the banks of the Irraw addy is a favourite spot from which to watch the sun sink behind the hills on the opposite bank of the river. Its superstructure was badly damaged in the 1975 earthquake, but extensive repairs have preserved the towering landmark.

The Htilominlo lies north of the city wall, its bulk unmistakable along the road to the town of Nyaung U. Dated to the early 13th century, this temple takes its form from the earlier Sulamani temple. The broad but sharp terraces mark the transition from the base to the upper block.

The late 13th-century Thambula temple lacks the large upper storey that typifies the end of the Bagan period. Antechambers mark the four sides providing entry to the central cell. Despite the absence of a block-like super-structure, a staircase allows ascent to the higher levels.

The late 13th-century Hpaya-thonzu (literally the three caves dedicated to the hpaya or lord) forms part of the Minnanthu group. The exquisite paintings in the interior depict curvaceous bodhisattvas and their sakti or consorts. These and other elements of the iconography link the group to Tantric or Mahayanist practices. Overleaf. Buddhas rest peacefully within the late 12th-century Sulamani temple. The bright exterior sunlight filters softly into the ambulatory corridor. Traces of post-Bagan paintings remain on the walls.

Mrauk-U (Rakhine)

The Rakhine (Arakan) State of northwest Myanmar had a long and rich history as an independent state until the 18th century when it was invaded by the Myanmar king, Bodawpaya. As part of his conquest, Bodawpaya removed the venerated Hpayagyi image of the Buddha. Traditional histories record a visit of the 6th-century BC Buddha Gotama to Arakan. The early history of the region continues with ancient sites such as Vesali (Wethali) dated to the 2nd century BC. The most splendid of the old cities is the 15th-18th century Buddhist site of Mrauk-U where stupa upon stupa rest among rugged hils bounding the remains.

Although it is situated some 45 miles inland from the coast of the Bay of Bengal, Rakhine's strategic location between India and the islands to the east brought prosperity. It also brought European visitors who spoke glowingly of its riches. A Dutchman in the 16th century compared Mrauk-U to Amsterdam and London!

The architecture of Rakhine is unique and very different from the rest of Myanmar. Especially in the monuments dating from the 15th and 16th centuries, the affinity with the tradition of Bihar is more evident than any influence from Upper Burma. The two main characteristics are the combined use of brick and stone and the fortress-like appearance of the religious buildings, enclosed by massive walls almost devoid of any decoration. Often built atop a hill, these were used as refuges during the frequent wars. The many narrow passages and corridors, however, were embellished by a multitude of decorations and carvings, often rendered in a naive style.

The Ley Myel Nha or "four faces or façades" pagoda was built in 1430 by the first king of Mrauk-U. The central cell is octagonal but surmounted by a domed stupa. Four passageways protrude from the sides of the cell. Inside, each side of the inner chamber has 28 niches sheltering images of the previous Buddhas.

Paper-fine gold leaves cover the shrine of a spirit figure during an annual festival.

Many finely carved figures are found in the inner gallery of the Shitthaung temple. The gallery is vaulted and decorated with several tiers in high relief. There are mainly Buddhist, but also Brahmanic images, mythical creatures such as the kinnari, and amorous figures.

The 1571 Dukkanthein (Htukkanthein) pagoda is built principally of sandstone, with a brick superstructure, as are the Andaw and Shitthaung temples. As at the Shitthaung, fine carvings adorn the inner corridor. Many female figures, seated and offering lotus buds, are said to have been the wives of noblemen displaying 64 different hairstyles.

The Andaw Shrine (1521) contains a tooth relic of the Buddha said to have been acquired by the king from Sri Lanka. The main stupa is octagonal, constructed of sandstone, although the 15 smaller shrines that surround it (seen here) are brick.

The Shitthaung temple or "shrine of 80,000 images", is dated to 1535. Lying north of the city's palace site, its formidable mass has been called more of a fortress than a pagoda. Like many of Rakhine's temples, the broad base and carvings of the Shitthaung are made of sandstone. A ten-foot tall stone pillar on the north entry of the Shitthaung is inscribed in Sanskrit dated paleographically to the 6th-8th century. The pillar is said to have been brought to Mrauk-U from the ancient city of Vesali.
All Plates photographed by Jean-Leo Dugas!. Photobank.

Ava

Ava (Inwa) had two periods of greatness, first as a Shan kingdom in the 14th-16th century, and then as the centre of Burmese power from the 17th century to the founding of Amarapura in the late 18th century. The site is filled with ancient remains now beginning to be excavated and restored: These include the masonry watch tower of the 19th-century King Bagyidaw and the distinctive lnwa-style of pyat-that on the city walls. Also of interest is the brick and stucco Maha Aungmye Bonzan monastery, built by Bagyidaw's chief queen in 1818. It suffered damage in an earthquake in 1838, but was repaired by the queen of King Mindon. Its ornate brickwork and stucco mirror those of wooden monasteries.

Monasteries and pagodas are scattered around the area within the old city walls. In the southern side of the city can be found the remains of the four-storey Leidatgyi temple, while further south is the Ava Fort. One of the finest monasteries is the early 20th-century wooden Bagaya kyaung, built with 267 teak posts. A community of monks still lives there, fulfilling a vital role in teaching lay people and encouraging the support and involvement of the surrounding community. This presence of ancient and modern monasteries in Ava (as elsewhere) reflects the continuing importance of the Sangha or monkhood in Myanmar's religious and secular life.

Fine, intricate stuccowork on the exterior of the Leidatgyi temple is a characteristic of the religious architecture of the Late Ava period.

Remains of stupas, some dating back to the Bagan period, abound within the outer walls of Ava. While some are neglected, neighbouring stupas have profited from pious donations. For example, the shrine in the distance, and its fierce naga or serpent guarding the image of the Buddha, are all freshly painted.

A large chinthe or mythical lion stands guard at the ancient city of Ava.

Monks used the main prayer room of the Maha Aungmye Bonzan, the saung-ma-gyi for prayer and teaching. At the far end the tiered roof the pyat-that marks the main shrine room of the monastery, the hpaya-saung.

The massive Bagaya kyaung is crowned by the multiple tiers of a pyat-that.

Amarapura

The religious architecture of Ava, Amarapura, Mingun and Sagaing is less well known than that of Bagan, but forms a rich and distinct heritage spanning the 14th-19th centuries. Located on the west bank of the Irrawaddy River, Amarapura is literally called city (pura) of immortality (amara).

In 1783 the capital shifted from Ava to Amarapura under King Bodawpaya, but moved back to Ava under his grandson, King Bagyidaw, in 1823. Change came once more with the next reign, that of King Tharawaddy, who again left Ava for Amarapura. The king and his court remained at Amarapura until King Mindon founded the last royal city of Myanmar, Mandalay, in 1856. Each time the king moved, the wooden palace was dismantled and rebuilt in the new locale. Thus, although repairs, renovations and innovations were carried out, the form of royal architecture remained much the same for many centuries.

In contrast, the religious architecture of all four cities is characterized by its variability. The basic elements of the temples and stupas stayed constant, but there was increasing elaboration in decorative aspects. This may have been the result of increased and varied patronage. Chinese and European influence can also be seen, adding new motifs and forms to the architectural repertoire.

Small stupas mark the corners of the Patodawgyi's lower terraces. Jatakas, stories of the former lives of the Buddha, are carved on marble slabs adorning the terraces.

A manuthiha sits in front of a row of sein-daung, a row of upright leaves. Sein-daung are seen on a number of structures such as monasteries and rest houses (zayat). The motif also adorns palanquins and military helmets. The manuthiha has a human head with a double lion body. The creature is associated with the Mon peoples of Myanmar: it was created long ago to frighten an ogre and ogress that had been terrorizing the countryside by eating small children.

The large naga, or serpent, that gives the Nagayon its name rises up to shelter the shrine containing the main image of the Buddha. The corners of the two upper terraces are marked with small manuthiha, while a massive footed dragon, or naya, borders the staircase.

The early 19th-century Shwegugyi pagoda is seen in the distance, viewed from the upper terraces of the nearby Patodawgyi pagoda.

The varied shrines of the Thalia Htarna monastery sit in a wooded area popular for meditation.

This small rounded stupa sits well guarded, with chinthe or mythical lions at each corner of the platform and rearing nayas cascading down the stairs.

Amarapura was laid out as a vast square, walled and surrounded by a moat. A central landmark is the unusual, early 19th-century Nagayon pagoda. One of the most well known pagodas is the Patodawgyi, built by King Bagyidaw in 1820, shortly before he shifted the capital back to Ava. It sits just outside the old city wall on the south. Further south is the vast Taungthaman Lake, traversed by a massive wooden bridge, over a km long, built from the posts of the earlier palace at Ava. The Kyauktawgyi pagoda (1847) is at the end of this bridge. It is said to have been modelled on the Ananda at Bagan. Mural paintings adorn its east and west interior, providing not only a valuable record of monastic architecture in the 19th century, but examples of a number of earlier pagodas renovated by the king. A number of smaller shrines are found in the wooded area around the Kyauktawgyi.

Mingun

Mingun is best known for its massive, unfinished pagoda, started by King Bodawpaya while he reigned at Amarapura. He died, in 1819, before it was completed. Although only the lower terrace of the pagoda was built, it is the biggest pile of bricks in the world. If construction had finished, it would have been the largest pagoda in Myanmar, rising a reputed 150 metres. As spectacular as the size of the Mingun pagoda are the large fissures in its walls, the result of the 1838 earthquake. Nearby is another of Bodawpaya's acts of merit, the 87-ton Mingun bell, said to be the second largest bell in the world.

Other pagodas dot the riverbank around Mingun. One of the largest, the Hshinbyume, was built in 1816 by Bodawpaya's successor, Bagyidaw. He erected the pagoda before ascending the throne, in memory of the death of his main princess. The pagoda replicates the Buddhist cosmos, with seven rows of mountains surrounding the central peak of Mount Meru, home of the god lndra in Tavatimsa heaven. The niches of each level contain the five types of mythical animals who guard the mythical Mount Meru.

Today's visitor reaches Mingun on one of the small ferries that ply the Irrawaddy from Mandalay. It is a quiet, sleepy village, a respite from the city's bustle.

The undulating arches, on seven terraces, circle the central stupa of the Hshinbyume pagoda. The upper zeidi takes its form from that of the Sulamani pagoda located at the summit of Mount Meru.

The circular terraces of the Hshinbyume represent the seven ranges of mountains that encircle Mount Meru.

The size of the door within the façade of the huge Mingun pagoda gives some indication of its mass. An entry shrine marks each side of the square base. Much of the decoration was never carried out as its founder, King Bodawpaya, died before the pagoda was completed.

Sagaing

Although Sagaing was a royal capital for a short time in the early 14th century, it is mainly known as a centre of meditation. Devotees from all over the country come to Sagaing to meditate, and now, as in the past-it houses over 500 monasteries.

Some of these monasteries are of masonry, others deep within caves, and still others nestle in the valleys between the low hills. Mural paintings in caves such as the Tilawkaguru date back several centuries. The famous Kaunghmudaw pagoda was built in the 17th century to house a tooth relic of the Buddha.

Its rounded Ceylonese form is unusual for Myanmar, although legends state that its shape mirrored that of the breasts of the king's most beloved wife.

The city can be seen along the river's edge, but quiet and tranquillity are easily found in the endless pagodas of its surrounding hills. Some sit high above the landscape, such as the Soon U Ponya Shin pagoda. From here at sunset, the broad Irrawaddy becomes a dusky violet, its smooth surface reflecting the pagodas along its banks. The outline of Mandalay Hill is sometimes visible, and the blue of the Shan Hills in the distance.

The great Irrawaddy flows past Sagaing, with Mandalay on the opposite bank. Pagodas and monasteries are found on top of its countless hills and in its many valleys.

A golden reliquary stupa sits within the Soon U Ponya Shin pagoda. The pagoda is said to encase two relics of the Buddha.

Caves throughout the Sagaing hills shelter images of the Buddha. The Onhmin Thonze pagoda consists of 30 caves (thonze), with a myriad of Buddhas set within its crescent-shaped interior.

The square cube of the Soon U Ponya Shin pagoda rises high above the surrounding land-scape. Rows of smaller stupas, painted white, mark the pagoda enclosure. The stupa and its hti are more than 35 metres high, and give visitors an unrivalled panorama of the surrounding area.

Mandalay

Mandalay Hill was a sacred site long before 1857 when King Mindon began to build his new capital around it. In order to consecrate the new city, seven features (including several religious buildings) needed to be built. These were: the city wall and gates; the moats; the Maha-lawka Marazein (Kuthodaw pagoda); the library (Pitaka-taik); the royal monastery (Kyaung-daw); the Ordination Hall (Dhamma-Myitzu-Thein); and the rest houses (Thu-da-ma Zayatdaw), or else a royal preaching hall (Dhammasala).

The city takes its name from the hill or taung around which it is built. Some say the name "Mandalay" came from the Pali word mandala, interpreted by Myanmar scholars as an abode of pleasantness where one might seek a religious education. Other stories involve spirits or nats. The word "mingalay", for example, means "small king ". When used at the end of a name, however, it indicates that the person became a nat. An exiled son of a Bagan King, Shin Saw Mingalay, is said to have lived on Mandalay Hill, then known as Mingalay Taung. Also, a Pyu princess named Mingalay is said to have visited the hill. The repeated references to royal visitors and to nats suggest a long and continuous occupation of the sacred hill.

The royal palace, one of the first buildings to be constructed, lies north of Mandalay Hill. King Mindon used many parts of the teak building from the old capital of Amarapura; these had already been moved from Ava, to Amarapura and back again, to form the royal buildings at Amarapura in 1837. Although the main parts of the palace were used time and time again, each shift added new and ornate carvings, which were painted and then gilded. Also near Mandalay Hill-at its base-are a number of monasteries and pagodas. Enormous chinthe (lions) flank the ascent and, at the summit, a large image of the Buddha stands tall. His posture is unusual: the right arm is raised and the index finger points out towards the new city of King Mindon below.

Royal associations and unusual forms typify much of the religious architecture of the city. A number of monasteries are located east of the palace in the old royal quarter. Among these is the Shwenandaw, a beautifully carved teak structure that was originally inside Mandalay palace. A myriad of figures adorns its softly weathered exterior. Inside the main prayer room are elaborately carved and gilded panels of the last ten Jataka tales. The buildings formed the private apartments occupied by King Mindon shortly before his death. His successor, King Thibaw, dismantled the apartment in 1880, and moved it east to construct the new monastery.

The tiers of a pyat-that rise behind the chinthe guarding the ascent to Mandalay Hill. The pyat-that may mark both royal and religious structures. The word "pyat-that" comes from the Sanskrit "prasada"; a palatial building commonly adorned with multiple roofs. As with the pyat-that, the prasada was supported by pillars, size being equated with their number.

A bilu (ogre) outside the Atumashi monastery, prior to recent reconstruction.

An old postcard of the Atumashi showing the ornate stuccowork that adorned the wooden building.

The veranda of the 19th century Shwe-in-bin monastery, in the eastern precinct of Mandalay. While it sits well back from the edge of the veranda there are broad windows which may be opened out to protect the interior against the sun and rain.

The Atumashi or "Incomparable" monastery lies just west of the Shwenandaw. This was the royal monastery built by King Mindon as one of the acts to found and consecrate the new capital. Instead of the usual tiers of the pyat-that, it has five graduated terraces making a large pyramid. It was built of teak and covered with an ornately sculpted layer of stucco. A disastrous fire in 1890 destroyed not only the building, but also the monastery's large image of the Buddha and four sets of the Buddhist canon, the Tipitika. For many years, the Atumashi remained a romantic ruin, but relatively recently it was restored to a new design.

The meritorious works of King Mindon also included the Maha-Lawka Marazein or Kuthodaw pagoda. The pagoda itself is said to be a replica of the rounded form of the 11th-century Shwezigon at Bagan. The Shwezigon, built by King Anawratha, is one of the most revered pagodas of Myanmar, as its construction commemorates Anawratha's proclamation of Theravada Buddhism as the official state religion and the banishment of the former nat worship.

In a similar declaration honouring Buddhism, King Mindon ordered 729 stone slabs inscribed with the entire Tipitika to be carved to form part of the Kuthodaw pagoda, as well as to occupy many of the small shrines around the main zeidi. They remain a valuable source of study for today's scholars.

The use of the Shwezigon as the architectural model for the Kuthodaw links Mandalay stylistically to Bagan. Mandalay's Shwekyimyint pagoda, however, dates to the Bagan era. It was built by an exiled prince, Minshinsaw, son of the famous 12th-century King Alaungsithu. He installed an image of the Buddha that rests among many within the pagoda precinct. The Shwekyimyint is in the middle of present-day Mandalay, west of the palace. It is a richly endowed pagoda, with many images from royal families and a plethora of other shrines and donations.

In a pavilion at the back of the pagoda compound is an unusual reclining image of the Buddha. He is shown in a position of ease, his flowing robes painted a rich gold. However, rather than resting his head on his right arm, indicating his imminent ascent to Nirvana, his torso is upright. The figure sits upon a long throne or palin. Glittering glass mosaics cover the walls of the room created to shelter the image and arches over false doors replicate the wide half-circle curves seen over the doors at Mandalay palace. The room is separated from the rest of the interior by a beautifully executed wooden screen. Flowers and foliage twist and turn, creating a gold, lace-like effect.

The religious architecture of Mandalay is found at every turn. It is the result of the many donations of a royal capital, as well as an example of a centre of artistic activity. Monasteries, stupas and pagodas are located throughout the modern city and clustered at the base of Mandalay Hill. On the hill itself, shrines dot the slopes with covered stairs easing the task of ascending. Once the summit is reached, the pilgrim can look down to the wide moat surrounding the palace. To the west lie the blue shadows of the Shan Hills.

The small shrines of the Kuthodaw Pagoda, each sheltering a large slab inscribed with the Tipitika, the Buddhist canon.

A mass of slender, white-washed mini-stupas surround the Sandamuni pagoda, built on the site of King Mindon's temporary palace (where he lived while the Mandalay palace was being built). These small stupas house marble slabs inscribed with commentaries on the Tipitika. The shrines of Mandalay Hill can be seen in the distance.

Shwedagon Pagoda

The Shwedagon pagoda is the most important shrine in Myanmar. The golden glow of its main stupa is an unforgettable sight, its smooth curves rising high into the rich blue of the tropical sky. Countless smaller zeidis and pavilions (tazaung) crowd the platform of the pagoda. Some hug the base of the central stupa while others are in remote corners of the platform on top of Singuttara hill. The platform-some 280 by 220 metres-was levelled more than 2,000 years ago, long before the founding of the city of Rangoon (present-day Yangon).

The legendary history of the Shwedagon puts its founding in the lifetime of the Buddha Gotama, the 6th century BC. Encased deep within it, there is said to be a golden barge, studded with jewels, in the form of a mythical bird, the karaweik. The golden vessel encloses eight sacred hairs of the Buddha apparently given to two merchants from Myanmar who journeyed to India.

The story goes that it was a time of famine and the brothers had travelled with a boatload of rice that they had placed on 500 ox-carts. The mother of the two brothers, Taphussa and Bhallika, had died and become a nat. She urged them to seek out the recently enlightened Buddha and receive his teaching. The brothers found the Buddha meditating, and offered him cakes of honey ornamented with golden flowers. When it was time for their departure, they begged the Buddha for a remembrance. He obliged, giving them eight hairs. They placed these in an emerald casket, and then into a pyat-that adorned with rubies. The brothers, after many adventures, arrived safely in Rangoon with the relics. A chamber was prepared and they were placed in a cave deep within the Shwedagon Hill.

An understanding of the Shwedagon begins with an acceptance of its legends and history. Both have been part of its sacred nature for over 2,000 years. It will never be known whether the relics indeed rest with in the pagoda. In the 6th century BC, the delta area around the city was probably below water, with the Shwedagon's Singuttara Hill being one of the few elevated places. As such, the prehistoric occupants of the small fishing village that preceded the founding of Rangoon undoubtedly venerated the hill. Over centuries, the pagoda has been continually enlarged and repaired through donations by king and commoner. Royal donations traditionally equalled political sovereignty over the delta area.

The Shwedagon hill is north of the city's busiest section, the congested streets near the river front. There are four approaches to the Shwedagon at each of the cardinal directions, but the main entry is the long staircase to the south. Today this opens on to a busy intersection, but it has always been the traditional entry because visitors in the past wou ld have arrived at the city's port. The Shwedagon Pagoda Road is lined with monasteries (kyaung), rest houses (zayat) and other pagodas such as the Maha Vijaya just opposite the southern stair.

The Shwedagon's main stupa rises 100 metres above the pagoda platform. Smaller stupas and single-celled shrines cluster at its foot. Images of the Buddha and guardian animals are found on eight planetary posts around the base, each associated with a direction and a day of the week. (Wednesday has two posts, one for morning and one for evening, making eight.) Above the base are the plinth, three square terraces, octagonal tiers, the bell, rings, lotus, banana bud, and hti (umbrella-like top of the stupa). At the summit is the golden orb, studded with more than 4,000 diamonds, one of 76 carats on its tip.

Before beginning the climb up to the pagoda platform, pilgrims and visitors pause to remove their shoes. Shops lining the stairs sell an endless variety of offerings, images and religious texts. At the top, the shade and cover of the stair opens out on to the smooth and wide esplanade that encircles the pagoda.

Everyone who visits the Shwedagon comes for a different reason. Some come to gaze upon what seems a magical world of golden forms, tinkling bells, and the quiet chants of those in prayer. Others, as pilgrims, come to the Shwedagon to make a ritual circuit, a circumnambulation. Some make this circuit to stop at nine wish-granting images, others to make an offering at their planetary post. There is no fixed pattern to a visit to the Shwedagon, just as there is no apparent "order" to the myriad of shrines on the pagoda platform. All contribute to its character, a unique and vital part of Myanmar's past and present.

A pyat-that marks the North Devotional tazaung, dedicated to the Buddha Gotama born in the 6th century BC. In addition to images of the Buddha Gotama, there are many images of previous Buddhas, guardians (devas), masters of the occult (weizas), and the territorial spirit or nat of the Shwedagon, the Bo Bo Gyi.

Daw Pwint's pavilion on the southwest part of the pagoda platform shelters a nine-metre long reclining figure of the Buddha. There are also images of his brother Ananda, and his two disciples Sariputta and Moggallana. Paintings recall the founding of the Kyaiktyo pagoda near Thaton.

The red roof tiles mark the tazaung of the north staircase. On the left is one of four iron figures of Indians in front of the Hall of the Buddha's footprint. Some call this the Venus pavilion, as this is the planet associated with the north. Slabs of black and white marble pave the pagoda platform, becoming warm in the noonday sun. During the rains, however, the platform becomes smooth and slippery. Pilgrims, umbrellas aloft, walk slowly as they proceed around the zeidi.

A monk prays before golden images of the Buddha cast in bronze. Some images at the Shwedagon show the Buddha in a reclining position, but the overwhelming majority are in the bhumisparsa mudra or earth-touching posture seen here. The Buddha is depicted with his legs crossed, the soles of both feet up in the padmasana position. His left hand rests in his lap while the right reaches across his knee to touch the earth. It is perhaps the most significant of all the mudras as it recalls the moment when the Buddha defeated the forces of evil to gain enlightenment.

The curves of the Naung Daw Gyi or "Great Elder Brother" grace the northeast corner of the platform. The shape of this pagoda is said to preserve that of the central zeidi in previous centuries. The eight sacred hairs of the Buddha were first placed in the Naung Daw Gyi before being enshrined under the main pagoda. Small shrines, begging bowls (thabeik) or perhaps the hintha bird are found atop tall prayer-posts (dagun-daing).