Bibliographical Essay

In his Defence of Poesy Philip Sidney wrote of the historian ‘loaden with old mouse-eaten records, authorizing himself (for the most part) upon other histories’. So it was, and is. This book rests only partly upon work on manuscripts, and is mainly dependent upon printed primary sources, transcribed, compiled and calendared by the heroic labours of editors, from John Foxe onwards.

A comprehensive bibliography of primary and secondary sources is found in Bibliography of British History: Tudor Period, 1485–1603, ed. Conyers Read (Oxford, 2nd edn, 1959). See also G. R. Elton, England, 1200–1640 in the series The Sources of English History (London, 1969). A. W. Pollard and G. R. Redgrave, A Short-Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland and Ireland… 1475–1640 (2nd edn, 3 vols., London, 1976–91) is indispensable for a study of the contemporary literature. Many of the poems cited are to be found in The Penguin Book of Renaissance Verse, 1509–1659, selected by D. Norbrook and edited by H. R. Woudhuysen (London, 1993), a book for a desert island.
For Ireland, A New History of Ireland, vol. 2, Medieval Ireland, 1169–1534, ed. A. Cosgrove (Oxford, 1987), and vol. 3, Early Modern Ireland, 1534–1691, ed. T. W. Moody, F. X. Martin and F. J. Byrne (Oxford, 1976) include full bibliographies. R. W. D. Edwards and M. O’Dowd, Sources for Early Modern Irish History, 1534–1641 (Cambridge, 1985) is an important survey of printed sources, with chapters on archival collections and historiography.

THE PRINCIPAL SOURCES

Fundamental are the calendars of the state papers. Every historian of Henry VIII’s reign depends upon the great collection of Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII, 1509–1547, ed. J. S. Brewer, J. Gairdner and R. H. Brodie (21 vols., London, 1862–1932), and the State Papers… King Henry VIII (11 vols., London, 1832–52). Calendaring the state papers, the editors divided them in ways that do not reflect the thinking of Tudor councillors, who had to consider policy as a whole: ‘Domestic’, ‘Foreign’, ‘Scottish’, ‘Irish’, etc. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series of the reigns of Edward VI, 1547–1553; Mary I, 1553–1558, ed. C. S. Knighton (2 vols., London, 1992, 1998); Calendar of State Papers, Domestic: Elizabeth I, ed. R. Lemon and Μ. A. E. Green (12 vols., London, 1856–72); Calendar of State Papers, Foreign: Edward VI and Mary, ed. W. B. Turnbull, (2 vols., London, 1861) and Elizabeth, ed. J. Stevenson et al (23 vols., London, 1863–1950); Calendar of State Papers Relating to Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots, 1547–1603, ed. J. Bain, et al. (13 vols., Edinburgh and Glasgow, 1898–1969); Calendar of State Papers, Venetian, ed. R. Brown, et al. (9 vols., London, 1864–98); Calendar of State Papers, Spanish, ed. G. A. Bergenroth, et al. (13 vols. and 2 supplements, London, 1862–9); The Acts of the Privy Council of England, ed. J. R. Dasent (46 vols., London, 1890–1964). ‘State’ records were effectively private papers in this period, and remained in the councillors’ families. Outstanding among the volumes published by the Historical Manuscripts Commission are: Calendar of the MSS of Lord De L’Isle and Dudley at Penshurst Place (3 vols., London, 1925–36); Calendar of the MSS of the Marquess of Salisbury at Hatfield House (24 vols., London, 1883–1976); and Calendar of the MSS of the Marquess of Bath at Longleat (5 vols., London, 1904–80).
For Ireland, the chief printed sources are the Calendar of State Papers Ireland, 1509–1603, ed. H. C. Hamilton, et al. (11 vols., London, 1860–1912); Calendar of Carew MSS… at Lambeth, 1515–1624, ed. J. S. Brewer and W. Bullen (6 vols., London, 1867–73); State Papers, Henry VIII, vols. 2 and 3 (London, 1834). Irish history from contemporary sources, 1509–1610, ed. C. Maxwell (London, 1923) is useful. The official Irish records formerly held in the Public Record Office, Dublin, were mostly destroyed in the destruction of the Four Courts in 1922. Most of the printed sources are by the English, about the Irish. For a remarkable edition of a remarkable collection of Irish annals compiled in the early seventeenth century, see The Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters, ed. J. O’Donovan (7 vols., 3rd edn, Dublin, 1998). See also The Annals of Loch Cé, 1014–1590, ed. W. M. Hennessy, (2 vols., London, 1871).

GENERAL HISTORY
The best modern surveys of sixteenth-century Ireland are S. G. Ellis, Ireland in the Age of the Tudors, 1447–1603: English Expansion and the End of Gaelic Rule (Harlow, 1998) and C. Lennon, Sixteenth-century Ireland: the Incomplete Conquest (Dublin, 1994). Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols., London, 1885–90) provides the most detailed political narrative. R. D. Edwards, Ireland in the Age of the Tudors (London, 1977) is a good general account. Nicholas Canny’s From Reformation to Restoration: Ireland, 1534–1660 (Dublin, 1987) is influential.

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What follows is a select bibliography of works which I have used, collected chapter by chapter, and by themes within the chapters. Articles are cited where the research is not presented elsewhere.

Prologue

Thomas More’s writings are collected in the great Yale edition of the Complete Works of St Thomas More (15 vols., New Haven and London, 1961– ). I have preferred to use David Wootton’s translation and edition of Utopia, Thomas More: Utopia (Indianapolis, 1999). Of the many biographies of More, the first, by his son-in-law, William Roper, remains the most compelling: The Life of Sir Thomas More in Two Early Tudor Lives, ed. R. S. Sylvester and D. P. Harding (New Haven, 1962). For a different view, see R. Marius, Thomas More (London, 1985). For The History of King Richard III, see Complete Works, vol. 2, ed. R. S. Sylvester (New Haven and London, 1963). For Richard III’s reign, see C. Ross, Richard III (London, 1981), and R. Horrox, Richard III: A Study in Service (Cambridge, 1989).

1 Rather Feared Than Loved

Contemporary chronicles of Henry VII’s reign are: The Anglica Historia of Polydore Vergil, AD 1485–1537, ed. D. Hay (Camden Society, London, lxxiv, 1950), and The Great Chronicle of London, ed. A. H. Thomas and I. D. Thornley (Gloucester, 1983). Francis Bacon’s history is as revealing of his own times as of Henry VII’s: The History of King Henry the Seventh, ed. J. Weinberger (New York, 1996). The standard studies of Henry VII and his reign are by R. L. Storey, The Reign of Henry VII (London, 1968) and S. B. Chrimes, Henry VII (London, 1981). For his exile and passage to Bosworth, see R. A. Griffiths and R. S. Thomas, The Making of the Tudor Dynasty (Gloucester, 1985).
The closest observer of the landscape of England and Wales was the great Tudor topographer, John Leland; see The Itinerary of John Leland in or about the years 1535–1543, ed. L. Toulmin Smith (5 vols., Carbondale, Illinois, 1964). See also M. W. Beresford and J. K. S. St Joseph, Medieval England: An Aerial Survey (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1979). The essential work upon rural society is The Agrarian History of England and Wales, vol. 4, 1500–1640, ed. Joan Thirsk (Cambridge, 1967). Helpful introductions are found in D. C. Coleman, The Economy of England, 1450–1750 (Oxford, 1977), and D. M. Palliser, The Age of Elizabeth: England under the later Tudors, 1547–1603 (London, 1983). See also E. Kerridge, Agrarian Problems in the Sixteenth Century and After (London, 1969) and J. C. K. Cornwall, Wealth and Society in Early Sixteenth Century England (London, 1988). W. G. Hoskins illumines local society for the county where Henry VII seized his throne in The Midland Peasant: The Economic and Social History of a Leicestershire Village (London, 1957). His polemical study of English society, The Age of Plunder: The England of King Henry VIII, 1509–1547 (London, 1976) is important. For London, see G. A. Williams, Medieval London: From Commune to Capital (London, 1963).
For the nature of England’s constitution and government, see S. B. Chrimes, English Constitutional Ideas in the Fifteenth Century (Cambridge, 1936); G. R. Elton, The Tudor Constitution: Documents and Commentary (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1982); S.J. Gunn, Early Tudor Government, 1485–1558 (Basingstoke, 1995); The End of the Middle Ages? England in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, ed. J. L. Watts (Stroud, 1998); P. Williams, The Tudor Regime (Oxford, 1979); and G. L. Harris, ‘Political society and the growth of government in late medieval England’, Past and Present, 138 (1993).
For ‘Britain’, see R. Davies, ‘The Matter of Britain and the Matter of England’, an inaugural lecture delivered before the University of Oxford on 29 February 1996 (Oxford, 1996). A revealing comparison between the societies and government of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland is found in R. Frame, The Political Development of the British Isles, 1100–1400 (Oxford, 1995). For Wales, see G. Williams, Renewal and Reformation: Wales, c. 1415–1642 (Oxford, 1993); J. Gwynfor Jones, Early Modern Wales, c. 1525–1640(Basingstoke, 1994; and The Marcher Lordships of South Wales, 1415–1536, ed. T. B. Pugh (Cardiff, 1963). For Scotland, see R. G. Nicholson, Scotland: the Later Middle Ages (Edinburgh, 1974); G. Donaldson, Scotland: James V to James VII (Edinburgh, 1965); J. Wormald, Court, Kirk and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh, 1981), and Lords and Men in Scotland: Bonds of Manrent, 1442–1603 (Edinburgh, 1985). For the North of England, see A. J. Pollard, North-Eastern England during the Wars of the Roses: Lay Society, War and Politics (Oxford, 1990). A pioneering comparative study of the far north of England and the Irish Pale, two border regions, is found in S. G. Ellis, The Frontiers of Noble Power: The Making of the British State (Oxford, 1995).
For a polemical reassessment of Henry VII’s achievement, see Christine Carpenter’s essay in The Reign of Henry VII ed. B. Thompson (Stamford, 1995), and her Locality and Polity: a Study of Warwickshire Landed Society, 1401–1499 (Cambridge, 1992), Ch. 15–16. The first pretender rising is treated in M. J. Bennett, Lambert Simnel and the Battle of Stoke (Gloucester, 1987). For Henry’s methods of government and treatment of the nobility, see B. P. Wolffe, The Royal Demesne in English History: The Crown Estate in the Governance of the Realm from the Conquest to 1509 (London, 1971); G. R. Elton, ‘Henry VII: Rapacity and Remorse’, and ‘Henry VII: A Restatement’ in his Studies in Tudor and Stuart Politics and Government, vol. 1 (Cambridge, 1974); J. P. Cooper, ‘Henry VII’s last years reconsidered’, Historical Journal, ii (1959); T. B. Pugh, ‘Henry VII and the English Nobility’ in The Tudor Nobility, ed. G. W. Bernard (Manchester, 1992); and J. R. Lander, Crown and Nobility, 1450–1509 (London, 1976). For Perkin Warbeck and the 1497 rising, see I. Arthurson, The Perkin Warbeck Conspiracy, 1491–1499 (Stroud, 1994), and his ‘The Rising of 1497: A revolt of the peasantry?’ in People, Politics and Community in the Later Middle Ages, ed. J. T. Rosenthal and C. F. Richmond (Stroud, 1987).
For Henry’s last years, see M. M. Condon, ‘Ruling Elites in the Reign of Henry VIII’ and S. J. Gunn, ‘The Courtiers of Henry VII’ in The Tudor Monarchy, ed. J. Guy (London, 1997); D. A. Luckett, ‘Crown Patronage and Political Morality in Early Tudor England: The Case of Giles, Lord Daubeney’, English Historical Review, cx (1995); C. J. Harrison, ‘The Petition of Edmund Dudley’, English Historical Review, lxxxvii (1972); and S. Anglo, ‘Ill of the Dead: The posthumous reputation of Henry VII’, Renaissance Studies, i (1987).

2 Family and Friends
Illuminating accounts of the Mass and the Christian community are found in J. Bossy, ‘The Mass as a social institution, 1200–1700’, Past and Present, 100 (1983), and Christianity in the West, 1400–1700 (Oxford, 1985); E. Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England, 1400–1580 (New Haven and London, 1992), Part 1; Bernard, Lord Manning, The People’s Faith in the Time of Wyclif (Cambridge, 1919); and M. Rubin, Corpus Christi: The Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture (Cambridge, 1991). See also S. Brigden, ‘Religion and social obligation in sixteenth-century London’, Past and Present, 103 (1984). The Lay Folks Mass Book, ed. T. F. Simmons (Early English Text Society, original series, 71, London, 1879) is a revealing source.
The place of the dead is discussed in J. le Goff, The Birth of Purgatory, trans. A. Goldhammer (Aldershot, 1984); J-C. Schmitt, Ghosts in the Middle Ages: The Living and the Dead in Medieval Society, trans. T. L. Fagan (Chicago and London, 1998); R. Houlbrooke, Death, Religion and the Family in England, 1480–1750 (Oxford, 1998); and The Place of the Dead: Death and Remembrance in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe, ed. B. Gordon and P. Marshall (Cambridge, 2000). For the devotion to saints and their images, see Mirk’s Festial, ed. T. Erbe (Early English Text Society, extra series, xcvi, 1905); M. Aston, Faith and Fire: Popular and Unpopular Religion, 1350–1600 (London and Rio Grande, 1993); J. Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages (Harmondsworth, 1955); E. Mâle, Religious Art from the Twelfth to the Eighteenth Century (London, 1949); R. C. Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims: Popular Beliefs in Medieval England (London, 1977); and J. Sumption, Pilgrimage: An Image of Mediaeval Religion (London, 1975).
For the power of religion in the lives of the people, and the authority of the Church and priesthood, see J. J. Scarisbrick, The Reformation and the English People (Oxford, 1984); R. Swanson, Catholic England: Faith, Religion and Observance before the Reformation (Manchester, 1993); P. Marshall, The Catholic Priesthood and the English Reformation (Oxford, 1994); K. V. Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic: Studies in Popular Beliefs in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century England (London, 1971); and T. N. Tentler, Sin and Confession on the Eve of the Reformation (Princeton, 1977). Illuminating contemporary accounts of Catholic morality are Richard Whitford, A Werke for Housholders, or for them that have the gydynge or gouernaunce of ony company (London, 1530); W. Harrington, In thys boke are conteyned the comendations of matrimony (London, c. 1517); and The Tree of Commonwealth: A treatise written by Edmund Dudley, ed. D. M. Brodie (Cambridge, 1948).
On population, the pioneering and authoritative study is E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England, 1541–1871: A Reconstruction (London, 1981). See also J. Hatcher, Plague, Population and the English Economy, 1348–1530 (Basingstoke, 1977).
For childhood and youth, see P. Ariès, Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life, trans. R. Baldick (London, 1962); I. Pinchbeck and M. Hewitt, Children in English Society: From Tudor Times to the Eighteenth Century (London, 1969); K. V. Thomas, ‘Age and Authority in Early Modern England’, Proceedings of the British Academy, lxii (1976); S. Brigden, ‘Youth and the English Reformation’, Past and Present, 95 (1982); and I. K. Ben Amos, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Haven, 1994).
Marriage, and the making of marriage, are discussed in R. B. Outhwaite, Clandestine Marriage in England, 1500–1850 (London, 1995); M. Ingram, Church Courts, Sex and Marriage in England, 1570–1640 (Cambridge, 1987); R. H. Helmholz, Marriage Litigation in Medieval England (Cambridge, 1974); Marriage and Society: Studies in the social history of marriage, ed. R. B. Outhwaite (London, 1981); and A. Macfarlane, Marriage and Love in England: Modes of Reproduction, 1300–1840 (Oxford 1986).
For the sense of kinship and lineage among the nobility and gentry, L. Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558–1641 (Oxford, 1965), J. Hughes, Pastors and Visionaries: Religion and Secular Life in Late Medieval Yorkshire (Woodbridge, 1988), and C. Carpenter, Locality and Polity (Cambridge, 1992) are indispensable. See also M. E. James, Family, Lineage and Civil Society: A Study of Society, Politics and Mentality in the Durham Region, 1500–1640 (Oxford, 1974); and J. P. Rosenthal, Patriarchy and Families of Privilege in Fifteenth-Century England. The ‘surnames’ of the far north of England are described in G. MacDonald Fraser, The Steel Bonnets: The Story of the Anglo-Scottish Border Reivers (London, paperback edn, 1995); and R. Robson, The Rise and Fall of the English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Medieval Problem (Edinburgh, 1989). For kinship in Ireland, see K. Nicholls, Gaelic and Gaelicised Ireland (Dublin, 1972). See also Land, Kinship and Life-Cycle, ed. R. M. Smith (Cambridge, 1984); D. Cressy, ‘Kinship and Kin Interaction in Early Modern England’, Past and Present, 113 (1986); and Migration and Society in Early Modern England, ed. P. Clark and D. Souden (London, 1987).
The character of gentry and noble households is described in D. Starkey, ‘The Age of the Household: Politics, society and the arts, c. 1350–c.1550’ in The Later Middle Ages, ed. S. Medcalf (London, 1981); K. Mertes, The English Noble Household, 1250–1600: Good Governance and Politic Rule (Oxford, 1988);.F. Heal, Hospitality in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1990); and K. Simms, ‘Guesting and Feasting in Gaelic Ireland’, Journal of The Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, 108 (1978). For the education of the sons of the nobility, see N. Orme, From Childhood to Chivalry: the Education of English Kings and Aristocracy, 1066–1530 (London, 1984).
The families and households of merchants and the lower orders are studied in M. Spufford, Contrasting Communities: English Villagers in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Cambridge, 1974); M. K. McIntosh, A Community Transformed: The Manor and Liberty of Havering, 1500–1620 (Cambridge, 1991); M. Pelling, The Common Lot: Sickness, Medical Occupations and the Urban Poor in Early Modern England (Harlow, 1998); and A. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1981).
Parish, neighbourhood and fraternity are considered in I. Archer, The Pursuit of Stability: Social Relations in Elizabethan London (Cambridge, 1991); S. J. Wright, Parish, Church and People: Local Studies in Lay Religion, 1350–1750 (London, 1988); Disputes and Settlements: Law and Human Relations in the West, ed. J. Bossy (Cambridge, 1983); and A. G. Rosser, ‘Parochial Conformity and Popular Religion in Late Medieval England’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, i (1991). For parish fraternities, see H. F. Westlake, The Parish Gilds of Medieval England (London, 1919); Parish Fraternity Register: Fraternity of the Holy Trinity and SS. Fabian and Sebastian in the Parish of St Botolph without Aldersgate, ed. P. Basing (London Record Society, London, 1982); and C. Barron, ‘The parish fraternities of medieval London’, in The Church in pre-Reformation Society, ed. C. Barron and C. Harper-Bill (Woodbridge, 1985). The classic work upon the English religious houses is D. Knowles, The Religious Orders in England (3 vols., Cambridge, 1959). See also L. Butler and C. Given Wilson, Medieval Monasteries of Great Britain (London, 1979). For Ireland, see A. Gwynn and R. N. Hadcock, Medieval Religious Houses in Ireland (London, 1970); and B. Bradshaw, The Dissolution of the Religious Orders in Ireland under Henry VIII (Cambridge, 1974).
For the poor and outcast, and attempts to aid or control them, see P. Slack, Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England (London, 1988) and A. L. Beier, Masterless Men: The Vagrancy Problem in England, 1560–1640 (London, 1985). On crime, see J. A. Sharpe, Crime in Early Modern England, 1550–1750 (London, 1984) and Crime in England, 1550–1800, ed. J. S. Cockburn (London, 1977). On suicide, see M. MacDonald and T. R. Murphy, Sleepless Souls: Suicide in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1990).

3 Ways to Reform
For Christian humanism and hopes for reform in the Church, see the introduction by J. H. Hexter to Utopia in Complete Works of St Thomas More, vol. 4 (New Haven and London, 1965); M. M. Phillips, The ‘Adages’ of Erasmus: A Study with Translations (Cambridge, 1965); J. C. Olin, Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola (New York, 1969); and D. Fenlon, Heresy and Obedience in Tridentine Italy: Cardinal Pole and the Counter-Reformation (Cambridge, 1972). For the lives and influence of Dean Colet and St John Fisher, see J. H. Lupton, A Life of John Colet (London, 1887); J. B. Gleason, John Colet (Berkeley, 1989); and Humanism, Reform and Reformation: The Career of Bishop John Fisher, ed. B. Bradshaw and E. Duffy (Cambridge, 1989). Outstanding critical accounts of More’s Utopia are D. Baker-Smith, More’s ‘Utopia’ (London, 1991) and S. Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning from More to Shakespeare (Chicago, 1980). Key texts by Erasmus in translation are The Sileni of Alcibiades which is published in Thomas More: Utopia, ed. D. Wootton (Indianapolis, 1999); The Education of a Christian Prince, ed. Lisa Jardine (Cambridge, 1997); Enchiridion Militis Christiani or The Manual of the Christian Knight (London, 1905); and Praise of Folly, ed. A. H. T. Levi (Harmondsworth, 1993). See also The ‘Julius Exclusus’ of Erasmus, tr. P. Pascal, ed. J. Kelley Sowards (Bloomington and London, 1968). For revealing studies of Erasmus, see R. J. Schoeck, Erasmus of Europe (Edinburgh, 1993); J. K. McConica, Erasmus (Oxford, 1991); and L. Jardine, Erasmus, Man of Letters (Princeton, 1993).
Luther, his theological discoveries, and his challenge to the Church, are explained in R. H. Bainton, Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther (London, 1951); A. McGrath, Luther’s Theology of the Cross (Oxford, 1985) and Iustitia Dei: a history of the Christian Doctrine of Justification (2 vols., Cambridge, 1986); and H. Oberman, Masters of the Reformation (Cambridge, 1981). For the Catholic position, and the defence against Luther in England, the following are indispensable: R. Rex, The Theology of John Fisher (Cambridge, 1991) and ‘The English Campaign against Luther in the 1520s’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 39 (1989); and Responsio ad Lutherum in Complete Works of St Thomas More, ed. J. M. Headley, vol. 5 (New Haven and London, 1969). Henry VIII’s own theology is discovered in J. J. Scarisbrick, Henry VIII (London, 1968) and The Reign of Henry VIII: Politics, Policy and Piety, ed. D. MacCulloch (Basingstoke, 1995).
Tyndale’s remarkable, fundamental scriptural translations from Greek and Hebrew are republished: Tyndale’s New Testament, ed. D. Daniell (New Haven and London, 1989) and Tyndale’s Old Testament, ed. D. Daniell (New Haven and London, 1992). For Tyndale’s life, see Foxe, Acts and Monuments, ed. G. Townsend, vol. 5 (London, 1846); and J. F. Mozley, William Tyndale (1937).

4 Imperium

COURTS AND KINGS

The best edition of Wyatt’s poems is Sir Thomas Wyatt: the Complete Poems, ed. R. A. Rebholz (Harmondsworth, 1978). For his life and work, see S. M. Foley, Sir Thomas Wyatt (Boston, Mass., 1990).
The world which Henry VIII created for himself is revealed in S. Thurley, The Royal Palaces of Tudor England: Architecture and Court Life, 1460–1537 (New Haven and London, 1993); C. Lloyd and S. Thurley, Henry VIII: Images of a Tudor King (Oxford, 1990); J. N. King, Tudor Royal Iconography (Princeton 1989); J. Roberts, Holbein and the Court of Henry VIII (Edinburgh, 1993); and Henry VIII: A European Court in England, ed. D. Starkey (London, 1991). The political significance of the Privy Chamber is David Starkey’s discovery. He has elucidated its workings in a series of important articles: ‘Court and Government’ and ‘Representation through intimacy: A study of the symbolism of monarchy and court office in early modern England’, in The Tudor Monarchy, ed. J. Guy (London, 1997); and The English Court from the Wars of the Roses to the Civil War, ed. D. Starkey et al. (Harlow, 1987). The first biography of Henry VIII is still valuable: Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, The life and raigne of King Henry the eighth (London, 1649); and the account of his reign by his contemporary, Edward Hall, The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Famelies of York and Lancaster, ed. H. Ellis (London, 1809) is indispensable. J. J. Scarisbrick, Henry VIII (London, 1968) is not only the best biography of the King but also the fullest political history of his reign. D. Starkey, The Reign of Henry VIII: Personalities and Politics (London, 1985) is a lively and perceptive account. For revealing studies of politics, war and court culture, see S. Gunn, ‘The Accession of Henry VIII’, Historical Research, 64 (1991) and ‘The French Wars of Henry VIII’ in The Origins of War in Early Modern Europe, ed. J. Black (Edinburgh, 1987); and ‘Chivalry and the Politics of the Early Tudor Court’ in Chivalry in the Renaissance, ed. S. Anglo (Woodbridge, 1980). Thomas Wolsey’s spectacular career in church and state is studied in P. Gwyn, The King’s Cardinal: The rise and fall of Thomas Wolsey (London, 1990); and Cardinal Wolsey: Church, state and art, ed. S. J. Gunn and P. G. Lindley (Cambridge, 1991). George Cavendish, the Cardinal’s gentleman usher, wrote an intimate biography of his master, The Life and Death of Cardinal Wolsey, ed. R. S. Sylvester (Early English Text Society, original series, 243, Oxford, 1959).
The nature of Henrician politics is discussed in G. R. Elton, ‘Tudor Government: The points of contact, Part 3, The Court’ in his Studies in Tudor and Stuart Politics and Government, Vol. 3 (Cambridge, 1974). The extent to which Henry’s court was dominated by faction has occasioned much debate. My own interpretation follows those of David Starkey and Eric Ives. See E. W. Ives, Faction in Tudor England (2nd edn, London, 1986). Eric Ives’s thrilling biography of Anne Boleyn is important for the politics, religion and culture of the court: Anne Boleyn (Oxford, 1986); see also J. S. Block, Factional Politics and the English Reformation, 1520–1540 (Woodbridge, 1993). For the political culture of the court, see D. Starkey, ‘The Court: Castiglione’s ideal and Tudor reality’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 45 (1982); and F. W. Conrad, ‘The problem of counsel reconsidered: The case of Sir Thomas Elyot’, in Political Thought and the Tudor Commonwealth, ed. P. A. Fideler and T. F. Mayer (London, 1992). For women at court, see B. J. Harris, ‘Women and politics in early Tudor England’, Historical Journal, xxxiii (1990). Court entertainments and spectacles are studied in S. Anglo, Spectacle, Pageantry and Early Tudor Policy (Oxford, 1969).

ROYAL SUPREMACY
The authoritative account of the making of the political Reformation is G. R. Elton, Reform and Reformation (London, 1977). For Cranmer, see Diarmaid MacCulloch’s commanding biography, Thomas Cranmer (New Haven and London, 1996). Thomas Cromwell’s vision of a reformed commonwealth is studied in G. R. Elton, Reform and Renewal: Thomas Cromwell and the Common Weal (Cambridge, 1973). Fisher’s stand is discussed in J. J. Scarisbrick, ‘Fisher, Henry VIII and the Reformation Crisis’ in Humanism, Reform and the Reformation: The Career of Bishop John Fisher, ed. B. Bradshaw and E. Duffy (Cambridge, 1989). The passage of the legislation through Parliament is studied in S. E. Lehmberg, The Reformation Parliament, 1529–1536 (Cambridge, 1970). For the law of treason and its working, see G. R. Elton, Policy and Police: The enforcement of the Reformation in the Age of Thomas Cromwell (Cambridge, 1972) and R. Rex, ‘The execution of the Holy Maid of Kent’, Historical Research, 114 (1991).
Henry’s own theology and his intentions for his Church are penetrated by D. MacCulloch, ‘Henry VIII and the Reform of the Church’ in The Reign of Henry VIII, ed. MacCulloch (Basingstoke, 1995). See also G. W. Bernard, ‘The Making of Religious Policy, 1533–1546: Henry VIII and the search for the middle way’, Historical Journal, xli (1998). For the connections between political Reformation and Reformation in religion, see S. Brigden, London and the Reformation (Oxford, 1989). The fall of Anne Boleyn is studied authoritatively in E. W. Ives, Anne Boleyn, and ‘Anne Boleyn and the early Reformation in England: the contemporary evidence’, Historical Journal, xxxvii (1994).
The magisterial and best account of the dissolution of the monasteries is D. Knowles, The Religious Orders in England, vol. 3 (Cambridge, 1959). J. Youings, The Dissolution of the Monasteries (London, 1971) is useful. On the Pilgrimage of Grace, the standard account remains M. H. and R. Dodds, The Pilgrimage of Grace and the Exeter Conspiracy (Cambridge, 1915). See also M. L. Bush, The Pilgrimage of Grace: A study of the Rebel Armies of October 1536 (Manchester, 1996). C. A. Haigh, The Last Days of the Lancashire Monasteries and the Pilgrimage of Grace (Chetham Society, 3rd series, 17, 1969) and S. M. Harrison, The Pilgrimage of Grace in the Lake Counties, 1536–7 (London, 1981) are important local studies. For a persuasive account of the revolt’s causes, see C. S. L. Davies, ‘Popular Religion and the Pilgrimage of Grace’ in Order and Disorder in early modern England, ed. A. Fletcher and J. Stevenson (Cambridge, 1985).
For the evangelical animus and official campaign against images, see Margaret Aston’s profound study, England’s Iconoclasts, vol. 1, Laws against Images (Oxford, 1988). A revealing study is P. Marshall, ‘The Rood of Boxley, the Blood of Hailes and the defence of the Henrician Church’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, xlvi (1995). For the reformers’ own letters, see Original Letters relative to the English Reformation, ed. H. Robinson (2 vols., Parker Society, Cambridge, 1847). Theological developments and divisions among the reformers are examined in MacCulloch, Thomas Cranmer and C. W. Dugmore, The Mass and the English Reformers (New York, 1958). For the Act of Six Articles and Cromwell’s fall, see G. R. Elton, ‘Thomas Cromwell’s Decline and Fall’ in his Studies in Tudor Politics and Government, vol. 1 (Cambridge, 1974); S. Brigden, ‘Popular Disturbance and the Fall of Thomas Cromwell and the Reformers, 1539–40’, Historical Journal, xxiv (1981); and The Examinations of Anne Askew, ed. E. V. Beilin (New York, 1996). For Henry’s last months, see S. Brigden, ‘Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, and the “conjured league”, Historical Journal, xxxvii (1994); and G. Redworth, In Defence of the Church Catholic: The life of Stephen Gardiner (Oxford, 1990). The subversion of Henry’s plans for the regency and the rewriting of his will are discussed in Starkey, The Reign of Henry VIII; and E. W. Ives, ‘Henry VIII’s will – a forensic conundrum’, Historical Journal, xxxv (1992).

5 Bearing Rule

LORDSHIP

For Fulke Greville’s musings upon nobility, see ‘A dedication to Sir Philip Sidney’ in The Prose Works of Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, ed. J. Gouws (Oxford, 1986). The most influential scholar of the late medieval nobility was K. B. McFarlane: The Nobility of Later Medieval England (Oxford, 1973). For the changing role of the nobility in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, see Laurence Stone’s commanding study, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558–1641 (Oxford, 1965). C. Carpenter, Locality and Polity: A study of Warwickshire Landed Society, 1401–1499 (Cambridge, 1992) anatomizes Midland society, with vital conclusions for the whole polity. See also J. M. W. Bean, From Lord to Patron: Lordship in Late Medieval England (Manchester, 1989). Important studies of individual families are found in C. Rawcliffe, The Staffords, earls of Stafford and dukes of Buckingham, 1394–1521 (Cambridge, 1978); M. E. James, Society, Politics and Culture: Studies in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1986); S. Gunn, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, c. 1484–1545 (Oxford, 1988); G. W. Bernard, The Power of the Early Tudor Nobility: A study of the fourth and fifth earls of Shrewsbury (Brighton, 1985); and The Tudor Nobility, ed. G. W. Bernard (Manchester 1992). As a group the nobility are studied by H. Miller, Henry VIII and the English Nobility (Oxford, 1986); and the gentry by F. Heal and C. Holmes, The Gentry in England and Wales, 1500–1700 (Basingstoke, 1994).

SOVEREIGNTY IN IRELAND

A compelling near-contemporary picture of the Gaelic lordships is found in Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters, vols. 4–6, ed. J. O’Donovan (Dublin, new edn, 1998). Richard Stanihurst, the Dubliner (1547–1618) gave an account of Gaelic society, and an exploration of why it needed reform, in his chronicles of 1577: Holinshed’s Irish Chronicle, ed. Liam Miller and Eileen Power (Dublin, 1979). The political structure of Gaelic Ireland is examined by K. Simms, From Kings to Warlords: The Changing Political Structure of Gaelic Ireland in the Later Middle Ages (Woodbridge, 1987) and ‘Gaelic warfare in the Middle Ages’ in A Military History of Ireland, ed. T. Bartlett and K. Jeffery (Cambridge, 1996); K. W. Nicholls, Gaelic and Gaelicised Ireland in the Middle Ages (Dublin, 1972); and M. O’Dowd, Power, Politics and Land: Early Modern Sligo, 1568–1688 (Belfast, 1991). The power of the earls of Kildare is studied by S. G. Ellis in Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The making of the British State (Oxford, 1995). For Henry VII’s constitutional revolution, see B. Bradshaw, The Irish Constitutional Revolution of the Sixteenth Century (Cambridge, 1979) and The Dissolution of the Religious Orders in Ireland under Henry VIII (Cambridge, 1974); C. Brady, ‘Court, Castle and Country: the Framework of Government in Tudor Ireland’, in Natives and Newcomers: The making of Irish Colonial Society, 1534–1641, ed. C. Brady and R. Gillespie (Dublin, 1986) and The Chief Governors: the rise and fall of reform government in Tudor Ireland, 153 6-1588 (Cambridge, 1994). Reports by the governors on Irish affairs between 1515 and 1547 are found in State Papers, Henry VIII, vols. 2 and 3 (London, 1834).

JUSTICE
For arbitration, see E. Powell, ‘Arbitration and the law in England in the late Middle Ages’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 33 (1983); Law and Social Change in British History, ed. J. A. Guy and H. G. Beale (London, 1984). See also J. G. Bellamy, Bastard Feudalism and the Law (London, 1989); and I. Thornley, ‘The Destruction of Sanctuary’ in Tudor Studies, ed. R. W. Seton-Watson (London, 1924). For March law, see R. Robson, English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem (Edinburgh, 1989); R. R. Davies, ‘The Law of the March’, Welsh History Review, v (1970); ‘The survival of the Bloodfeud in Medieval Wales’, History, liv (1969); ‘The Twilight of Welsh Law, 1284–1536’, History, li (1966); and J. Wormald, ‘Bloodfeud, Kindred and Government in Early Modern Scotland’, Past and Present, 87 (1980). For brehon law, see K. Nicholls, Gaelic and Gaelicised Ireland in the Middle Ages (Dublin, 1972); K. Simms, From Kings to Warlords (Woodbridge, 1987); and N. Patterson, Gaelic law and the Tudor conquest of Ireland’, Irish Historical Studies, xxvii (1991).

THE COMMONS

Tudor theories of obligation and of the social order are understood from contemporary treatises; for example, The Tree of Commonwealth: A treatise written by Edmund Dudley, ed. D. M. Brodie (Cambridge, 1948); John Cheke, The Hurt of Sedition, 1549 (reprinted, Menston, 1971); ‘Defence of John Hales’ in A Discourse of the Common Weal of this Realm of England, ed. E. Lamond (Cambridge, 1954 edn); and Humanist Scholarship and Public Order: Two Tracts against the Pilgrimage of Grace by Sir Richard Morison, ed. D. S. Berkowitz (Washington, 1984).
For hierarchies and structures of power, see the essays in The Experience of Authority in Early Modern England, ed. P. Griffiths, A. Fox and S. Hindle (Basingstoke, 1996); and S. Hindle, ‘The Problem of Pauper Marriage in Seventeenth-Century England’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, 8 (1998); for bondmen and their manumission, see D. MacCulloch, ‘Bondmen under the Tudors’ in Law and Government under the Tudors, ed. C. Cross, D. Loades and J. J. Scarisbrick (Cambridge, 1988).
For women in English society, see S. Amussen, An Ordered Society: Gender and Class in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1988); and Women in English Society, 1500–1800, ed. M. Prior (London, 1985).

6 Rebuilding the Temple

For Henry VIII’s policy towards Scotland, see State Papers, Henry VIII, vol. 4 (London, 1836). For the possibility of uniting the kingdoms, see Conquest and Union: Fashioning a British State, 1485–1726, ed. S. G. Ellis and S. Barber (London, 1995); The British Problem c. 1534–1707: State Formation in the Atlantic Archipelago, ed. B. Bradshaw and J. Morrill (Basingstoke, 1996); and Scotland and England, 1286–1815, ed. R. A. Mason (Edinburgh, 1987).
Edward’s personality and political concerns are still best discovered in The Literary Remains of King Edward the Sixth, ed. J. G. Nichols (London, 1857). For his political education, see The Chronicle and Political Papers of Edward VI, ed. W. K. Jordan (London, 1966) and Sermons and Remains of Hugh Latimer, ed. G. E. Corrie. (2 vols., Parker Society, Cambridge, 1844, 1845). Original letters of Edward and Mary’s reigns are printed in P. F. Tytler, England under the Reigns of Edward VI and Mary (2 vols., London, 1839); J. Strype, Ecclesiastical Memorials, relating chiefly to religion under King Henry VIII, King Edward and Queen Mary I (3 vols., Oxford 1822); and The Letters of William, Lord Paget of Beaudesert, 1547–63, ed. B. L. Beer and S. Jack (Camden miscellany, xxv, Camden Society, 4th series, 13, 1974). Important studies of Edward’s reign are W. K. Jordan, Edward VI: the Young King (London, 1968) and Edward VI: the Threshold of Power (London, 1970); M. L. Bush, The Government Policy of Protector Somerset (London, 1975); D. Hoak, The King’s Council in the Reign of Edward VI (Cambridge, 1976); and The Mid-Tudor Polity, c. 1540–1560, ed. J. Loach and R. Tittler (London, 1980).
Autobiographical accounts by evangelicals are found in Narratives of the Days of the Reformation, ed. J. G. Nichols (Camden Society, 1st series, 77, London, 1859). The advance of evangelical religion and the political manoeuvrings are explored in D. MacCulloch, Thomas Cranmer (New Haven and London, 1996) and S. Brigden, London and the Reformation (Oxford, 1989). Beware the Cat, by William Baldwin: The First English Novel ed. W. A. Ringler and M. Flachmann (San Marino, 1988). For the crisis of 1553, see The Chronicle of Queen Jane and Queen Mary, ed. J. G. Nichols (Camden Society, 1st series, 48, 1850); Vita Mariae Angliae Reginae, ed. D. MacCulloch (Camden Miscellany, xxviii, Camden Society, 4th series, 29, 1984); and M. Levine, Tudor Dynastic Problems, 1470–1571 (London, 1973).
For Mary, see D. M. Loades, The Reign of Mary Tudor: Politics, Government and Religion in England, 1553–1558 (London, 1979) and Mary Tudor: A Life (Oxford, 1989). For her council and privy chamber, see Revolution Reassessed: Revisions in the History of Tudor Government and Administration, ed. C. Coleman and D. Starkey (Oxford, 1986); and S. Gunn, ‘A Letter of Jane, Duchess of Northumberland in 1553’, English Historical Review, cxiv (1999). The opposition to the Spanish marriage is studied in A Machiavellian Treatise by Stephen Gardiner, ed. P. S. Donaldson (Cambridge, 1975); E. H. Harbison, Rival Ambassadors at the Court of Queen Mary (London, 1940); D. M. Loades, Two Tudor Conspiracies (Cambridge, 1965); and J. Procter, ‘The History of Wyatt’s Rebellion’ in Tudor Tracts, ed. A. F. Pollard (London, 1903).
For the restoration of the Catholic religion, see J. Loach, Parliament and the Crown in the Reign of Mary Tudor (Oxford, 1986); E. Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England, 1400–1580 (New Haven and London, 1992); R. Pogson, ‘Reginald Pole and the priorities of government in Mary Tudor’s Church’, Historical Journal, xviii (1975); and M. Aston, England’s Iconoclasts (Oxford, 1988). The martyrs are chronicled and celebrated by John Foxe in Acts and Monuments, ed. G. Townsend, vols. 6–8 (London, 1846–9); see also D. M. Loades, The Oxford Martyrs (London, 1970). For theories justifying resistance, see J. Ponet, A Short Treatise of Politic Power (Menston, 1970); Q. R. D. Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, vol. 2, The Age of Reformation (Cambridge, 1978); and The Cambridge History of Political Thought, 1450–1700, ed. J. H. Burns (Cambridge, 1991).

7 ‘Perils, Many, Great and Imminent’

The chapter’s title is taken from one of William Cecil’s memoranda on of the state of the realm, where England’s peril is a constant refrain; in A Collection of State Papers… left by William Cecil, Lord Burghley, ed. S. Haynes (London, 1740). Elizabeth reveals something of herself in her letters: The Letters of Queen Elizabeth I, ed. G. B. Harrison (London, 1935). Biographies of the Queen abound: see especially J. E. Neale, Queen Elizabeth (London, 1938 edn); and W. T. MacCaffrey, Elizabeth I (London, 1993). The first full history of her reign, written by an historian who witnessed many of the events, is still enthralling: William Camden, The History of… Princess Elizabeth (3rd edn, London, 1675) and The History of… Princess Elizabeth: Selected chapters, ed. W. T. MacCaffrey (Chicago and London, 1970). See also Annals of the first four years of the reign of Queen Elizabeth by Sir John Hayward, ed. J. Bruce (Camden Society, London, 1840). Important studies of the first years of her reign are: W. T. MacCaffrey, The Shaping of the Elizabethan Regime: Elizabethan Politics, 1558–72 (London, 1969); C. Read, Mr Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth (London, 1955); The Reign of Elizabeth I, ed. C. Haigh (Basingstoke, 1984); R. B. Wernham, Before the Armada: The Emergence of the English Nation, 1485–1588 (London, 1966); N. L. Jones, The Birth of the Elizabethan Age: England in the 1560s (Oxford, 1993); and S. Alford, The Early Elizabethan Polity: William Cecil and the British Succession Crisis, 1558–1569 (Cambridge, 1998).
Letters of reformers about the state of the Elizabethan Church and religion are printed in Zurich Letters, AD 1558–1602, ed. H. Robinson (2 vols., Parker Society, Cambridge, 1847). The most convincing account of the making of the Elizabethan settlement is now N. L. Jones, Faith by Statute: Parliament and the Settlement of Religion, 1559 (London, 1982). For the debates in Parliament, see Proceedings in the Parliaments of Elizabeth I, vol. 1, 1558–1581, ed. T. E. Hartley (Leicester, 1981).
For the hopes of creating a united and Protestant British Isles, see J. Dawson, ‘William Cecil and the British dimension of early Elizabethan foreign policy’, History, lxxiv (1989); and S. Alford, The Early Elizabethan Polity. Scottish politics are discussed in G. Donaldson, All the Queen’s Men: Power and Politics in Mary Stewart’s Scotland (London, 1983).
The Queen’s marriage and the succession are studied in M. Levine, The Early Elizabethan Succession Question, 1558–1568 (Stanford, California, 1966); S. Doran, Monarchy and Matrimony: The Courtships of Elizabeth I (London, 1996); and M. Axton, The Queen’s Two Bodies: Drama and the Elizabethan Succession (London, 1977). For courtship, see C. Bates, The Rhetoric of Courtship in Elizabethan Language and Literature (Cambridge, 1992).
Many letters to Sir Henry Sidney in Ireland are printed in Sidney State Papers, 1565–1570, ed. T.Ó Laidhin (Dublin, 1962). Sidney’s own letters from Ireland are found in Letters and Memorials of State, ed. A. Collins (2 vols., London, 1746), I. His ‘summary relation of all his services in Ireland’, written for Sir Francis Walsingham in March 1583, is printed in Calendar of Carew MSS, 1575–1588, ed. J. S. Brewer and W. Bullen (London, 1868), pp. 334–60. In writing about Ireland in the 1560s, and of the mutual consequences of faction in Ireland and in England, I have relied on the important works of C. Brady, The Chief Governors: The rise and fall of reform government in Tudor Ireland, 1536–1588 (Cambridge, 1994) and ‘Faction and the origins of the Desmond Rebellion of 1579’, Irish Historical Studies, xxii (1981); N. Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland: A pattern established, 1565–76 (Hassocks, 1976); and J. G. Crawford, Anglicizing the Government of Ireland: The Irish Privy Council and the Expansion of Tudor Rule, 1556–1578 (Dublin, 1993). See also D. Edwards, ‘The Butler Revolt of 1569’, Irish Historical Studies, xxviii (1992–3). For Sir Humphrey Gilbert in Ireland, see The Voyages and Colonising Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, ed. D. B. Quinn, (2 vols., Hakluyt Society, London, 1940); and T. Churchyard, Churchyarde’s Choise, a general rehearsal of warres (London, 1579).
The sense and the reality of the dangers which beset the Elizabethan polity in the late 1560s are understood by reading Calendar of State Papers, Domestic and Calendar of State Papers, Foreign, Elizabeth, 1566–8 and 1569–71; and Proceedings of the Parliaments of Queen Elizabeth I, vol. 1, 1558–1581. For the politics, see W. T. MacCaffrey, The Shaping of the Elizabethan Regime: Elizabethan Politics, 1558–72; C. Read, Mr Secretary Walsingham and the policy of Queen Elizabeth (3 vols., Oxford, 1925); S. E. Lehmberg, Sir Walter Mildmay and Tudor Government (Austin, Texas, 1964); and M. R. Thorp, ‘Catholic conspiracy in early Elizabethan foreign policy’, Sixteenth Century Journal, 15 (1984). For the crisis occasioned by the Darnley murder, and by Mary, Queen of Scots’ abdication and flight, see A. Fraser, Mary, Queen of Scots (London, 1989 edn); J. Wormald, Mary, Queen of Scots: A study in failure (London, 1991); G. Donaldson, The First Trial of Mary, Queen of Scots (London, 1969); and H. Villius, ‘The Casket Letters: a famous case reopened’, Historical Journal, xxviii (1985). The Norfolk match and the rebellion of the northern earls are described in William Camden, The History of… Princess Elizabeth, ed. MacCaffrey, Ch. 7; and M. James, ‘The concept of order and the Northern rising, 1569’ in his Society, Politics and Culture: Studies in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1986). The choices faced by English Catholics are considered by E. Rose, Cases of Conscience: Alternatives open to Recusants and Puritans under Elizabeth I and James I (Cambridge, 1975). For the debates surrounding the punishment of Mary, Queen of Scots, see P. Collinson, ‘The Monarchical Republic of Queen Elizabeth I’ in his Elizabethan Essays (London and Rio Grande, 1994).

8 Wars of Religion

John Calvin’s teachings are found in his Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. H. Beveridge (2 vols, London, 1962); his teachings upon grace in Book Third of the Institutes. For the working of providence in the lives of the godly, see K. V. Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic: Studies in popular beliefs in sixteenth and seventeenth century England (London, 1971), Ch. 4. For English Calvinism, see P. Lake, ‘Calvinism and the English Church, 1570–1635’, Past and Present, 114 (1987) R. T. Kendall, Calvin and English Calvinism to 1649 (Oxford, 1979); and N. Tyacke, Anti-Calvinists: the Rise of English Arminianism, c.1590–1640 (Oxford, 1987). The Protestant understanding of history is explained by G. J. R. Parry, A Protestant Vision: William Harrison and the Reformation of Elizabethan England (Cambridge, 1987); see also R. Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood: The Elizabethan writing of England (Chicago and London, 1992); and K. R. Firth, The Apocalyptic Tradition in Reformation Britain, 1530–1645 (Oxford, 1979).
For understanding English politics and England’s place in Europe, the state papers are, as ever, indispensable: Calendar of State Papers, Foreign. See also Relations Politiques des Pays-Bas et de l’Angleterre, ed. Baron J. Kervyn de Lettenhove (11 vols., Brussels, 1882–1900); W. Murdin, A Collection of State Papers relating to Affairs in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth from 1571 to 1596 (London, 1759); T. Wright, Queen Elizabeth and her times (2 vols., London, 1838). Important studies are C. Read, Lord Burghley and Queen Elizabeth (London, 1960) and Mr Secretary Walsingham and the Policy of Queen Elizabeth (3 vols., Oxford, 1925); W. T. MacCaffrey, Queen Elizabeth and the Making of Policy, 1572–1588 (Princeton, 1981); R. B. Wernham, Before the Armada: The growth of English foreign policy, 1485–1588 (Oxford, 1966); and C. Wilson, Queen Elizabeth and the Revolt of the Netherlands (London, 1970). B. Worden, The Sound of Virtue: Philip Sidney’s Arcadia and Elizabethan Politics (New Haven and London, 1996) is a compelling study of the ethics and politics of the forward Protestants and of the way in which the world of politics infused literature.
For the events leading up to the massacre in Paris, see N. M. Sutherland, The Massacre of St Bartholomew and the European Conflict, 1559–1572 (London and Basingstoke, 1973); B. B. Diefendorf, Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris (New York, 1991); Calvinism in Europe, 1540–1610, ed. A. Duke, G. Lewis and A. Pettegree (Manchester, 1992); and G. Parker, The Dutch Revolt (Harmondsworth, 1977).
The structure of the court and the nature of its politics are analysed by S. L. Adams in ‘Eliza Enthroned? The Court and its Politics’, in The Reign of Elizabeth I, ed. C. Haigh (Basingstoke, 1984) and ‘Favourites and factions at the Elizabethan Court’, in The Tudor Monarchy, ed. J. Guy (London, 1997); P. Williams, ‘Court and Polity under Elizabeth I’, Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 65 (1982–3). The letters in Memoirs of the Life and Times of Sir Christopher Hatton, ed. H. Nicolas (London, 1847) are revealing of life at court.
The ‘Civil wars of the Church of God’ are explained by P. Collinson, The Elizabethan Puritan Movement (London, 1967). For puritan attempts to transform society, see his The Birthpangs of Protestant England (Basingstoke, 1988) and ‘The Puritan Character: Polemics and polarities in early seventeenth-century English culture’ (Williams Andrews Clark Memorial Library, Los Angeles, 1989); and M. Spufford, ‘Puritanism and social control?’ in Order and Disorder in Early Modern England, ed. A. J. Fletcher and J. Stevenson (Cambridge, 1985). For an illuminating study of changing religious and secular rituals, see R. Hutton, The Rise and Fall of Merry England: The ritual year, 1400–1700 (Oxford, 1994).
For understanding Ireland, C. Brady, The Chief Governors: The rise and fall of reform government in Tudor Ireland, 1536–1558 (Cambridge, 1994); N. Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland: A pattern established, 1565–76 (Hassocks, 1976); J. G. Crawford, Anglicizing the Government of Ireland: The Irish Privy Council and the expansion of Tudor Rule, 1556–1578 (Dublin, 1993) are essential. For Edmund Campion’s time in Dublin, see E. Campion, Two bokes of the Histories of Ireland (1571), ed. A. F. Vossen (Assen, 1963). Philip Sidney’s views upon Ireland are found in Miscellaneous Prose of Sir Philip Sidney eds. K. Duncan-Jones and J. van Dorsten (Oxford, 1973). For Spenser in Ireland, see E. Spenser, A view of the present state of Ireland in 1596, ed. W. L. Renwick (London, 1934, reprinted Oxford, 1970); The Faerie Queene, Book V in Spenser: Poetical Works, ed. J. C. Smith and E. de Selincourt (Oxford 1912; reprinted 1989); A. Hadfield, Spenser’s Irish Experience: Wilde fruit and salvage soyl (Oxford, 1997); and important essays by C. Brady and R. McCabe in Spenser and Ireland, ed. P. Coughlan (Cork, 1989). The hardening of English attitudes to the Irish is best shown by J. Derricke, The Image of Irelande (London, 1581); see also V. P. Carey, ‘John Derricke’s Image of Ireland: Sir Henry Sidney and the massacre at Mullaghmast, 1578’, Irish Historical Studies, xxxi (1999); and A. Hadfield, ‘Briton and Scythian: Tudor representations of Irish origins’, Irish Historical Studies, xxviii (1993). The plans for Ulster are studied by H. Morgan, ‘The colonial venture of Sir Thomas Smith in Ulster, 1571–1575’, Historical Journal, xxviii (1985). For composition, see B. Cunningham, ‘The composition of Connaught in the lordships of Clanrickard and Thomond, 1577–1641’, Irish Historical Studies, xxiv (1984).
The nature and success of Elizabethan Catholicism have occasioned controversy. John Bossy’s contention in The English Catholic Community, 1570–1850 (London, 1975) that the old Catholic Church died and a new community was created was challenged by C. Haigh, ‘The Continuity of Catholicism in the English Reformation’ in The English Reformation Revised, ed. Haigh (Cambridge, 1987). See also C. Haigh, English Reformations: Religion, Politics and Society under the Tudors (Oxford, 1993) and ‘From Monopoly to Minority: Catholicism in early modern England’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 31 (1981). The attitudes of Catholics towards their position are considered by P. Holmes, Resistance and Compromise: The political thought of the Elizabethan Catholics (Cambridge, 1982), and A. Pritchard, Catholic Loyalism in Elizabethan England (London, 1979). The best account of Campion’s life remains R. Simpson, Edmund Campion: A biography (London, 1896). See also Anthony Munday: The English Roman Life, ed. P. J. Ayres (Oxford, 1980).
For John Dee, see P. French, John Dee: The world of an Elizabethan magus (London, 1984 edn). The crisis for the godly in the late 1570s is best explained in B. Worden, The Sound of Virtue (New Haven and London, 1996); P. Collinson, ‘The downfall of Archbishop Grindal and its place in Elizabethan political and ecclesiastical history’, and W. T. MacCaffrey, ‘The Anjou match and the making of Elizabethan foreign policy’ in The English Commonwealth, 1547–1640, ed. P. Clark, A. G. R. Smith and N. Tyacke (Leicester, 1979); C. Marsh, The Family of Love in English Society, 1550–1630 (Cambridge, 1994); and C. Wilson, Queen Elizabeth and the Revolt of the Netherlands (London, 1970). For Scotland, see G. R. Hewitt, Scotland under Morton, 1572–80 (Edinburgh, 1982); and K. M. Brown, Bloodfeud in Scotland, 1573–1625: Violence, justice and politics in an early modern society (Edinburgh, 1986). For the alarm with which the Anjou match was viewed, read John Stubbs’s Gaping Gulf with letters and other relevant documents, ed. L. E. Berry (Charlottesville, Virginia, 1968). For a Catholic condemnation of Leicester and his purposes, see Leicester’s Commonwealth: The Copy of a Letter written by a Master of Art of Cambridge (1584), ed. D. C. Peck (Athens, Ohio and London, 1985). Robert Persons’ mission is uncovered by J. Bossy, ‘The heart of Robert Persons’ in The Reckoned Expense: Edmund Campion and the Early English Jesuits, ed. T. M. McCoog (Woodbridge, 1996). For a thrilling, and chilling, account of the world of spies, see J. Bossy, Giordano Bruno and the Embassy Affair (New Haven and London, 1991). The Bond of Association and its implications are explained by P. Collinson, ‘The Elizabethan Exclusion Crisis and the Elizabethan Polity’, Proceedings of the British Academy, 84 (1994).

9 The Enterprise of England

For Sidney’s thwarted enterprise see ‘A dedication to Sir Philip Sidney’ in The Prose Works of Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, ed. J. Gouws (Oxford, 1986). The pioneering historian of England’s colonies in Ireland and America is D. B. Quinn: see D. B. Quinn and A. N. Ryan, England’s Sea Empire, 1550–1642 (London, 1983) and its bibliographical essay; and D. B. Quinn, England and the Discovery of America, 1481–1620 (New York, 1974). Spain’s contemporary reputation for oppression is studied in W. S. Maltby, The Black Legend in England: The development of anti-Spanish sentiment, 1558–1660 (Durham, North Carolina, 1971).
For English colonial ventures, see the writings of the first propagandists of empire: Richard Hakluyt, Discourse of Western Planting, ed. D. B. Quinn and A. M. Quinn (London, 1993); The Voyages and Colonising Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, ed. D. B. Quinn (2 vols., Hakluyt Society, London, 1940); T. Harriot, A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia… (London, 1588) in The Roanoke Voyages, 1584–1590, ed. D. B. Quinn (2 vols., Hakluyt Society, 2nd series, London, 1955); W. Ralegh, The Discovery of the Large, Rich and Beautiful Empire of Guiana in Sir Walter Ralegh: Selected Writings, ed. G. Hammond (Harmondsworth, 1986); The Origins of Empire: British overseas enterprise to the close of the seventeenth century, ed. N. Canny (The Oxford History of the British Empire, Oxford, 1998). Historians have noted parallels between English colonizing enterprises in Ireland and the New World: see D. B. Quinn, The Elizabethans and the Irish (Ithaca, 1966), especially Ch. 9; N. Canny, Kingdom and Colony: Ireland in the Atlantic World, 1560–1800 (Baltimore, Maryland, 1988); The Westward Enterprise, ed. K. R. Andrews et al. (Manchester, 1978). Ciaran Brady has challenged the idea that Ireland was seen as a colonial frontier: ‘The road to the View: on the decline of reform thought in Tudor Ireland’ in Spenser and Ireland, ed. P. Coughlan (Cork, 1989). Sir Francis Drake’s West Indian Voyage, 1585–1586, ed. M. F. Freeler (Hakluyt Society, 2nd series, 148, London, 1981).
For the coming of the war with Spain, see Calendar of State Papers, Foreign; W. T. MacCaffrey, Queen Elizabeth and the Making of Policy, 1572–1588 (Princeton, 1988). K. R. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering: English privateering during the Spanish War, 1585–1603 (Cambridge, 1964) is an invaluable study of the war of plunder, and hence of sixteenth-century sea warfare in general. Leicester’s progress in the Netherlands can be traced in Correspondence of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester… 1585 and 1586, ed. J. Bruce (Camden Society, xxvii, London, 1844). See also R. C. Strong and J. A. van Dorsten, Leicester’s Triumph (Leiden and London, 1964). For Philip Sidney, as he lived and died, see K. Duncan-Jones, Sir Philip Sidney: Courtier poet (London, 1991).
The transformations in Elizabethan politics which came with war are explained by J. Guy, ‘The 1590s: The second reign of Elizabeth I?’ in The reign of Elizabeth I: Court and culture in the last decade, ed. Guy (Cambridge, 1995). The Babington plot is uncovered in Calendar of State Papers relating to Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots, AD, 1585–1586; C. Read, Mr. Secretary Walsingham and the policy of Queen Elizabeth, vol. 3 (3 vols., Oxford, 1925). The debates in Parliament are found in Proceedings in the Parliaments of Elizabeth I, vol. 2, 1584–1589, ed. T. E. Hartley (Leicester, 1995). See also P. Collinson, The English Captivity of Mary, Queen of Scots (Sheffield, 1987); and P. E. McCullough, Sermons at Court: Politics and Religion in Elizabethan and Jacobean Preaching (Cambridge, 1998).

10 The Theatre of God’s Judgements

The chapter title is taken from a work of 1597 which recounts a series of providential punishments: Thomas Beard, The theatre of God’s judgements: Or a collection of histories. For the rumours in Essex of a vagrant army, see W. Hunt, The Puritan moment: The coming of revolution in an English county (Cambridge, Mass. 1983); and for the rising that did not happen, J. Walter, ‘A “Rising of the people?”– the Oxfordshire rising of 1596’, Past and Present, 107 (1985).
Population figures for England are drawn from E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England, 1541–1871: A reconstruction (London, 1981) and for London from V. Harding, ‘The Population of London, 1550–1700: A review of the published evidence’, London Journal, 15 (1990).
For the agrarian developments, see D. Palliser, The Age of Elizabeth: England under the later Tudors, 1547–1603 (London, 1983); C. G. A. Clay, Economic Expansion and Social Change: England, 1500–1700 (2 vols., Cambridge, 1984); The Agrarian History of England and Wales, vol. 4, 1500–1640, ed. J. Thirsk (Cambridge, 1967); M. Spufford, Contrasting Communities: English Villagers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (Cambridge, 1974); J. Youings, Sixteenth-Century England (Harmondsworth, 1984); J. A. Yelling, Common Field and Enclosure in England, 1450–1850 (London, 1977); and C. Platt, The Great Rebuildings of Tudor and Stuart England (London, 1994).
The perception and the reality of the crisis of the 1590s is studied in R. B. Outhwaite, ‘Dearth, the English Crown and the crisis of the 1590s’ and P. Clark, ‘A crisis contained? The condition of English towns in the 1590s’ in The European Crisis of the 1590s, ed. P. Clark (London, 1985); J. Sharpe, ‘Social strain and social dislocation, 1585–1603’ in The reign of Elizabeth I: court and culture in the last decade, ed. J. Guy (Cambridge, 1995); I. Archer, The Pursuit of Stability: Social Relations in Elizabethan London (Cambridge, 1991); S. J. Watts, From Border to Middle Shire: Northumberland, 1586–1625 (Leicester, 1975); A. L. Beier, Masterless Men: The vagrancy problem in England, 1560–1640 (London, 1985); A. Appleby, Famine in Tudor and Stuart England (Liverpool, 1978); Famine, Disease and the Social Order in Early Modern Society, ed. J. Walter and R. Schofield (Cambridge, 1989).
Of the many works upon witchcraft and the witch craze in England, K. V. Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic: Studies in popular beliefs in sixteenth and seventeenth century England (London, 1971); and A. Macfarlane, Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England: A regional and comparative study (London, 1970) are particularly important. A good introduction is J. Sharpe, Instruments of Darkness: Witchcraft in England, 1550–1750 (London, 1996). William Perkins, A discourse of the damned art of witchcraft is printed in The Work of William Perkins, ed. I. Breward (Abingdon, 1970).
I have studied the A-text of Christopher Marlowe, Doctor Faustus, ed. D. Bevington and E. Rasmussen (Manchester, 1993). For John Dee’s life and thought, see his extraordinary diaries, The Diaries of John Dee, ed. E. Fenton (Charlbury, 1998); P. French, John Dee: The world of an Elizabethan magus (London, 1984 edn); and N. H. Clulee, John Dee’s Natural Philosophy: Between Science and Religion (London, 1988). Humphrey Gilbert’s visions are discovered in D. B. Quinn, Explorers and Colonies: America, 1500–1625 (London, 1990), Ch. 12. For Elizabethan science and occult philosophy, see F. Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (London, 1964) and The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age (London, 1979); and A. G. Debus, The English Paracelsians (New York, 1966). On Harriot, see especially Thomas Harriot, Renaissance Scientist, ed. J. W. Shirley (Oxford, 1974). Brilliant accounts of Christopher Marlowe, as he lived and died, are found in S. Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare (Chicago and London, 1980); and C. Nicholl, The Reckoning: The murder of Christopher Marlowe (London, 1993 edn). For the Elizabethan cult of melancholy, see R. Strong, The English Icon: Elizabethan and Jacobean Portraiture (London, 1989). For one melancholic, see The Poems of Robert Sidney, ed. P. J. Croft (Oxford, 1984). The excesses of the nobility at court are described in L. Stone, The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558–1641 (Oxford, 1965). For Fulke Greville and the arts of power, see D. Norbrook, Poetry and Politics in the English Renaissance (London, 1984), Ch. 6.

11 Court and Camp

For the horoscope, see H. Gatti, ‘The Natural Philosophy of Thomas Harriot’ (Thomas Harriot Lecture, Oxford, 1993). The image of the Queen and the devotion demanded of her subjects are explored in R. Strong’s classic, The Cult of Elizabeth: Elizabethan Portraiture and Pageantry (London, 1999 edn) – here the identification of Essex with the Young Man among Roses is made. See also H. Hackett, Virgin Mother, Maiden Queen: Elizabeth I and the Cult of the Virgin Mary (Basingstoke, 1996 edn).
Ralegh and Essex reveal themselves in their letters and in their poetry: W. Devereux, Lives and Letters of the Devereux, Earls of Essex, 1540–1646 (2 vols., London, 1853); The Letters of Sir Walter Ralegh, ed. A. Latham and J. Youings (Exeter, 1999); and The Poems of Sir Walter Ralegh, ed. A. Latham (London and Cambridge, Mass., revised edn, 1951). Essex’s preoccupation with the cult of honour is examined in an illuminating essay by M. E. James: ‘At a crossroads of the political culture: The Essex revolt, 1601’ in his Society, Politics and Culture: Studies in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1986). For Ralegh and the twelve-year war, see ‘The Ocean to Cynthia’ in his Poems; and W. Oakeshott, The Queen and the Poet (London, 1960).
To understand the preoccupations and politics of the 1590s, contemporary letters and memoirs are indispensable: the letters from his agents in London to Sir Robert Sidney in Letters and Memorials of State, ed. A. Collins (2 vols., London, 1746); The Letters of Queen Elizabeth I, ed. G. B. Harrison (London, 1935); Calendar of the MSS of the Marquess of Salisbury at Hatfield House, vols. 4–12 (London, 1883–1976); The Letters of John Chamberlain (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1939); Manuscripts of the Earl of Ancaster preserved at Grimsthorpe (Dublin, 1907); The Letters and Life of Francis Bacon, vols. 1–2, ed. J. Spedding (London, 1868); The Memoirs of Robert Carey, ed. F. H. Mares (Oxford, 1972); and Letters and Epigrams of Sir John Harington, ed. N. M. McClure (Oxford, 1930).
For the politics, foreign and domestic, of Elizabeth’s last years, William Camden’s The History of… Princess Elizabeth (3rd edn, London, 1675) is a vital source, for he witnessed many of the events. Important studies are W. T. MacCaffrey, Elizabeth I: War and Politics, 1588–1603 (Princeton, 1992); R. B. Wernham, ‘Elizabethan War aims and strategy’ in Elizabethan Government and Society, ed. S. T. Bindoff et al. (London, 1961), After the Armada: Elizabethan England and the Struggle for Western Europe, 1588–1595 (Oxford, 1984) and The Return of the Armadas: The last years of the Elizabethan War against Spain, 1595–1603 (Oxford, 1994); C. Read, Lord Burghley and Queen Elizabeth (London, 1960); The reign of Elizabeth I: Court and culture in the last decade, ed. J. Guy (Cambridge, 1995).
For France as the ‘theatre of misery’ see Bacon’s ‘Observations made upon a Libel, 1592’ in his Letters and Life, vol. 1; J. H. M. Salmon, Society in Crisis: France in the Sixteenth Century (London, 1979); P. Benedict, Rouen during the wars of religion (Cambridge, 1981); and H. Lloyd, The Rouen Campaign, 1590–1592: Politics, warfare and the early modern state (Oxford, 1973).
Calendar of State Papers, Ireland and Calendar of Carew MSS contain important letters and reports upon Ireland. Essential for understanding the history of Ireland in the 1580s, and the failures of English governors there, are C. Brady, The Chief Governors: The rise and fall of reform government in Tudor Ireland, 1536–1588 (Cambridge, 1994) andH. Morgan, Tyrone’s Rebellion: The outbreak of the Nine Years War in Ireland (Woodbridge, 1993), which explains the origins of the greatest rebellion the Tudors ever faced. For the divisions at the English court which continued to undermine the governors of Ireland, see H. Morgan, ‘The Fall of Sir John Perrot’ in The reign of Elizabeth I, ed. J. Guy. The Munster plantation and the aspirations of the planters are explored by M. MacCarthy-Morrogh, The Munster Plantation: English Migration to Southern Ireland, 1583–1641(Oxford, 1986); and N. Canny, The Upstart Earl: A study of the social and mental world of Richard Boyle, first Earl of Cork, 1566–1643 (Cambridge, 1982). Edmund Spenser’s View of the Present State of Ireland, ed. W. L. Renwick (Oxford, 1970) is essential, and to understand how he came to it, C.Brady, ‘Spenser’s Irish crisis: Humanism and experience in the 1590s’, Past and Present, 111 (1986). For the freebooters, see C. Brady, ‘The captains’ games: Army and society in Elizabethan Ireland’ in A Military History of Ireland, ed. T. Bartlett and K. Jeffery (Cambridge, 1996); and M. O’Dowd, Power, Politics and Land: Early Modern Sligo, 1568–1688 (Belfast, 1991).
The Queen’s growing impatience with her puritan subjects was expressed in Parliament: Proceedings in the Parliaments of Elizabeth I, vol. 3, 1593–1601, ed. T. E. Hartley (Leicester, 1995). J. Guy, ‘The Elizabethan establishment and the ecclesiastical polity’ in The reign of Elizabeth I, ed. Guy. The challenges from and to the puritans, and the development of presbyterianism are best explained in P. Collinson’s classic The Elizabethan Puritan Movement (London, 1963). See also P. Lake, Moderate Puritans and the Elizabethan Church (Cambridge, 1982) and Anglicans and Puritans? Presbyterianism and English Conformist Thought from Whitgift to Hooker (London, 1988); H. C. Porter, Puritanism in Tudor England (London, 1970); The Presbyterian movement in the reign of Queen Elizabeth as illustrated by the minute book of the Dedham Classis, 1582–1589, ed. R. G. Usher (Camden Society, 3rd series, 8, 1905); and D. MacCulloch, Suffolk and the Tudors: Politics and Religion in an English County, 1500–1600 (Oxford, 1986). For Martin Marprelate and his effect, see L. H. Carlson, Martin Marprelate, Gentleman: Master Job Throckmorton Laid Open in his Colors (San Marino, 1981); and P. Collinson, ‘Ecclesiastical vitriol: Religious satire in the 1590s and the invention of puritanism’ in The reign of Elizabeth I, ed. Guy. For the crisis of 1593, see P. Collinson, ‘Hooker and the Elizabethan establishment’ in Richard Hooker and the Construction of a Christian Community, ed. A. S. McGrade (Tempe, Arizona, 1997).
Robert Southwell’s spiritual mission is explained in his An humble supplication to Her Maiestie in answere to the late proclamation (1595, reprinted Menston, 1973); see also The Poems of Robert Southwell, ed. J. H. MacDonald and N. Pollard Brown (Oxford, 1967). The ways in which Catholics considered their position are discussed in P. Holmes, Resistance and Compromise: The Political Thought of Elizabethan Catholics (Cambridge, 1982) and Elizabethan Casuistry (Catholic Record Society, lxvii, 1981); A. Pritchard, Catholic Loyalism in Elizabethan England (London, 1979); L. Wooding, Rethinking Catholicism in Reformation England (Oxford, 2000); and A. Walsham, Church papists: Catholicism, conformity and confessional polemic in early modern England (Woodbridge, 1993). One of the best local studies of Catholicism is J. C. H. Aveling, Northern Catholics: The Catholic Recusants of the North Riding of Yorkshire, 1558–1790 (London, 1966). J. Bossy, ‘The character of Elizabethan Catholicism’, Past and Present, 21 (1962) is an illuminating study. For understanding the transformations in English Protestantism, H. C. Porter, Reformation and Reaction in Tudor Cambridge (Cambridge, 1958) and N. Tyacke, Anti-Calvinists: The rise of English Arminianism, c. 1590–1640 (Oxford, 1987) are indispensable.
For Essex’s ‘violent courses’, the correspondence in Letters and Memorials of State, ed. A. Collins and The Letters and Life of Francis Bacon, ed. J. Spedding are important. See also the essays by Mears and Hammer in The reign of Elizabeth I, ed. J. Guy; and R. McCoy, The Rites of Knighthood (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1989). Essex’s strategy in European affairs is discussed in P. Hammer, ‘Essex and Europe: Evidence from confidential instructions by the Earl of Essex, 1595–6’, English Historical Review, cxi (1996); and L. W. Henry, ‘The Earl of Essex as strategist and military organiser (1596–7)’, ibid., lxviii (1953). The Cadiz expedition and the Islands voyage are described by Wernham, The Return of the Armadas; and P. E. J. Hammer, ‘Myth-making: Politics, propaganda and the capture of Cadiz in 1596’, Historical Journal, xl (1997). For Essex and his friends, M. James, ‘At a crossroads of the political culture: The Essex revolt, 1601’ and D. Wootton, ‘Francis Bacon: Your flexible friend’ in The World of the Favourite, ed. J. H. Elliott and L. W. B. Brockliss (New Haven and London, 1999); and R. A. Rebholz, The Life of Fulke Greville, first Lord Brooke (Oxford, 1971) are important. Camden described Essex’s quarrel with the Queen in The History of Princess Elizabeth. Andrewes’s minatory sermon is found in Ninety-six sermons by the Rt. Hon. and Revd. Father in God, Lancelot Andrewes, ed. J. P. Parkinson and J. P. Wilson (Oxford, 1843).
Essex’s moves to conspiracy and revolt are discovered in Correspondence of King James VI of Scotland with Sir Robert Cecil and others in England, ed. J. Bruce (Camden Society, 78, London, 1861); ‘A declaration of the practices and treasons… by Robert, late Earl of Essex’ in The Letters and the Life of Francis Bacon, vol. 2; Camden, The History of Princess Elizabeth; Calendar of the MSS… at Hatfield House, vol. 11; and M. James, ‘At a cross roads of the aristocratic culture: The Essex revolt, 1601’.
For the end of the Nine Years War, see H. Morgan, ‘Faith and Fatherland or Queen and Country? An unpublished exchange between O’Neill and the state at the height of the Nine Years War’, Dúiche Néill: Journal of the O’Neill Country Historical Society, 9 (1994), ‘The end of Gaelic Ulster: A thematic interpretation of events between 1534 and 1610’, Irish Historical Studies, xxvi (1988) and ‘Hugh O’Neill and the Nine Years War in Tudor Ireland’, Historical Journal, xxxvi (1993); N. Canny, ‘Hugh O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone, and the changing face of Gaelic Ulster’, Studia Hibernica, 10 (1970); M. Caball, ‘Faith, culture and sovereignty: Irish nationality and development, 1558–1625’ in British Consciousness and Identity: The making of Britain, 1533–1707, ed. B. Bradshaw and P. Roberts (Cambridge, 1998); J. J. Silke, Kinsale: The Spanish intervention in Ireland at the end of the Elizabethan Wars (Liverpool and New York, 1970); and ‘Bodley’s visit to Lecale, County of Down, AD 1602–3’, Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 2 (1854). Thomas Stafford, Pacata Hibernia, ed. S. O’Grady (2 vols, London, 1896) is an account of the suppression of the revolt in Munster by Sir George Carew, 1600–3. For the bards’ laments for their loss, see O. Bergin, Irish Bardic Poetry (Dublin, 1970).
Robert Carey was present as the Queen was dying: see his Memoirs. The anxieties that attended her death and James’s accession are described in Correspondence of King James VI of Scotland with Sir Robert Cecil, ed. J. Bruce.

Epilogue

For the flight of the earls, see J. McCavitt, ‘The flight of the earls, 1607’ in Irish Historical Studies, xxix (1994).
The history of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Ireland has occasioned much controversy. For a narrative framework, see R. D. Edwards, Church and State in Tudor Ireland: A History of the Penal Laws against Irish Catholics, 1534–1603 (Dublin, 1935); and M. V. Ronan, The Reformation in Ireland under Elizabeth, 1558–80 (London, 1930). For explanations of why the Reformation failed in Ireland and accounts of the vitality of the Catholic Reformation, see B. Bradshaw, ‘Sword, word and strategy in the Reformation in Ireland’, Historical Journal, xxi (1978); and ‘The English Reformation and identity formation in Ireland and Wales’ in British Consciousness and Identity: The Making of Britain, 1533–1707, ed. B. Bradshaw and P. Roberts (Cambridge, 1998). Bradshaw’s original arguments were challenged by N. P. Canny, ‘Why the Reformation failed in Ireland: Une question mal posée’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, xxx (1979). For the history of the Church of Ireland and of Reformation there, see A. Ford, The Protestant Reformation in Ireland, 1590–1641 (Dublin, 1997) and As by Law Established: The Church of Ireland since the Reformation, ed. A. Ford, J. McGuire and K. Milne (Dublin, 1995). For the religious world of the people, see R. Gillespie, Devoted People: Belief and Religion in Early Modern Ireland (Manchester, 1997). The reaction of Dublin’s patriciate to the Reformation is explored in C. Lennon, The Lords of Dublin in the Age of Reformation (Dublin, 1989).
For understanding the consequences of more than half a century of Reformations in England, the following are indispensable: Christopher Haigh, English Reformations: Religion, Politics and Society under the Tudors (Oxford, 1993); M. Aston, England’s Iconoclasts: Laws against Images (Oxford, 1988); P. Collinson, The Birthpangs of Protestant England: Religious and Cultural Change in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Basingstoke, 1988); E. Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England, 1400–1580 (New Haven and London, 1992); C. Marsh, Popular Religion in Sixteenth-century England (Basingstoke, 1998). For a magisterial study of Wales, see G. Williams, Wales and the Reformation (Cardiff, 1997). The best studies of the transformation of the Tudor nobility are Laurence Stone’s classic The Crisis of the Aristocracy, 1558–1641 (Oxford, 1965) and M. James, Society, Politics and Culture: Studies in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1986).
For literature and the late Elizabethan court, see D. Norbrook, Poetry and Politics in the English Renaissance (London, 1984), especially Ch. 5–7, and B. Worden, ‘Ben Jonson and the Monarchy’ in Neo-historicism, ed. G. Burgess, R. Headlam Wells and R. Wymer (Woodbridge, 2000). The best edition of Hamlet is by Harold Jenkins (Arden edition, London, 1982). Stimulating works upon Hamlet, and the world in which it was written, are C. Devlin, Hamlet’s Divinity and other essays (London, 1963), and R. M. Frye, The Renaissance Hamlet: Issues and Responses in 1600 (Princeton, 1984).