1. From “Clementine Jacoby,” Forbes profile, https://www.forbes.com/profile/clementine-jacoby/?sh=3b852e72a654, and also the Recidiviz home page, https://www.recidiviz.org/team/cjacoby.
2. “Clementine Jacoby,” Forbes profile.
3. See Gerrit Mueller and Erik Plug, “Estimating the Effect of Personality on Male and Female Earnings,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 60, no. 1 (October 2006): 3–22.
4. See Tim Kaiser and Marco Del Giudice, “Global Sex Differences in Personality: Replication with an Open Online Dataset,” Journal of Personality 88, no. 3 (June 2020): 415–429. See also Marco Del Giudice, “Measuring Sex Differences and Similarities,” in Gender and Sexuality Development: Contemporary Theory and Research, edited by D. P. VanderLaan and W. I. Wong (New York: Springer, forthcoming). On variance in agreeableness and extraversion, see Richard A. Lippa, “Sex Differences in Personality Traits and Gender-Related Occupational Preferences Across 53 Nations: Testing Evolutionary and Social-Environmental Theories,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 39, no. 3 (2010): 619–636. For a useful survey of these literatures, see Scott Barry Kaufman, “Taking Sex Differences in Personality Seriously,” Scientific American, December 12, 2019.
5. See Ellen K. Nyhus and Empar Pons, “The Effects of Personality on Earnings,” Journal of Economic Psychology 26 (2005): 363–384. On emotional stability and extraversion, see SunYoun Lee and Fumio Ohtake, “The Effect of Personality Traits and Behavioral Characteristics on Schooling, Earnings and Career Promotion,” Journal of Behavioral Economics and Finance 5 (2012): 231–238. See also Miriam Gensowski, “Personality, IQ, and Lifetime Earnings,” Labour Economics 51 (2018): 170–183. On the Canadian data, see Dawson McLean, Mohsen Bouaissa, Bruno Rainville, and Ludovic Auger, “Non-Cognitive Skills: How Much Do They Matter for Earnings in Canada?,” American Journal of Management 19, no. 4 (2019):104–124, esp. 116.
6. See Melissa Osborne Groves, “How Important Is Your Personality? Labor Market Returns to Personality for Women in the US and UK,” Journal of Economic Psychology 26 (2005): 827–841. See also her dissertation, “The Power of Personality: Labor Market Rewards and the Transmission of Earnings,” University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 2000.
7. See Groves, “The Power of Personality,” 44–45.
8. See Martin Abel, “Do Workers Discriminate Against Female Bosses?,” Institute for the Study of Labor, IZA working paper 12611, September 2019, https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/12611/do-workers-discriminate-against-female-bosses.
9. See David Robson, “The Reason Why Women’s Voices Are Deeper Today,” BBC Worklife, June 12, 2018. On vocal pitch, one study is Cecilia Pemberton, Paul McCormack, and Alison Russell, “Have Women’s Voices Lowered Across Time? A Cross Sectional Study of Australian Women’s Voices,” Journal of Voice 12, no. 2 (1998): 208–213. On male use of voice to project dominance, see David Andrew Puts, Carolyn R. Hodges, Rodrigo A. Cárdenas, and Steven J. C. Gaulin, “Men’s Voices as Dominance Signals: Vocal Fundamental and Formant Frequencies Influence Dominance Attributions Among Men,” Evolution and Human Behavior 28, no. 5 (September 2007): 340–344.
10. On these differences, see Rachel Croson and Uri Gneezy, “Gender Differences in Preferences,” Journal of Economic Literature 47, no. 2 (June 2009): 448–474; Thomas Buser, Muriel Niederle, and Hessel Oosterbeek, “Gender Competitiveness and Career Choices,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 129, no. 3 (August 2014): 1409–1447; and Muriel Niederle and Lise Vesterlund, “Do Women Shy Away from Competition? Do Men Compete Too Much?,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 122, no. 3 (August 2007): 1067–1101, among many other papers. By the way, these same research studies do not assess whether these are innate biological differences or brought on by gender socialization. In any case, from your vantage point as a talent scout, that is not the major issue. Instead, the question is how you might use this information to make better hires and find and mobilize more talented women.
11. See Christine L. Exley and Judd B. Kessler, “The Gender Gap in Self-Promotion,” working paper, 2019, https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=57092.
12. See Julian Kolev, Yuly Fuentes-Medel, and Fiona Murray, “Is Blinded Review Enough? How Gendered Outcomes Arise Even Under Anonymous Evaluation,” National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 25759, April 2019.
13. See Sarah Cattan, “Psychological Traits and the Gender Wage Gap,” Institute for Fiscal Studies working paper, 2013; Francine D. Blau and Lawrence M. Kahn, “The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations,” National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 21913, January 2016. For a significant follow-up study, see Leonora Risse, Lisa Farrell, and Tim R. L. Fry, “Personality and Pay: Do Gender Gaps in Confidence Explain Gender Gaps in Wages?,” Oxford Economic Papers 70, no. 4 (2018): 919–949; see also Adina D. Sterling et al., “The Confidence Gap Predicts the Gender Pay Gap Among STEM Graduates,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 48 (December 1, 2020): 30303–30308. For evidence on the confidence gap and how stereotyping may contribute to it, see Pedro Bordalo, Katherine Coffman, Nicola Gennaioli, and Andrei Shleifer, “Beliefs About Gender,” American Economic Review 109, no. 3 (March 2019): 739–773, https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/shleifer/files/beliefsaboutgender2.2019.pdf.
14. See Angela Cools, Raquel Fernandez, and Eleonora Patacchini, “Girls, Boys, and High Achievers,” National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 25763, April 2019. For evidence that the confidence gap helps explain why boys more aggressively ask for regrading in school, see Cher Hsuehhsiang Li and Basit Zafar, “Ask and You Shall Receive? Gender Differences in Regrades in College,” National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 26703, January 2020.
15. For one piece of evidence that women may be the more rational traders, see Catherine C. Eckel and Sascha C. Füllbrunn, “Thar SHE Blows? Gender, Competition, and Bubbles in Experimental Asset Markets,” American Economic Review 105, no. 2 (2015): 906–920. On the confidence gap in economics, see Heather Sarsons and Guo Xu, “Confidence Men? Evidence on Confidence and Gender Among Top Economists,” AEA Papers and Proceedings 111 (2021): 65–68.
16. For the tournament study, see Joyce He, Sonia Kang, and Nicola Lacetera, “Leaning In or Not Leaning Out? Opt-Out Choice Framing Attenuates Gender Differences in the Decision to Compete,” National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 26484, November 2019.
17. Jennifer Hunt, Jean-Philippe Garant, Hannah Herman, and David J. Munroe, “Why Don’t Women Patent?,” National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 17888, March 2012.
18. See Sabrina T. Howell and Ramana Nanda, “Networking Frictions in Venture Capital, and the Gender Gap in Entrepreneurship,” National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 26449, November 2019.
19. For one series of anecdotal accounts, see Susan Chira, “Why Women Aren’t C.E.O.s, According to Women Who Almost Were,” The New York Times, July 21, 2017.
20. See Allen Hu and Song Ma, “Persuading Investors: A Video-Based Study, National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 29048, July 2021.
21. Raffi Khatchadourian, “N. K. Jemisin’s Dream Worlds,” The New Yorker, January 27, 2020.
22. See Frank Bruni, “Sister Wendy, Cloistered,” The New York Times, September 30, 1997, and also her Wikipedia page, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendy_Beckett.
23. Interestingly, in this paper attractiveness and smarts are not correlated. It is also interesting to see what people judge as smart. For instance, those men judged as smart on average have somewhat elongated faces, with a broader distance between the eyes, a larger nose, a slight upturn to the corners of the mouth, and a sharper, less rounded chin. Yet those same traits, when measured directly, do not predict intelligence at all. Therefore it seems there is an incorrect stereotypical set of intelligence judgments layered upon some partially correct intuitions. The paper is Karel Kleisner, Veronika Chvátalová, and Jaroslav Flegr, “Perceived Intelligence is Associated with Measured Intelligence in Men but Not Women,” PLoS ONE 9, no. 3 (2014): e81237.
24. See Xingjie Wei and David Stillwell, “How Smart Does Your Profile Image Look? Intelligence Estimation from Social Network Profile Images,” December 11, 2016, https://arxiv.org/abs/1606.09264.