Secular Architecture

The religious monuments of Myanmar are world famous, and have comprised many studies. Secular architecture, on the other hand, has been sadly neglected. It is only fairly recently that vernacular architecture has begun to be seen to be worthy of examination. Indeed, it is now understood that to fully comprehend the ancient cities of Myannar, one must include a thorough examination of all the non-visible secular structures that once filled in the spaces between and beyond the religious monuments.

This is particularly true in the case of ancient Bagan. Although not built on the scale of Borobudur or Ankor Wat, the architecture of Bagan reached a degree of intricacy not found elsewhere. More than 2,000 brick and stone temples and stupas still stand scattered over a huge plain on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River. However, there is little extant evidence of the many secular structures that made up the living city.

Within the walled city lived the king, his royal court and a large community of monks. In fields, where ground peanuts now grow, once stood lavish royal palaces constructed completely of wood. And much like the dwelling of lndra on Mt Meru, the royal compound was sited in the centre of a square, raised masonry platform enclosed by four walls. Teak was the wood of choice because it was both widely available and strong. Master craftsman were employed to embellish the palaces with exquisite carvings and paintings. They strove to create spaces that resembled an abode fit for a god. The king's wooden thrones were carved to resemble the base of a Buddha statue in a temple, covered with silver and gold and embedded with gems and glass. Seated upon his throne within a huge vaulted gallery and entertained by dancers, singers and musicians, the king presided over a succession of rituals and festivals.

The remaining space was filled with monastery compounds and homes of lesser royalty and members of court. Monastery buildings served as living quarters and meditation realms for the resident monks who oversaw the activities of the temples and stupas. Though grand in scale, they were built more in the spirit of Buddhism's message of simplicity.

A beautifully rendered drawing on cloth of King Minden's Mandalay palace. The palace has been compared to the dwelling of the god lndra upon Mt Meru. The royal barge sits anchored in the moat while soldiers stand guard before the tall brick wall of the palace. Courtesy of Beikthano Gallery, Yangon.

The broad, vaulted roof lines of the summer palace of Myanmar's last monarch, King Thibaw, are accented with delicately carved gables and finials which lend a lofty elegance to the structure. Fabulous gardens spill into the open verandas surrounding the palace; the potted plants were an addition from colonial times. Private collection.

This archival photo of a traditional wood, bamboo and thatch Shan home clearly shows the three-tier aspects of a pile constructed house.

A traditionally built home in Sagaing where the under-storey space has been enclosed with removable wall panels that allow for seasonal temperature control indoors.

Louvered panels are raised above a small family food stand. These help keep the sun off the food.

A footbridge leads to a small home in Mandalay. His and her lavatories are sited in the back of the compound.

In this house teak window shutters allow light and air to pass into the home's interior. The second-storey veranda faces east.

The homes of court members were simple compared to the king's palace, but it was a simplicity of law rather than one of faith. Although built of teak wood as the king's palace, strict laws governed the design and ornamentation of non-royal structures. The shapes of windows and doors, types and sizes of wood carvings, location of staircases, and various other architectural details were codified in an effort to reinforce the divine nature of the king. The opulent royal ceremonies and caste-like hierarchy of society were at odds with the tenets of Buddhism, which was the state religion. To rectify this contradiction, Hindu practices and rituals carried out by Brahmin priests were woven into the fabric of royal life. The design and layout of the city's architecture reflected the king's idealized concept of the natural and social order.

The architectural traditions of the Bagan kings were encoded in Pali inscriptions dating from the 12th century and carried over into future dynasties. Palaces were constructed of wood and built on raised rectangular terraces in the central enclosure. Because of the effects of climate, insects and fire in the tropics, wooden structures rarely survive more than 200 years. In addition, kings in Myanmar had a proclivity for relocating their capital cities, an activity that did not promote the preservation of palace structures. When King Mindon made the final relocation from Amarapura to Mandalay in 1856, he characteristically disassembled the royal palaces and used the wood to build his new palace compound in the new location. This final palace was destroyed by fire on 20 March 1945, by British shelling attempting to dislodge Japanese and Burmese soldiers. The few surviving wooden buildings, and the collections of paintings and numerous archival photographs, provide glimpses of the grandeur that these palaces once possessed.

In addition to these court structures were the houses of the people. Beyond the walls of Bagan, villages of farmers and fishermen stretched out to the horizon. Today-as then-the homes are elegant structures hoisted above the ground on a series of posts. What first catches the eye is the dominance of the roof as an architectural element. Steeply pitched and simply constructed, its pattern is repeated on all the homes of the village. A closer look shows a three-tiered structure built of wood, bamboo, and thatch, perhaps mirroring the realms of heaven, earth and hell.

This design has evolved over thousands of years as the movement of people throughout Southeast Asia lead to a sharing and mixing of building styles. It is believed that this pile construction (raised post technique) originated in Taiwan. The style spread south into the archipelago systems before making its way up the Malay Peninsula around 1,000 BC.

King Mindon moved his capitol from Amarapura to Mandalay in 1857. The availability of water was an important factor in the move. Private collection.

Wooden siding and zinc roofs characterize these homes in Yaunghwe town. The cooler climate of lnle Lake has lead residents to select a more wind-proof building system.

The homes of this large fishing village in Myanmar's Taninthayi Division (Tenasserim) are angled toward the water and heavily constructed to with stand typhoon-strength winds and wave surges. Photo by Jean-Leo Dugast, Photobank.

Since its earliest history, the plenitude of rivers in Myanmar has allowed its boat builders to prosper since its earliest history. Boats still provide an efficient and inexpensive means of transport between villages which line the banks of all the major waterways. Adaptations to the traditional pile construetion home can be seen throughout the various climate zones of Myanmar.

Pile constructed buildings are raised above ground level by wood or bamboo posts normally two metres in height. In tropical environments, structures raised above ground level have many distinct advantages. They protect the inhabitants and their possessions from flooding caused by monsoon rains; the excellent under-floor ventilation helps cool the interior spaces; the piles protect the building from extensive rot and insect damage, especially when a hard wood is used, and an under-storey area is created which can serve as a protected area for animals or for storage.

The second level is where family activities are carried out. The location of specific areas inside the house is strictly regulated by tradition with a hierarchy based on gender and age. The interior is generally unlit as most livelihood activities are carried on outdoors.

The third tier is an attic like area. Here grain is stored for protection against rats and mould along with family heirlooms and valuables for protection and as a sign of respect. The roof, designed to protect everything below it, evolved from the earliest building forms in the region which were basically giant umbrellas. Steeply pitched roofs, now found on traditional homes in Myanmar, allow for the rapid runoff of intense seasonal rains. There is an opening between the roof and wall sections, which provides venting of cooking smoke and much needed cross ventilation. The roof is normally constructed of bamboo and thatch which lasts many years if properly installed and maintained.

The building materials are a perfect blend of form and function. Wood, bamboo, and thatch are all widely available and affordable. They have low thermal masses and transmit little heat into the living areas. The supports and roof wall sections can be easily lashed together allowing structures to be dismantled and reassembled in a new location.

The combination of materials and building techniques has produced an enduring style that is a delight to view and is ideally suited to the tropical climate and environment of Myanmar.

In celebration of a young boy's initiation as a novice into the Sangha or monkhood, a shin-pyu ceremony winds its way through Myinkaba Village, Bagan. Just as one's clothes are not simply protection from the elements, architecture is not simply for shelter. Buildings are filled with symbols and messages that reflect and mould the world view of that culture. The differing roles of men and women, hierarchies of power, the interface between secular and religious life are all contained in the layout, structure and ornamentation of each and every building.

Village Houses of Bagan

Spectacular views of ancient stupas and temples can be observed from almost any point in Myinkaba, Minnanthu, Thiriyap and Tsaya, just a few of the small villages situated within Bagan's vast archaeological zone. In the same way that the dry desert air has preserved the past glory of Bagan's religious monuments, the villagers of Bagan have preserved the hospitality and gentle nature of earlier eras.

These people, mainly farmers of ground nuts and beans, weavers of cloth and baskets and masters in the art of lacquerware, continue with the same rhythms of life their ancestors followed. Time is measured here by cycles of crops and celestially regulated religious ceremonies. Buddhism permeates daily affairs, and an overriding sense of honesty surrounds relationships and personal interactions.

Their homes and villages exhibit the same straightforward and accessible characteristics, elegant yet unembellished. Materials are harvested locally and brought from the fields and markets by ox carts. Groups of men and women sit in the shade of giant ficus trees weaving slats of bamboo into wall panels or wrapping hand harvested grasses around lattice frames to form roof sections. Neighbours still come together to assist in house building and repairs.

People strolling down one of Minnanthu's many inter-connected lanes.

A group of homes shown clustered together beneath the branches of trees providing shade. Outdoor fires are not uncommon.

The crisp lines of this home clearly show the various roof and wall sections.

A woman uses a time-tested method to bring water from the well. This compound is enclosed with a fence of unforgiving cactus.

The water urns, oxen cart, and traditional home design can all be traced back in time to the era of the ancient stupas found all around.

Roofs of woven split bamboo reflect Bagan's hot afternoon sun. The light building materials of the homes and the shade provided by well-established trees help moderate the desert's extremes.

A baby nestled in a teak swing crib sleeps peacefully in her home's dark interior. Notice that the family's sleeping quarters are raised above the public area of the house.

A woman cleans rice in beautifully decorated lacquer baskets.

This collection of photographs chronicles the highlights of four generations. Respect for elders and an appreciation of their wisdom is still strong among the people of Bagan.

The open space between the roof line and the wall sect ions allows smoke to flow out of the house and encourages cool air to enter during the day.

A view of a roofing panel from below shows the wood framing over which the thatch layers are secured.

Mandalay Palace

The Mandalay palace was conceived and constructed during the reign of King Mindon who took the throne in a bloodless coup following the Second Anglo-Burmese war in 1852. At that time the royal city was in Amarapura which was built in 1782. The city's past was filled with royal intrigues and atrocities and this, combined with the recent humiliation of defeat to the British, drove King Mindon to seek a fresh site for his capital.

Seizing upon a fabricated prophecy that detailed the birth of a great Buddhist centre sited at the base of a great hill and on the 2,400 year anniversary of Gotama Buddha's death, King Mindon set out to build a "Golden City". He told his people that he had a vision in three dreams which required him to relocate his court to Mandalay. He felt the ruse was necessary because many of the 150,000 residents would experience great sacrifice and hardship in being forced to gather their possessions and follow the king.

After consultations with court astrologers, the most auspicious date was selected. On 13 February 1857, the first stone was placed in Mandalay. Great care was taken to follow the rituals and layout of earlier royal cities. Many elements of the palace design can be traced back in time, past the early Bagan kings into ancient Chinese and Indian dynasties. The orientation of buildings was extremely important since the east was seen as the most honourable point of the compass, the source of life; and the west was the direction of death, where all funeral processions would leave the palace through the west gate. It is rumoured that the tradition of performing human sacrifices was followed, with 52 men, women and children being buried below massive teak posts which were set in strategic points about the palace. The ghosts of the victims were thought to remain close to their point of death and provide protection for those living within. Construction was completed in 1859 and Myanmar's final royal city became fully occupied.

The city was a perfect square, measuring 6,666 feet (about 2,030 m) per side. The palace was placed exactly in the centre with its outer walls facing the cardinal points of the compass. Twelve gates lead into the city each marked with a different zodiac sign. Viewed from afar, it resembled the other worldly abode the king had sought to create.

1890s' photograph of people posing in front of the moat that surrounds the palace. The moat and double wall system of the palace were borrowed from ancient Indian and Chinese palace designs.

A pyat-that sits atop one of the corner gates of Mandalay palace. These towers were set upon all the gates of the palace, echoing a tradition described by Marco Polo while in Kublai Khan's palace in the 13th century.

The sun sets over the Mandalay palace. Covered with gold leaf and inlaid with coloured glass, the palace sparkles and glows in the bright tropical sun.

A royal barge in all its splendour and glory was moored on the west side of the moat in Mandalay and was used by the king in several annual ceremonies.
Plates 1, 2 and 4, and Plates 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9 overleaf from a private collection.

The central spire of the palace.

Gold-gilded, massive teak posts support the left Audience Hall.

A view of the Great Audience Hall and Central Spire.

All the buildings of the palace were only one storey in height. The number of roofs above a building indicates the importance of the area below.

Old photograph of the fantastic Lion Throne located in the Great Audience Hall. It was was one of eight thrones in the palace. When the British occupied the palace, they would have placed these potted plants here.

Concrete has replaced teak wood in the recent reconstruction of the Mandalay palace.

The 24-m Watch Tower, a spot from which to view the city.

Known as the Queen's Tea Room this building was in fact the Royal Guard Room.

The five-tiered Glass Palace was divided into two by a wooden partition. The east room contained the Bee Throne, which was embellished with carved bees, a good luck omen. The west room was the king's living room, and only he and his four main queens were allowed to sleep there.

The palace was dominated by a 78-m tall tower known as the "centre of the universe". This pyat-that tower had a seven-tiered roof structure that was completely gold plated. It rose directly above the Lion Throne and was supposed to be a great conduit for wisdom from above. The Lion Throne (see pages 180-181) resided in the Great Audience Hall where the most important ceremonies were conducted. Kadaw (paying homage ceremonies) were held three times a year with court officials and princes appearing before the king to swear an oath of loyalty.

All the structures of the palace were made of wood, much of it coming from the dismantled palace of Amarapura. Everything was carved with mythological creatures, floral designs and astrological symbols. A huge watchtower, from which guards scanned the city for fires, was constructed completely of teak and topped off with an exquisitely carved pyat-that.

King Mindon died in 1878 and, sadly, his Mandalay palace was completely destroyed by fire in 1945. A recent government reconstruction of the palace is an ongoing project.

Vernacular Architecture of lnle Lake

Inle Lake is a wonderland of natural beauty. It is long, thin and shallow and enclosed on two sides by hills of the Shan Plateau. Its nutrient-rich waters support a profusion of floating water hyacinths and cultivated gardens, while a bounty of fish thrive in its depths. The principal inhabitants are the Angsa or lntha, a Buddhist minority group. Known as "the children of the lake", it is believed that they migrated north in ancient times from the Taninthayi region (Tenasserim). Over time, they have prospered and now inhabit over 200 settlements.

The lntha villages are found both along the lake shores and directly in the lake. The water-bound villages are usually tightly clustered together and oriented in an east-west fashion. Homes are of a traditional post and beam construction with the structure raised well above the water on tall stilt-like posts. Walls are generally made of woven slats of bamboo, while the roof is composed of thatch.

The lntha utilize floating gardens, made from water hyacinths, marsh debris and soil, to grow flowers, fruits and vegetables year round. The gardens are secured to the bottom of the lake with long bamboo poles and are cultivated from boats, usually by the women of the village. Early morning markets are composed of buyers and sellers whose crafts are filled with colourful produce and who can be heard loudly negotiating from boat to boat.

The fisherman of lnle Lake are world famous for their one-legged rowing technique. The fisherman stands with one foot on the stern of the boat while wrapping the second leg around a long oar that he paddles in a slow circular stroke. Seeing a surface disturbance, he carefully navigates around the water hyacinths and throws a conical gill net trap into the water. Carp, cat-fish and eels are the catch of the day.

The lntha are a people who have adapted their particular brand of architecture and lifestyle perfectly to the enchanting environment.

Perched high above the water on long teak stilts, these lntha villagers' homes command a spectacular panorama of the Shan plateau. The stilts provide the homes with cool air circulation below floor level and a convenient place to tie up the family boat. The owners tumble out of bed into their boats and are practically at work.

This home in Ywama town is one of many lntha settlements located on the shores of lnle Lake. Due to a dramatic increase in development, future silting and pollution may severely impact the locals in the next few decades. The boat along the shore is of the type piloted by the one-legged rowers of the lake.

Lush, orderly gardens covering large areas of lnle Lake's surface take the first time visitor by surprise. The high yields and superior quality of produce from the lake's floating gardens enable farmers to sell their goods in markets as far away as Mandalay and Yangon.