15:1 We then who are strong ought to bear with the scruples of the weak, and not to please ourselves. ² Let each of us please his neighbor for his good, leading to edification. ³ For even Christ did not please Himself; but as it is written, “The reproaches of those who reproached You fell on Me.”^{a 4} For whatever things were written before were written for our learning, that we through the patience and comfort of the Scriptures might have hope. ⁵ Now may the God of patience and comfort grant you to be like-minded toward one another, according to Christ Jesus, ⁶ that you may with one mind and one mouth glorify the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ.

Glorify God Together

⁷ Therefore receive one another, just as Christ also received us,^a to the glory of God. ⁸ Now I say that Jesus Christ has become a servant to the circumcision for the truth of God, to confirm the promises made to the fathers, ⁹ and that the Gentiles might glorify God for His mercy, as it is written:

“For this reason I will confess to You among the Gentiles,

And sing to Your name.”^a

¹⁰ And again he says:

“Rejoice, O Gentiles, with His people!”^a

¹¹ And again:

“Praise the LORD, all you Gentiles!

Laud Him, all you peoples!”^a

¹² And again, Isaiah says:

“There shall be a root of Jesse;

And He who shall rise to reign over the Gentiles,

In Him the Gentiles shall hope.”^a

¹³ Now may the God of hope fill you with all joy and peace in believing, that you may abound in hope by the power of the Holy Spirit.

Transition

Paul’s Ministry to the Gentiles

Having ministered in the eastern Mediterranean area for many years, Paul planned to take the gospel farther west to Spain and to visit the Romans on his way (Rom. 15:24). Even though Paul had never been to Rome, many Roman Christians who had labored with Paul elsewhere knew him. Among them were Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:2, 3), as well as Rufus and his mother (Rom. 16:13). Paul hoped that Rome could serve as the home base for his missions in the West, as Antioch had in the East, and may have written this letter in order to solicit support from the Roman church for his mission.

That Paul sent so many greetings (16:3–15) and apparently knew so many people in a city he had yet to visit strikes some scholars as odd. He also seems to have written a conclusion to the letter already in Rom. 15:30–33. Since many of the people who receive personal greetings in ch. 16 are associated with Ephesus elsewhere in the New Testament, some scholars suggest that Paul had two copies of the letter made. One copy, ending at 15:33, was sent to the church at Rome. Paul then added a personal postscript to the other copy and had it delivered to the church at Ephesus.

• Romans 15:14–16:27

Romans

From Jerusalem To Illyricum

15

15:14 Now I myself am confident concerning you, my brethren, that you also are full of goodness, filled with all knowledge, able also to admonish one another.^{a 15} Nevertheless, brethren, I have written more boldly to you on some points, as reminding you, because of the grace given to me by God, ¹⁶ that I might be a minister of Jesus Christ to the Gentiles, ministering the gospel of God, that the offering of the Gentiles might be acceptable, sanctified by the Holy Spirit. ¹⁷ Therefore I have reason to glory in Christ Jesus in the things which pertain to God. ¹⁸ For I will not dare to speak of any of those things which Christ has not accomplished through me, in word and deed, to make the Gentiles obedient— ¹⁹ in mighty signs and wonders, by the power of the Spirit of God, so that from Jerusalem and round about to Illyricum I have fully preached the gospel of Christ. ²⁰ And so I have made it my aim to preach the gospel, not where Christ was named, lest I should build on another man’s foundation, ²¹ but as it is written:

* Servant of the Church at Cenchrea (Rom. 16:1, 2)

Located on the prosperous isthmus of Corinth, Cenchrea was a port city, 7 miles east of Corinth. Much of Corinth’s wealth came from this town, which by Paul’s time hosted many foreign religions and was more religiously tolerant than some other less cosmopolitan locations. Phoebe, a woman of the church at Cenchrea, delivered Paul’s letter to the Roman Christians (Rom. 16:1).

Paul calls Phoebe a “servant of the church” (16:1). By “servant” Paul could have meant a “minister” of the gospel, as he described himself, Apollos (1 Cor. 3:5), and Timothy (1 Thess. 3:2), or the more particular office of “deacon.” The word “deacon” might describe Phoebe as the owner of the home in which the church met. Paul also calls her a “helper” (Rom. 16:2), which in Greek generally referred to “patrons” who hosted religious associations, like churches, in their homes. Women patrons, although in the minority, did exist in ancient times.

The phrase “servant of the church” may well correspond to the Jewish title chazzan, the person in charge of the synagogue building. (Like churches, synagogues without adequate resources to build special structures typically began in homes.) Jewish synagogues highly respected the office of chazzan, which was usually filled by men.

Though women’s roles had improved in much of Greco-Roman society, 1st-century cultural prejudices still restricted opportunities for the average woman. Paul, though, did not hesitate to support women’s roles to his Roman readers. He commends various ministries of many women, including Phoebe, Priscilla (16:3), Mary (16:6), and Junia, whom he calls an apostle (16:7).

“To whom He was not announced, they shall see;

And those who have not heard shall understand.”^a

Plan To Visit Rome

²² For this reason I also have been much hindered from coming to you. ²³ But now no longer having a place in these parts, and having a great desire these many years to come to you, ²⁴ whenever I journey to Spain, I shall come to you.^a For I hope to see you on my journey, and to be helped on my way there by you, if first I may enjoy your company for a while. ²⁵ But now I am going to Jerusalem to minister to the saints. ²⁶ For it pleased those from Macedonia and Achaia to make a certain contribution for the poor among the saints who are in Jerusalem. ²⁷ It pleased them indeed, and they are their debtors. For if the Gentiles have been partakers of their spiritual things, their duty is also to minister to them in material things. ²⁸ Therefore, when I have performed this and have sealed to them this fruit, I shall go by way of you to Spain. ²⁹ But I know that when I come to you, I shall come in the fullness of the blessing of the gospel^a of Christ.

³⁰ Now I beg you, brethren, through the Lord Jesus Christ, and through the love of the Spirit, that you strive together with me in prayers to God for me, ³¹ that I may be delivered from those in Judea who do not believe, and that my service for Jerusalem may be acceptable to the saints, ³² that I may come to you with joy by the will of God, and may be refreshed together with you. ³³ Now the God of peace be with you all. Amen.

Sister Phoebe Commended

16

16:1 I commend to you Phoebe our sister, who is a servant of the church in Cenchrea, ² that you may receive her in the Lord in a manner worthy of the saints, and assist her in whatever business she has need of you; for indeed she has been a helper of many and of myself also.

Greeting Roman Saints

³ Greet Priscilla and Aquila, my fellow workers in Christ Jesus, ⁴ who risked their own necks for my life, to whom not only I give thanks, but also all the churches of the Gentiles. ⁵ Likewise greet the church that is in their house.

Greet my beloved Epaenetus, who is the firstfruits of Achaia^a to Christ. ⁶ Greet Mary, who labored much for us. ⁷ Greet Andronicus and Junia, my countrymen and my fellow prisoners, who are of note among the apostles, who also were in Christ before me.

⁸ Greet Amplias, my beloved in the Lord. ⁹ Greet Urbanus, our fellow worker in Christ, and Stachys, my beloved. ¹⁰ Greet Apelles, approved in Christ. Greet those who are of the household of Aristobulus. ¹¹ Greet Herodion, my countryman.^a Greet those who are of the household of Narcissus who are in the Lord.

¹² Greet Tryphena and Tryphosa, who have labored in the Lord. Greet the beloved Persis, who labored much in the Lord. ¹³ Greet Rufus, chosen in the Lord, and his mother and mine. ¹⁴ Greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brethren who are with them. ¹⁵ Greet Philologus and Julia, Nereus and his sister, and Olympas, and all the saints who are with them.

¹⁶ Greet one another with a holy kiss. The^a churches of Christ greet you.

Avoid Divisive Persons

¹⁷ Now I urge you, brethren, note those who cause divisions and offenses, contrary to the doctrine which you learned, and avoid them. ¹⁸ For those who are such do not serve our Lord Jesus^a Christ, but their own belly, and by smooth words and flattering speech deceive the hearts of the simple. ¹⁹ For your obedience has become known to all. Therefore I am glad on your behalf; but I want you to be wise in what is good, and simple concerning evil. ²⁰ And the God of peace will crush Satan under your feet shortly.

Culture & Society

“Tertius” and “Quartus” are the Latin words for “third” and “fourth” and were names given to slaves (Rom. 16:22, 23). Tertius, Paul’s secretary for the Book of Romans, is a good example of the wide range of jobs that slaves had in the Roman world. Persons born as slaves could be educated for jobs requiring literacy, or educated adults could be enslaved through conquest in war.

The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you. Amen.

Greetings From Paul’s Friends

²¹ Timothy, my fellow worker, and Lucius, Jason, and Sosipater, my countrymen, greet you.

²² I, Tertius, who wrote this epistle, greet you in the Lord.

²³ Gaius, my host and the host of the whole church, greets you. Erastus, the treasurer of the city, greets you, and Quartus, a brother. ²⁴ The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen.^a

Benediction

²⁵ Now to Him who is able to establish you according to my gospel and the preaching of Jesus Christ, according to the revelation of the mystery kept secret since the world began ²⁶ but now made manifest, and by the prophetic Scriptures made known to all nations, according to the commandment of the everlasting God, for obedience to the faith— ²⁷ to God, alone wise, be glory through Jesus Christ forever. Amen.^a

Transition

En Route to Jerusalem

The account of Paul’s travels to Jerusalem at the end of his third missionary journey (Acts 20:3b–21:16) is one of three segments in the Book of Acts known as the “we” passages (also 16:10–18; 27:1–28:16). These accounts appear to relate firsthand reports of events at which the author of Acts was personally present.

Scholars differ over the significance the “we” passages have concerning the authorship of Acts as a whole. Since Paul was known to have had an associate named Luke (Philem. 1:24; Col. 4:14; 2 Tim. 4:11), these firsthand accounts might support the traditional view that Luke wrote Acts. Other scholars suggest that the “we” passages may represent a source used by the author of Acts. In this case, the author of the source for the “we” passages need not have been the author of the entire book.

At Tyre Paul heard the first Spirit-inspired prediction of trouble facing him at Jerusalem (Acts 21:4). But Paul was undeterred. His destination was Jerusalem, hoping to be there by the Day of Pentecost in A.D. 57. After that, he planned to visit Rome (see 19:21).

• Acts 20:3b–21:16

Acts

20

20:3b And when the Jews plotted against him as he was about to sail to Syria, he decided to return through Macedonia. ⁴ And Sopater of Berea accompanied him to Asia—also Aristarchus and Secundus of the Thessalonians, and Gaius of Derbe, and Timothy, and Tychicus and Trophimus of Asia. ⁵ These men, going ahead, waited for us at Troas. ⁶ But we sailed away from Philippi after the Days of Unleavened Bread, and in five days joined them at Troas, where we stayed seven days.

Ministering At Troas

⁷ Now on the first day of the week, when the disciples came together to break bread, Paul, ready to depart the next day, spoke to them and continued his message until midnight. ⁸ There were many lamps in the upper room where they^a were gathered together. ⁹ And in a window sat a certain young man named Eutychus, who was sinking into a deep sleep. He was overcome by sleep; and as Paul continued speaking, he fell down from the third story and was taken up dead. ¹⁰ But Paul went down, fell on him, and embracing him said, “Do not trouble yourselves, for his life is in him.” ¹¹ Now when he had come up, had broken bread and eaten, and talked a long while, even till daybreak, he departed. ¹² And they brought the young man in alive, and they were not a little comforted.

From Troas To Miletus

¹³ Then we went ahead to the ship and sailed to Assos, there intending to take Paul on board; for so he had given orders, intending himself to go on foot. ¹⁴ And when he met us at Assos, we took him on board and came to Mitylene. ¹⁵ We sailed from there, and the next day came opposite Chios. The following day we arrived at Samos and stayed at Trogyllium. The next day we came to Miletus. ¹⁶ For Paul had decided to sail past Ephesus, so that he would not have to spend time in Asia; for he was hurrying to be at Jerusalem, if possible, on the Day of Pentecost.

The Ephesian Elders Exhorted

¹⁷ From Miletus he sent to Ephesus and called for the elders of the church. ¹⁸ And when they had come to him, he said to them: “You know, from the first day that I came to Asia, in what manner I always lived among you, ¹⁹ serving the Lord with all humility, with many tears and trials which happened to me by the plotting of the Jews; ²⁰ how I kept back nothing that was helpful, but proclaimed it to you, and taught you publicly and from house to house, ²¹ testifying to Jews, and also to Greeks, repentance toward God and faith toward our Lord Jesus Christ. ²² And see, now I go bound in the spirit to Jerusalem, not knowing the things that will happen to me there, ²³ except that the Holy Spirit testifies in every city, saying that chains and tribulations await me. ²⁴ But none of these things move me; nor do I count my life dear to myself,^a so that I may finish my race with joy, and the ministry which I received from the Lord Jesus, to testify to the gospel of the grace of God.

²⁵ “And indeed, now I know that you all, among whom I have gone preaching the kingdom of God, will see my face no more. ²⁶ Therefore I testify to you this day that I am innocent of the blood of all men. ²⁷ For I have not shunned to declare to you the whole counsel of God. ²⁸ Therefore take heed to yourselves and to all the flock, among which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers, to shepherd the church of God^a which He purchased with His own blood. ²⁹ For I know this, that after my departure savage wolves will come in among you, not sparing the flock. ³⁰ Also from among yourselves men will rise up, speaking perverse things, to draw away the disciples after themselves. ³¹ Therefore watch, and remember that for three years I did not cease to warn everyone night and day with tears.

³² “So now, brethren, I commend you to God and to the word of His grace, which is able to build you up and give you an inheritance among all those who are sanctified. ³³ I have coveted no one’s silver or gold or apparel. ³⁴ Yes,^a you yourselves know that these hands have provided for my necessities, and for those who were with me. ³⁵ I have shown you in every way, by laboring like this, that you must support the weak. And remember the words of the Lord Jesus, that He said, ‘It is more blessed to give than to receive.’ ”

³⁶ And when he had said these things, he knelt down and prayed with them all. ³⁷ Then they all wept freely, and fell on Paul’s neck and kissed him, ³⁸ sorrowing most of all for the words which he spoke, that they would see his face no more. And they accompanied him to the ship.

Warnings On the Journey To Jerusalem

21

21:1 Now it came to pass, that when we had departed from them and set sail, running a straight course we came to Cos, the following day to Rhodes, and from there to Patara. ² And finding a ship sailing over to Phoenicia, we went aboard and set sail. ³ When we had sighted Cyprus, we passed it on the left, sailed to Syria, and landed at Tyre; for there the ship was to unload her cargo. ⁴ And finding disciples,^a we stayed there seven days. They told Paul through the Spirit not to go up to Jerusalem. ⁵ When we had come to the end of those days, we departed and went on our way; and they all accompanied us, with wives and children, till we were out of the city. And we knelt down on the shore and prayed. ⁶ When we had taken our leave of one another, we boarded the ship, and they returned home.

⁷ And when we had finished our voyage from Tyre, we came to Ptolemais, greeted the brethren, and stayed with them one day. ⁸ On the next day we who were Paul’s companions^a departed and came to Caesarea, and entered the house of Philip the evangelist, who was one of the seven, and stayed with him. ⁹ Now this man had four virgin daughters who prophesied. ¹⁰ And as we stayed many days, a certain prophet named Agabus came down from Judea. ¹¹ When he had come to us, he took Paul’s belt, bound his own hands and feet, and said, “Thus says the Holy Spirit, ‘So shall the Jews at Jerusalem bind the man who owns this belt, and deliver him into the hands of the Gentiles.’ ”

¹² Now when we heard these things, both we and those from that place pleaded with him not to go up to Jerusalem. ¹³ Then Paul answered, “What do you mean by weeping and breaking my heart? For I am ready not only to be bound, but also to die at Jerusalem for the name of the Lord Jesus.”

¹⁴ So when he would not be persuaded, we ceased, saying, “The will of the Lord be done.”

Paul Is Arrested and Sent to Rome

Paul Urged To Make Peace

¹⁵ And after those days we packed and went up to Jerusalem. ¹⁶ Also some of the disciples from Caesarea went with us and brought with them a certain Mnason of Cyprus, an early disciple, with whom we were to lodge.

The Gospel from Jerusalem to Rome

Acts presents Rome as the guardian of law and order, a situation which often worked to the advantage of Paul and the gospel. Christians were expected to observe Roman law and not to get involved in disorderly, suspicious, or treasonous activity. The Romans, for their part, recognized Christianity as a legal and valid religion with the right to exist.

Paul’s Roman citizenship granted him certain privileges as well as protection from Jewish fanaticism. His defense before the Roman governors Felix and Festus, as well as his specific appeal to plead his case before Caesar (Acts 25:10–12) are examples of Roman civil and legal law protecting Christianity.

God used Paul’s imprisonment to bring him to Rome, the heart of the world.

The final chapters of Acts portray Paul as a witness for Jesus Christ on trial for the gospel. He defends himself before a Jerusalem crowd (Acts 22:1–21), before Felix (24:10–21), and before King Agrippa (26:1–32). He was not found guilty of any crime by the Romans, but they kept him in prison to satisfy the Jews. In the view of the author of Acts, God used Paul’s imprisonment to bring him to Rome, the heart of the world, and to make him a witness there.

Paul’s appearance in Rome was ironic, because he came as a prisoner and not as a missionary (Acts 28:19, 20). In a Roman house he was held in confinement awaiting a trial that apparently never took place.

Transition

Paul Arrested in the Temple

After arriving in Jerusalem, Paul went to James, the brother of Jesus, and to the elders telling them about his work among the Gentiles. The leaders of the church rejoiced over the conversion of Gentiles, but they were worried about Jewish hostility. Rumors were circulating that Paul had taught Jews living outside of Palestine not to keep the Jewish law. To avoid a dispute, Paul was urged to join with four men who had taken a Nazirite vow. By accompanying them to the temple and paying the expenses of the sacrificial offerings, Paul would demonstrate that as a Jew he was keeping the law, despite his witnessing to Gentiles.

Paul was also accused of profaning the temple by bringing a Gentile into its inner courts. Gentiles were allowed in the outer court, called appropriately the Court of the Gentiles, but they were forbidden to come into the Court of Women or the Court of Israel. Signs warned that Gentiles entering these courts would be put to death.

Though Paul had not brought Gentiles into the temple, accusations of such led to an attack against him. The mob stopped beating Paul only because the Roman soldiers intervened to save his life.

• Acts 21:17–23:22

Acts

21

21:17 And when we had come to Jerusalem, the brethren received us gladly. ¹⁸ On the following day Paul went in with us to James, and all the elders were present. ¹⁹ When he had greeted them, he told in detail those things which God had done among the Gentiles through his ministry. ²⁰ And when they heard it, they glorified the Lord. And they said to him, “You see, brother, how many myriads of Jews there are who have believed, and they are all zealous for the law; ²¹ but they have been informed about you that you teach all the Jews who are among the Gentiles to forsake Moses, saying that they ought not to circumcise their children nor to walk according to the customs. ²² What then? The assembly must certainly meet, for they will^a hear that you have come. ²³ Therefore do what we tell you: We have four men who have taken a vow. ²⁴ Take them and be purified with them, and pay their expenses so that they may shave their heads, and that all may know that those things of which they were informed concerning you are nothing, but that you yourself also walk orderly and keep the law. ²⁵ But concerning the Gentiles who believe, we have written and decided that they should observe no such thing, except^a that they should keep themselves from things offered to idols, from blood, from things strangled, and from sexual immorality.”

Arrested in the Temple

²⁶ Then Paul took the men, and the next day, having been purified with them, entered the temple to announce the expiration of the days of purification, at which time an offering should be made for each one of them.

²⁷ Now when the seven days were almost ended, the Jews from Asia, seeing him in the temple, stirred up the whole crowd and laid hands on him, ²⁸ crying out, “Men of Israel, help! This is the man who teaches all men everywhere against the people, the law, and this place; and furthermore he also brought Greeks into the temple and has defiled this holy place.” ²⁹ (For they had previously^a seen Trophimus the Ephesian with him in the city, whom they supposed that Paul had brought into the temple.)

³⁰ And all the city was disturbed; and the people ran together, seized Paul, and dragged him out of the temple; and immediately the doors were shut. ³¹ Now as they were seeking to kill him, news came to the commander of the garrison that all Jerusalem was in an uproar. ³² He immediately took soldiers and centurions, and ran down to them. And when they saw the commander and the soldiers, they stopped beating Paul. ³³ Then the commander came near and took him, and commanded him to be bound with two chains; and he asked who he was and what he had done. ³⁴ And some among the multitude cried one thing and some another.

So when he could not ascertain the truth because of the tumult, he commanded him to be taken into the barracks. ³⁵ When he reached the stairs, he had to be carried by the soldiers because of the violence of the mob. ³⁶ For the multitude of the people followed after, crying out, “Away with him!”

Addressing the Jerusalem Mob

³⁷ Then as Paul was about to be led into the barracks, he said to the commander, “May I speak to you?”

Culture & Society

Tensions in Judea grew worse and worse during the decades leading up to the war between Judea and Rome. The historian Josephus describes a new kind of assassin called sicarii, who would approach a target in daytime in a crowded place, stab the victim with daggers, and then disappear into the crowd (Acts 21:38). The Latin word sica means “dagger” and sicarii means “dagger men.”

* Rabbi Gamaliel, Paul’s Teacher (Acts 22:3)

Gamaliel was a leading Pharisee and a member of the Jewish Sanhedrin in the New Testament period. As a rabbi, he was well known for his ability to interpret the Torah, having the respect of “all the people” (Acts 5:34). According to one tradition, he was the disciple of the famous rabbi Hillel, whose rabbinical school he represented. Yet another tradition knew Gamaliel to be Hillel’s grandson.

Later Jewish sources applauded Gamaliel for upholding the purity of the Law (Torah) and for maintaining its dietary regulations. In other matters, though, he is reported to have held liberal views concerning divorce, keeping the Sabbath, and accepting the Targums (Jewish commentary upon the Torah). This more liberal side of Gamaliel is consistent with his counseling of the Sanhedrin, as Luke relates in Acts. When the Sanhedrin would have killed Peter and some of the apostles, Gamaliel rose to urge a wait-and-see attitude (Acts 5:33–35). The council should let God take care of misguided radicals like the apostles, Gamaliel advised (5:38, 39).

Paul claimed to have been a disciple of Gamaliel, “brought up” or instructed at the rabbi’s feet (Acts 22:3). In one sense, though, Paul the disciple did not follow in his teacher’s steps. While Gamaliel had urged restraint in dealing with Jesus’ followers, Paul persecuted them zealously until his conversion.

He replied, “Can you speak Greek? ³⁸ Are you not the Egyptian who some time ago stirred up a rebellion and led the four thousand assassins out into the wilderness?”

³⁹ But Paul said, “I am a Jew from Tarsus, in Cilicia, a citizen of no mean city; and I implore you, permit me to speak to the people.”

⁴⁰ So when he had given him permission, Paul stood on the stairs and motioned with his hand to the people. And when there was a great silence, he spoke to them in the Hebrew language, saying,

22

22:1 “Brethren and fathers, hear my defense before you now.” ² And when they heard that he spoke to them in the Hebrew language, they kept all the more silent.

Then he said: ³ “I am indeed a Jew, born in Tarsus of Cilicia, but brought up in this city at the feet of Gamaliel, taught according to the strictness of our fathers’ law, and was zealous toward God as you all are today. ⁴ I persecuted this Way to the death, binding and delivering into prisons both men and women, ⁵ as also the high priest bears me witness, and all the council of the elders, from whom I also received letters to the brethren, and went to Damascus to bring in chains even those who were there to Jerusalem to be punished.

⁶ “Now it happened, as I journeyed and came near Damascus at about noon, suddenly a great light from heaven shone around me. ⁷ And I fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to me, ‘Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting Me?’ ⁸ So I answered, ‘Who are You, Lord?’ And He said to me, ‘I am Jesus of Nazareth, whom you are persecuting.’

⁹ “And those who were with me indeed saw the light and were afraid,^a but they did not hear the voice of Him who spoke to me. ¹⁰ So I said, ‘What shall I do, Lord?’ And the Lord said to me, ‘Arise and go into Damascus, and there you will be told all things which are appointed for you to do.’ ¹¹ And since I could not see for the glory of that light, being led by the hand of those who were with me, I came into Damascus.

¹² “Then a certain Ananias, a devout man according to the law, having a good testimony with all the Jews who dwelt there, ¹³ came to me; and he stood and said to me, ‘Brother Saul, receive your sight.’ And at that same hour I looked up at him. ¹⁴ Then he said, ‘The God of our fathers has chosen you that you should know His will, and see the Just One, and hear the voice of His mouth. ¹⁵ For you will be His witness to all men of what you have seen and heard. ¹⁶ And now why are you waiting? Arise and be baptized, and wash away your sins, calling on the name of the Lord.’

¹⁷ “Now it happened, when I returned to Jerusalem and was praying in the temple, that I was in a trance ¹⁸ and saw Him saying to me, ‘Make haste and get out of Jerusalem quickly, for they will not receive your testimony concerning Me.’ ¹⁹ So I said, ‘Lord, they know that in every synagogue I imprisoned and beat those who believe on You. ²⁰ And when the blood of Your martyr Stephen was shed, I also was standing by consenting to his death,^a and guarding the clothes of those who were killing him.’ ²¹ Then He said to me, ‘Depart, for I will send you far from here to the Gentiles.’ ”

Paul’s Roman Citizenship

²² And they listened to him until this word, and then they raised their voices and said, “Away with such a fellow from the earth, for he is not fit to live!” ²³ Then, as they cried out and tore off their clothes and threw dust into the air, ²⁴ the commander ordered him to be brought into the barracks, and said that he should be examined under scourging, so that he might know why they shouted so against him. ²⁵ And as they bound him with thongs, Paul said to the centurion who stood by, “Is it lawful for you to scourge a man who is a Roman, and uncondemned?”

²⁶ When the centurion heard that, he went and told the commander, saying, “Take care what you do, for this man is a Roman.”

²⁷ Then the commander came and said to him, “Tell me, are you a Roman?”

He said, “Yes.”

²⁸ The commander answered, “With a large sum I obtained this citizenship.”

And Paul said, “But I was born a citizen.”

²⁹ Then immediately those who were about to examine him withdrew from him; and the commander was also afraid after he found out that he was a Roman, and because he had bound him.

The Sanhedrin Divided

³⁰ The next day, because he wanted to know for certain why he was accused by the Jews, he released him from his bonds, and commanded the chief priests and all their council to appear, and brought Paul down and set him before them.

23

23:1 Then Paul, looking earnestly at the council, said, “Men and brethren, I have lived in all good conscience before God until this day.” ² And the high priest Ananias commanded those who stood by him to strike him on the mouth. ³ Then Paul said to him, “God will strike you, you whitewashed wall! For you sit to judge me according to the law, and do you command me to be struck contrary to the law?”

⁴ And those who stood by said, “Do you revile God’s high priest?”

⁵ Then Paul said, “I did not know, brethren, that he was the high priest; for it is written, ‘You shall not speak evil of a ruler of your people.’ ”^a

⁶ But when Paul perceived that one part were Sadducees and the other Pharisees, he cried out in the council, “Men and brethren, I am a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee; concerning the hope and resurrection of the dead I am being judged!”

⁷ And when he had said this, a dissension arose between the Pharisees and the Sadducees; and the assembly was divided. ⁸ For Sadducees say that there is no resurrection—and no angel or spirit; but the Pharisees confess both. ⁹ Then there arose a loud outcry. And the scribes of the Pharisees’ party arose and protested, saying, “We find no evil in this man; but if a spirit or an angel has spoken to him, let us not fight against God.”^a

¹⁰ Now when there arose a great dissension, the commander, fearing lest Paul might be pulled to pieces by them, commanded the soldiers to go down and take him by force from among them, and bring him into the barracks.

The Plot Against Paul

¹¹ But the following night the Lord stood by him and said, “Be of good cheer, Paul; for as you have testified for Me in Jerusalem, so you must also bear witness at Rome.”

¹² And when it was day, some of the Jews banded together and bound themselves under an oath, saying that they would neither eat nor drink till they had killed Paul. ¹³ Now there were more than forty who had formed this conspiracy. ¹⁴ They came to the chief priests and elders, and said, “We have bound ourselves under a great oath that we will eat nothing until we have killed Paul. ¹⁵ Now you, therefore, together with the council, suggest to the commander that he be brought down to you tomorrow,^a as though you were going to make further inquiries concerning him; but we are ready to kill him before he comes near.”

¹⁶ So when Paul’s sister’s son heard of their ambush, he went and entered the barracks and told Paul. ¹⁷ Then Paul called one of the centurions to him and said, “Take this young man to the commander, for he has something to tell him.” ¹⁸ So he took him and brought him to the commander and said, “Paul the prisoner called me to him and asked me to bring this young man to you. He has something to say to you.”

¹⁹ Then the commander took him by the hand, went aside, and asked privately, “What is it that you have to tell me?”

* Before the Governor at Caesarea (Acts 23:23, 24)

The seaport of Caesarea on the Mediterranean coast was first founded as a trading station by the Sidonian king Strato in the 4th century B.C. It was subsequently occupied by the Ptolemies and Hasmoneans, among others, and eventually made into a fortified port city with an expanded harbor. But it is Herod the Great (37–4 B.C.) who is known as the builder of the city.

Caesarea was in a ruined state when Herod began building operations in 22 B.C. His dream was to have an international port built in a Roman provincial style that would challenge Egypt’s Alexandria as the leading trading center in the eastern Mediterranean. The city was completed in about a dozen years according to the Jewish historian Josephus (our primary source of information about Herod’s Caesarea). It was an engineering wonder, with many unique features. The builders used a siltation system and made use of hydraulic concrete (poured into the sea as liquid but hardened underwater). The harbor complex was the most elaborate of its day.

After Herod’s time, the Roman procurators made Caesarea the official seat of rule. During Jesus’ time Pontius Pilate governed Judea from Caesarea, and archaeologists have discovered a fragment of an inscription bearing Pilate’s name at the theater there. Antonius Felix was the procurator (or governor) ruling at Caesarea between A.D. 52 and 59, which explains why Paul the prisoner was taken there to stand before him (Acts 23:23, 24).

²⁰ And he said, “The Jews have agreed to ask that you bring Paul down to the council tomorrow, as though they were going to inquire more fully about him. ²¹ But do not yield to them, for more than forty of them lie in wait for him, men who have bound themselves by an oath that they will neither eat nor drink till they have killed him; and now they are ready, waiting for the promise from you.”

²² So the commander let the young man depart, and commanded him, “Tell no one that you have revealed these things to me.”

Transition

Paul Escorted to Caesarea

Citizens of Rome had special privileges including freedom from punishment until they had been tried and convicted. Because Paul had appealed for protection and a legal hearing under his rights as a Roman citizen, he was conducted by a military contingent to the governor’s residence in the port city of Caesarea. Paul received an initial hearing before the Roman governor Antonius Felix within a week of arriving (Acts 24:1), but Felix declined to issue a ruling in the case. Even 2 years later (24:27), probably in July of A.D. 59, Paul’s case still awaited adjudication. Felix was succeeded as governor by Porcius Festus at that time.

• Acts 23:23–24:27

Acts

Sent To Felix

23

23:23 And he called for two centurions, saying, “Prepare two hundred soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen to go to Caesarea at the third hour of the night; ²⁴ and provide mounts to set Paul on, and bring him safely to Felix the governor.” ²⁵ He wrote a letter in the following manner:

²⁶ Claudius Lysias,

To the most excellent governor Felix:

Greetings.

²⁷ This man was seized by the Jews and was about to be killed by them. Coming with the troops I rescued him, having learned that he was a Roman. ²⁸ And when I wanted to know the reason they accused him, I brought him before their council. ²⁹ I found out that he was accused concerning questions of their law, but had nothing charged against him deserving of death or chains. ³⁰ And when it was told me that the Jews lay in wait for the man,^a I sent him immediately to you, and also commanded his accusers to state before you the charges against him.

Farewell.

³¹ Then the soldiers, as they were commanded, took Paul and brought him by night to Antipatris. ³² The next day they left the horsemen to go on with him, and returned to the barracks. ³³ When they came to Caesarea and had delivered the letter to the governor, they also presented Paul to him. ³⁴ And when the governor had read it, he asked what province he was from. And when he understood that he was from Cilicia, ³⁵ he said, “I will hear you when your accusers also have come.” And he commanded him to be kept in Herod’s Praetorium.

* When Did Festus Take Office? (Acts 24:27)

Luke comments in Acts on a transfer of power that occurred while Paul was held in prison. The Roman procurator (or governor) of Judea, Antonius Felix, was replaced by Porcius Festus (Acts 24:27). The new procurator faced a situation left by Felix: Paul had been detained in prison while Felix dealt with other matters (Acts 24:24–26). Now Festus would need to hear Paul’s case and decide whether to grant him passage to Rome for trial. The Jewish historian Josephus had a high regard for Festus, whom he contrasted with Felix, Festus’s predecessor.

Just when Festus succeeded Felix as procurator is not exactly known. Both Josephus and Luke claim that he followed Felix. Josephus further says that Festus died 4 years before the Jewish war against Rome, which began in A.D. 66, thus making it A.D. 62 when Festus was succeeded by the next procurator, Albinus. But when Festus first took office and judged Paul’s case is not as easy to determine.

One later source, Jerome’s Latin version of Eusebius, claims that Festus took office in the emperor Nero’s 2nd year, that is, A.D. 56. Complicating this date, though, is Josephus’s statement that the previous procurator, Felix, received support from his brother Pallas when Felix left office and returned to Rome. Pallas lost his own position as financial secretary in A.D. 55, making it questionable whether he could have helped his brother after that time. Festus, then, would have taken office by A.D. 55.

The information regarding when Felix left office and Festus took over simply prevents any definite date from being established. Pallas is described as extremely wealthy by two Roman historians, Tacitus and Dio Cassius, so even after he was no longer financial secretary his wealth would have allowed him to help his brother Felix. It is also known that Felix was in office in A.D. 53 and ruled for “many years” (Acts 24:10), and Josephus writes considerably of Felix’s time in office. While a specific year remains unsettled, most scholars suggest that Festus succeeded Felix around A.D. 59, ruling until his death in A.D. 62.

Accused of Sedition

24

24:1 Now after five days Ananias the high priest came down with the elders and a certain orator named Tertullus. These gave evidence to the governor against Paul.

² And when he was called upon, Tertullus began his accusation, saying: “Seeing that through you we enjoy great peace, and prosperity is being brought to this nation by your foresight, ³ we accept it always and in all places, most noble Felix, with all thankfulness. ⁴ Nevertheless, not to be tedious to you any further, I beg you to hear, by your courtesy, a few words from us. ⁵ For we have found this man a plague, a creator of dissension among all the Jews throughout the world, and a ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes. ⁶ He even tried to profane the temple, and we seized him,^a and wanted to judge him according to our law. ⁷ But the commander Lysias came by and with great violence took him out of our hands, ⁸ commanding his accusers to come to you. By examining him yourself you may ascertain all these things of which we accuse him.” ⁹ And the Jews also assented,^a maintaining that these things were so.

The Defense Before Felix

¹⁰ Then Paul, after the governor had nodded to him to speak, answered: “Inasmuch as I know that you have been for many years a judge of this nation, I do the more cheerfully answer for myself, ¹¹ because you may ascertain that it is no more than twelve days since I went up to Jerusalem to worship. ¹² And they neither found me in the temple disputing with anyone nor inciting the crowd, either in the synagogues or in the city. ¹³ Nor can they prove the things of which they now accuse me. ¹⁴ But this I confess to you, that according to the Way which they call a sect, so I worship the God of my fathers, believing all things which are written in the Law and in the Prophets. ¹⁵ I have hope in God, which they themselves also accept, that there will be a resurrection of the dead,^a both of the just and the unjust. ¹⁶ This being so, I myself always strive to have a conscience without offense toward God and men.

¹⁷ “Now after many years I came to bring alms and offerings to my nation, ¹⁸ in the midst of which some Jews from Asia found me purified in the temple, neither with a mob nor with tumult. ¹⁹ They ought to have been here before you to object if they had anything against me. ²⁰ Or else let those who are here themselves say if they found any wrongdoing^a in me while I stood before the council, ²¹ unless it is for this one statement which I cried out, standing among them, ‘Concerning the resurrection of the dead I am being judged by you this day.’ ”

Felix Procrastinates

²² But when Felix heard these things, having more accurate knowledge of the Way, he adjourned the proceedings and said, “When Lysias the commander comes down, I will make a decision on your case.” ²³ So he commanded the centurion to keep Paul and to let him have liberty, and told him not to forbid any of his friends to provide for or visit him.

²⁴ And after some days, when Felix came with his wife Drusilla, who was Jewish, he sent for Paul and heard him concerning the faith in Christ. ²⁵ Now as he reasoned about righteousness, self-control, and the judgment to come, Felix was afraid and answered, “Go away for now; when I have a convenient time I will call for you.” ²⁶ Meanwhile he also hoped that money would be given him by Paul, that he might release him.^a Therefore he sent for him more often and conversed with him.

²⁷ But after two years Porcius Festus succeeded Felix; and Felix, wanting to do the Jews a favor, left Paul bound.

Transition

The Letter to the Philippians

Paul’s immediate purpose for writing a letter to the Philippians was to thank them for a gift they had sent him (Phil. 4:14–18). Their messenger, Epaphroditus, had recovered from a serious illness and could carry this letter as he returned to Philippi (2:25–30). Paul’s authorship of the letter to the Philippians has never been seriously questioned. There has been frequent and vigorous debate, however, over the date as well as the place of writing.

One view is that Paul wrote Philippians from Rome between A.D. 61 and 63. Paul was in prison (Phil. 1:12–14), and references to the “palace guard” (1:13) and “Caesar’s household” (4:22) might suggest imprisonment in Rome. If so, this letter would have been written sometime after Paul was first placed under Roman guard (Acts 28:16).

Other scholars believe that Philippians was written earlier, either around A.D. 54 or 55 during Paul’s ministry in Ephesus (Acts 19), or about A.D. 57–59 during his imprisonment at Caesarea (Acts 24–26). The terms “Caesar’s household” and “palace guard,” important evidence for a Roman imprisonment, could instead refer to Roman authorities in provincial cities like Ephesus or Caesarea. The location of Ephesus is favored because of hints that frequent travels were made between the prison and Philippi (Phil. 1:26; 2:19, 23–26; 4:18), suggesting that Paul was nearer to Philippi than imprisonment in Rome would allow.

That Paul wrote this letter from either Ephesus or Caesarea can be questioned. The Book of Acts does not mention Paul’s ever being in prison in Ephesus, although Paul did write from Ephesus about some threat that he faced in Asia, the Roman province of which Ephesus was the chief city (2 Cor. 1:8–11). The Book of Acts does refer to a Caesarean imprisonment, but Caesarea was much farther from Philippi than was either Ephesus or Rome.

Wherever Paul was imprisoned, the Philippians supported him (Phil. 1:7). In one of his most personal letters, Paul is concerned, yet confident, that God will bring the Philippians’ faith to maturity (2:15).

• Philippians 1:1–4:23

Philippians

Greeting

1

1:1 Paul and Timothy, bondservants of Jesus Christ,

To all the saints in Christ Jesus who are in Philippi, with the bishops^a and deacons:

² Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

Thankfulness and Prayer

³ I thank my God upon every remembrance of you, ⁴ always in every prayer of mine making request for you all with joy, ⁵ for your fellowship in the gospel from the first day until now, ⁶ being confident of this very thing, that He who has begun a good work in you will complete it until the day of Jesus Christ; ⁷ just as it is right for me to think this of you all, because I have you in my heart, inasmuch as both in my chains and in the defense and confirmation of the gospel, you all are partakers with me of grace. ⁸ For God is my witness, how greatly I long for you all with the affection of Jesus Christ.

⁹ And this I pray, that your love may abound still more and more in knowledge and all discernment, ¹⁰ that you may approve the things that are excellent, that you may be sincere and without offense till the day of Christ, ¹¹ being filled with the fruits of righteousness which are by Jesus Christ, to the glory and praise of God.

Christ Is Preached

¹² But I want you to know, brethren, that the things which happened to me have actually turned out for the furtherance of the gospel, ¹³ so that it has become evident to the whole palace guard, and to all the rest, that my chains are in Christ; ¹⁴ and most of the brethren in the Lord, having become confident by my chains, are much more bold to speak the word without fear.

¹⁵ Some indeed preach Christ even from envy and strife, and some also from goodwill: ¹⁶ The former^a preach Christ from selfish ambition, not sincerely, supposing to add affliction to my chains; ¹⁷ but the latter out of love, knowing that I am appointed for the defense of the gospel. ¹⁸ What then? Only that in every way, whether in pretense or in truth, Christ is preached; and in this I rejoice, yes, and will rejoice.

To Live Is Christ

¹⁹ For I know that this will turn out for my deliverance through your prayer and the supply of the Spirit of Jesus Christ, ²⁰ according to my earnest expectation and hope that in nothing I shall be ashamed, but with all boldness, as always, so now also Christ will be magnified in my body, whether by life or by death. ²¹ For to me, to live is Christ, and to die is gain. ²² But if I live on in the flesh, this will mean fruit from my labor; yet what I shall choose I cannot tell. ²³ For^a I am hard-pressed between the two, having a desire to depart and be with Christ, which is far better. ²⁴ Nevertheless to remain in the flesh is more needful for you. ²⁵ And being confident of this, I know that I shall remain and continue with you all for your progress and joy of faith, ²⁶ that your rejoicing for me may be more abundant in Jesus Christ by my coming to you again.

Striving and Suffering for Christ

²⁷ Only let your conduct be worthy of the gospel of Christ, so that whether I come and see you or am absent, I may hear of your affairs, that you stand fast in one spirit, with one mind striving together for the faith of the gospel, ²⁸ and not in any way terrified by your adversaries, which is to them a proof of perdition, but to you of salvation,^a and that from God. ²⁹ For to you it has been granted on behalf of Christ, not only to believe in Him, but also to suffer for His sake, ³⁰ having the same conflict which you saw in me and now hear is in me.

Unity Through Humility

2

2:1 Therefore if there is any consolation in Christ, if any comfort of love, if any fellowship of the Spirit, if any affection and mercy, ² fulfill my joy by being like-minded, having the same love, being of one accord, of one mind. ³ Let nothing be done through selfish ambition or conceit, but in lowliness of mind let each esteem others better than himself. ⁴ Let each of you look out not only for his own interests, but also for the interests of others.

The Humbled and Exalted Christ

⁵ Let this mind be in you which was also in Christ Jesus, ⁶ who, being in the form of God, did not consider it robbery to be equal with God, ⁷ but made Himself of no reputation, taking the form of a bondservant, and coming in the likeness of men. ⁸ And being found in appearance as a man, He humbled Himself and became obedient to the point of death, even the death of the cross. ⁹ Therefore God also has highly exalted Him and given Him the name which is above every name, ¹⁰ that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of those in heaven, and of those on earth, and of those under the earth, ¹¹ and that every tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.

Light Bearers

¹² Therefore, my beloved, as you have always obeyed, not as in my presence only, but now much more in my absence, work out your own salvation with fear and trembling; ¹³ for it is God who works in you both to will and to do for His good pleasure.

¹⁴ Do all things without complaining and disputing, ¹⁵ that you may become blameless and harmless, children of God without fault in the midst of a crooked and perverse generation, among whom you shine as lights in the world, ¹⁶ holding fast the word of life, so that I may rejoice in the day of Christ that I have not run in vain or labored in vain.

¹⁷ Yes, and if I am being poured out as a drink offering on the sacrifice and service of your faith, I am glad and rejoice with you all. ¹⁸ For the same reason you also be glad and rejoice with me.

Religion & Worship

Every morning and evening an animal sacrifice accompanied by a drink offering was presented at the temple. For this the priests took somewhat more than a quart of wine and poured it out on the ground at the base of the altar. Paul likens his own life to the animal sacrifice and libation that were familiar practices in the ancient world (Phil. 2:17).

Timothy Commended

¹⁹ But I trust in the Lord Jesus to send Timothy to you shortly, that I also may be encouraged when I know your state. ²⁰ For I have no one like-minded, who will sincerely care for your state. ²¹ For all seek their own, not the things which are of Christ Jesus. ²² But you know his proven character, that as a son with his father he served with me in the gospel. ²³ Therefore I hope to send him at once, as soon as I see how it goes with me. ²⁴ But I trust in the Lord that I myself shall also come shortly.

Epaphroditus Praised

²⁵ Yet I considered it necessary to send to you Epaphroditus, my brother, fellow worker, and fellow soldier, but your messenger and the one who ministered to my need; ²⁶ since he was longing for you all, and was distressed because you had heard that he was sick. ²⁷ For indeed he was sick almost unto death; but God had mercy on him, and not only on him but on me also, lest I should have sorrow upon sorrow. ²⁸ Therefore I sent him the more eagerly, that when you see him again you may rejoice, and I may be less sorrowful. ²⁹ Receive him therefore in the Lord with all gladness, and hold such men in esteem; ³⁰ because for the work of Christ he came close to death, not regarding his life, to supply what was lacking in your service toward me.

TIME CAPSULE A.D. 58 to 59

58 • Domitius Corbulo is procurator or governor of Syria

59–62 • Porcius Festus is procurator or governor of Judea (Acts 24:27)

59 • Nero orders the death of his mother, Agrippina

59 • Paul appeals to Caesar (Acts 25:11)

59 • Festus decides to send Paul to Rome

59 • Paul appears before Agrippa II and Bernice

59 • Paul shipwrecked on the island of Malta

* Paul’s Pedigree as a Pharisee (Phil. 3:4–6)

Much has been written about the Pharisees in the time of Jesus, yet remarkably little was written by them. Firsthand writings exist from only two persons who identified themselves with the Pharisees: Josephus, the first-century Jewish historian and apologist, and Paul of Tarsus, also known as the apostle Paul. Neither Josephus nor Paul resembles the Pharisees written about elsewhere!

Paul recognized that his time as a Pharisee established for him a pedigree within Judaism that was quite impressive. His own summary of his pre-Christian life (Phil. 3:4–6), therefore, gives us insight into the convictions of at least some Pharisees. For one thing, to be a Pharisee meant for Paul that he interpreted the Law, the Jewish Torah in a certain way (3:5). Josephus also writes that Pharisees had their own interpretation of the Law.

Another conviction that Paul links to his pedigree as a Pharisee is zeal. “Zeal” characterizes those within Judaism who used violence against other Jews for violating the Torah. These Pharisees lived by their particular interpretations, and they were zealous to preserve the traditions of the fathers (Gal. 1:14) and Israel’s integrity. The Pharisee Saul demonstrated his own zeal for Judaism by “persecuting the church” (Phil. 3:6).

Another example of such zeal appeared during the Maccabean war (166–160 B.C.), 200 years before Paul’s time. The war broke out when the priest Mattathias “burned with zeal” and killed a fellow Jew who was sacrificing to Greek gods in violation of the Torah (1 Macc. 2:23–26). Mattathias cried out, “Let every one who is zealous for the law and supports the covenant come out with me!” (1 Macc. 2:27).

Reflecting on his time as a Pharisee, Paul counted himself amongst the most intense followers of the Law, zealous to the point of using violence to protect Israel from Torah desecration. No wonder he persecuted the church. In the view of the Pharisees, the first Christians, as a Jewish group that was lax in the observance of the Law, represented the defilement of Israel! Saul the Pharisee had lived out his commitment to Israel through the Law; Paul the apostle would live it out through Jesus Christ (Phil. 3:7–9).

All for Christ

3

3:1 Finally, my brethren, rejoice in the Lord. For me to write the same things to you is not tedious, but for you it is safe.

² Beware of dogs, beware of evil workers, beware of the mutilation! ³ For we are the circumcision, who worship God in the Spirit,^a rejoice in Christ Jesus, and have no confidence in the flesh, ⁴ though I also might have confidence in the flesh. If anyone else thinks he may have confidence in the flesh, I more so: ⁵ circumcised the eighth day, of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; concerning the law, a Pharisee; ⁶ concerning zeal, persecuting the church; concerning the righteousness which is in the law, blameless.

⁷ But what things were gain to me, these I have counted loss for Christ. ⁸ Yet indeed I also count all things loss for the excellence of the knowledge of Christ Jesus my Lord, for whom I have suffered the loss of all things, and count them as rubbish, that I may gain Christ ⁹ and be found in Him, not having my own righteousness, which is from the law, but that which is through faith in Christ, the righteousness which is from God by faith; ¹⁰ that I may know Him and the power of His resurrection, and the fellowship of His sufferings, being conformed to His death, ¹¹ if, by any means, I may attain to the resurrection from the dead.

Pressing Toward the Goal

¹² Not that I have already attained, or am already perfected; but I press on, that I may lay hold of that for which Christ Jesus has also laid hold of me. ¹³ Brethren, I do not count myself to have apprehended; but one thing I do, forgetting those things which are behind and reaching forward to those things which are ahead, ¹⁴ I press toward the goal for the prize of the upward call of God in Christ Jesus.

¹⁵ Therefore let us, as many as are mature, have this mind; and if in anything you think otherwise, God will reveal even this to you. ¹⁶ Nevertheless, to the degree that we have already attained, let us walk by the same rule,^a let us be of the same mind.

* Women Leaders in the Philippian Church (Phil. 4:2, 3)

Paul’s letters provide insight into the social makeup of the small early Christian communities in the Greco-Roman world. In his letter to the Philippian church, the first two persons he mentions by name are women: Euodia and Syntyche (Phil. 4:2). When Paul describes them as “these women who labored with me in the gospel” and includes them in the category of “fellow workers” (4:3), he indicates that they joined with him as equal partners in his missionary and teaching activity.

The exact nature of their leadership roles in the church at Philippi is not certain. The authority of both women in the church was sufficient, however, for Paul to encourage them to seek harmony with one another (4:2). He even called on someone addressed as “true companion” to “help these women” (4:3). Perhaps he was concerned that competition between them for the Philippians’ loyalty and affection might fracture the young Philippian church. Perhaps the church met in the houses of these two women; competition between them, then, would have been a temptation.

Paul was concerned that Euodia and Syntyche “be of the same mind in the Lord” (4:2). His concern could not have run too deep, though. Along with Clement, he believed that both Euodia’s and Syntyche’s names were “in the Book of Life” (4:3). Nevertheless, both women needed to seek the mind of Christ, not their own.

Women played important leadership roles in Paul’s churches, two examples being Phoebe in the church at Cenchrea (Rom. 16:1) and Priscilla in Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:19). Particularly in Macedonia, where women often assumed prominent roles in religious cults, it would be natural to find female leaders in a church. Paul supported women’s roles in the Christian communities and instructed believers: “there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Gal. 3:28).

Our Citizenship in Heaven

¹⁷ Brethren, join in following my example, and note those who so walk, as you have us for a pattern. ¹⁸ For many walk, of whom I have told you often, and now tell you even weeping, that they are the enemies of the cross of Christ: ¹⁹ whose end is destruction, whose god is their belly, and whose glory is in their shame—who set their mind on earthly things. ²⁰ For our citizenship is in heaven, from which we also eagerly wait for the Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ, ²¹ who will transform our lowly body that it may be conformed to His glorious body, according to the working by which He is able even to subdue all things to Himself.

4

4:1 Therefore, my beloved and longed-for brethren, my joy and crown, so stand fast in the Lord, beloved.

Be United, Joyful, and in Prayer

² I implore Euodia and I implore Syntyche to be of the same mind in the Lord. ³ And^a I urge you also, true companion, help these women who labored with me in the gospel, with Clement also, and the rest of my fellow workers, whose names are in the Book of Life.

⁴ Rejoice in the Lord always. Again I will say, rejoice!

⁵ Let your gentleness be known to all men. The Lord is at hand.

⁶ Be anxious for nothing, but in everything by prayer and supplication, with thanksgiving, let your requests be made known to God; ⁷ and the peace of God, which surpasses all understanding, will guard your hearts and minds through Christ Jesus.

Meditate On These Things

⁸ Finally, brethren, whatever things are true, whatever things are noble, whatever things are just, whatever things are pure, whatever things are lovely, whatever things are of good report, if there is any virtue and if there is anything praiseworthy—meditate on these things. ⁹ The things which you learned and received and heard and saw in me, these do, and the God of peace will be with you.

Philippian Generosity

¹⁰ But I rejoiced in the Lord greatly that now at last your care for me has flourished again; though you surely did care, but you lacked opportunity. ¹¹ Not that I speak in regard to need, for I have learned in whatever state I am, to be content: ¹² I know how to be abased, and I know how to abound. Everywhere and in all things I have learned both to be full and to be hungry, both to abound and to suffer need. ¹³ I can do all things through Christ^a who strengthens me.

¹⁴ Nevertheless you have done well that you shared in my distress. ¹⁵ Now you Philippians know also that in the beginning of the gospel, when I departed from Macedonia, no church shared with me concerning giving and receiving but you only. ¹⁶ For even in Thessalonica you sent aid once and again for my necessities. ¹⁷ Not that I seek the gift, but I seek the fruit that abounds to your account. ¹⁸ Indeed I have all and abound. I am full, having received from Epaphroditus the things sent from you, a sweet-smelling aroma, an acceptable sacrifice, well pleasing to God. ¹⁹ And my God shall supply all your need according to His riches in glory by Christ Jesus. ²⁰ Now to our God and Father be glory forever and ever. Amen.

Greeting and Blessing

²¹ Greet every saint in Christ Jesus. The brethren who are with me greet you. ²² All the saints greet you, but especially those who are of Caesar’s household.

²³ The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all.^a Amen.

Transition

Paul Appeals to Caesar

Felix was succeeded as governor by Porcius Festus in the summer of A.D. 59 or 60. Like his predecessor Felix, Festus wanted to please the Jewish leadership, so he asked Paul to stand trial in Jerusalem. Paul, though, refused and used his prerogative as a Roman citizen to appeal, over the jurisdiction of the governor, to the emperor.

After Paul’s appeal, Festus decided to present the problem to King Agrippa II. He and Bernice were children of Herod Agrippa I, who died at Caesarea (Acts 12:23). The king apparently welcomed the opportunity to hear Paul. Paul was equally pleased to bear witness before such a distinguished audience and a relatively friendly king. Both Festus and Agrippa II concurred that Paul’s appeal to Caesar had removed the case from their legal jurisdiction (25:12; 26:32).

• Acts 25:1–26:32

Acts

Paul Before Festus

25

25:1 Now when Festus had come to the province, after three days he went up from Caesarea to Jerusalem. ² Then the high priest^a and the chief men of the Jews informed him against Paul; and they petitioned him, ³ asking a favor against him, that he would summon him to Jerusalem—while they lay in ambush along the road to kill him. ⁴ But Festus answered that Paul should be kept at Caesarea, and that he himself was going there shortly. ⁵ “Therefore,” he said, “let those who have authority among you go down with me and accuse this man, to see if there is any fault in him.”

Politics & Government

In A.D. 54 the Roman Senate conferred the powers of emperor on Nero, who was the Caesar at the time Paul stood trial (Acts 25:10). Nero’s mother Agrippina seems to have poisoned her husband Claudius so that her son could become emperor in his place. Nero was proud, cruel, and in the end a victim of delusions. He executed members of his own family. His enemies forced him to commit suicide in A.D. 68.

⁶ And when he had remained among them more than ten days, he went down to Caesarea. And the next day, sitting on the judgment seat, he commanded Paul to be brought. ⁷ When he had come, the Jews who had come down from Jerusalem stood about and laid many serious complaints against Paul, which they could not prove, ⁸ while he answered for himself, “Neither against the law of the Jews, nor against the temple, nor against Caesar have I offended in anything at all.”

⁹ But Festus, wanting to do the Jews a favor, answered Paul and said, “Are you willing to go up to Jerusalem and there be judged before me concerning these things?”

¹⁰ So Paul said, “I stand at Caesar’s judgment seat, where I ought to be judged. To the Jews I have done no wrong, as you very well know. ¹¹ For if I am an offender, or have committed anything deserving of death, I do not object to dying; but if there is nothing in these things of which these men accuse me, no one can deliver me to them. I appeal to Caesar.”

¹² Then Festus, when he had conferred with the council, answered, “You have appealed to Caesar? To Caesar you shall go!”

Paul Before Agrippa

¹³ And after some days King Agrippa and Bernice came to Caesarea to greet Festus. ¹⁴ When they had been there many days, Festus laid Paul’s case before the king, saying: “There is a certain man left a prisoner by Felix, ¹⁵ about whom the chief priests and the elders of the Jews informed me, when I was in Jerusalem, asking for a judgment against him. ¹⁶ To them I answered, ‘It is not the custom of the Romans to deliver any man to destruction^a before the accused meets the accusers face to face, and has opportunity to answer for himself concerning the charge against him.’ ¹⁷ Therefore when they had come together, without any delay, the next day I sat on the judgment seat and commanded the man to be brought in. ¹⁸ When the accusers stood up, they brought no accusation against him of such things as I supposed, ¹⁹ but had some questions against him about their own religion and about a certain Jesus, who had died, whom Paul affirmed to be alive. ²⁰ And because I was uncertain of such questions, I asked whether he was willing to go to Jerusalem and there be judged concerning these matters. ²¹ But when Paul appealed to be reserved for the decision of Augustus, I commanded him to be kept till I could send him to Caesar.”

²² Then Agrippa said to Festus, “I also would like to hear the man myself.”

* Agrippa, Paul’s Judge (Acts 25:23)

Marcus Julius Agrippa was the Roman name of Agrippa II, the last of the Herodian dynasty of five Roman-appointed kings in Palestine. He and his father, Agrippa I, were descended from the Jewish-born Herod the Great, ruler of Judea at the time of Christ’s birth (Matt. 2:1).

The writings of the Jewish historian Josephus (A.D. 37–100) provide the most information about Agrippa. Since he was too young to receive the throne of Judea in A.D. 44 when his father died, the Romans appointed a governor. Agrippa himself was given other territories to rule, notably in Galilee.

At the beginning of the Jewish revolt in A.D. 66 Agrippa came to Jerusalem to quell the disorder. Unsuccessful in this venture, he became an ardent Roman sympathizer. Josephus (The Wars of the Jews 2:345) attributes a speech to Agrippa in which he warned that the Romans were much too strong for the Jews to resist, and thus they should side with them. After the revolt in A.D. 70 the Romans gave Agrippa additional territory in reward for his loyalty.

In A.D. 59 the apostle Paul stood trial before Agrippa, who was considered an expert on Jewish affairs, and was interested in Paul’s case (Acts 25:13–26:32). The king was accompanied at the trial by his sister Bernice (25:13, 23). Rumors about Agrippa, who apparently never married, having an incestuous relationship with Bernice were denied by Josephus while supported by the Roman writer Juvenal. Paul’s judge was a Jewish king, a Roman sympathizer, and a man of questionable moral reputation. As Paul defended his Christian faith, he appealed to Agrippa’s Jewish background, challenging even him to become a believing Jew (26:2, 3, 26, 27).

“Tomorrow,” he said, “you shall hear him.”

²³ So the next day, when Agrippa and Bernice had come with great pomp, and had entered the auditorium with the commanders and the prominent men of the city, at Festus’ command Paul was brought in. ²⁴ And Festus said: “King Agrippa and all the men who are here present with us, you see this man about whom the whole assembly of the Jews petitioned me, both at Jerusalem and here, crying out that he was not fit to live any longer. ²⁵ But when I found that he had committed nothing deserving of death, and that he himself had appealed to Augustus, I decided to send him. ²⁶ I have nothing certain to write to my lord concerning him. Therefore I have brought him out before you, and especially before you, King Agrippa, so that after the examination has taken place I may have something to write. ²⁷ For it seems to me unreasonable to send a prisoner and not to specify the charges against him.”

Paul’s Early Life

26

26:1 Then Agrippa said to Paul, “You are permitted to speak for yourself.”

So Paul stretched out his hand and answered for himself: ² “I think myself happy, King Agrippa, because today I shall answer for myself before you concerning all the things of which I am accused by the Jews, ³ especially because you are expert in all customs and questions which have to do with the Jews. Therefore I beg you to hear me patiently.

⁴ “My manner of life from my youth, which was spent from the beginning among my own nation at Jerusalem, all the Jews know. ⁵ They knew me from the first, if they were willing to testify, that according to the strictest sect of our religion I lived a Pharisee. ⁶ And now I stand and am judged for the hope of the promise made by God to our fathers. ⁷ To this promise our twelve tribes, earnestly serving God night and day, hope to attain. For this hope’s sake, King Agrippa, I am accused by the Jews. ⁸ Why should it be thought incredible by you that God raises the dead?

⁹ “Indeed, I myself thought I must do many things contrary to the name of Jesus of Nazareth. ¹⁰ This I also did in Jerusalem, and many of the saints I shut up in prison, having received authority from the chief priests; and when they were put to death, I cast my vote against them. ¹¹ And I punished them often in every synagogue and compelled them to blaspheme; and being exceedingly enraged against them, I persecuted them even to foreign cities.

Paul Recounts His Conversion

¹² “While thus occupied, as I journeyed to Damascus with authority and commission from the chief priests, ¹³ at midday, O king, along the road I saw a light from heaven, brighter than the sun, shining around me and those who journeyed with me. ¹⁴ And when we all had fallen to the ground, I heard a voice speaking to me and saying in the Hebrew language, ‘Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting Me? It is hard for you to kick against the goads.’ ¹⁵ So I said, ‘Who are You, Lord?’ And He said, ‘I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting. ¹⁶ But rise and stand on your feet; for I have appeared to you for this purpose, to make you a minister and a witness both of the things which you have seen and of the things which I will yet reveal to you. ¹⁷ I will deliver you from the Jewish people, as well as from the Gentiles, to whom I now^a send you, ¹⁸ to open their eyes, in order to turn them from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan to God, that they may receive forgiveness of sins and an inheritance among those who are sanctified by faith in Me.’

Paul’s Post-Conversion Life

¹⁹ “Therefore, King Agrippa, I was not disobedient to the heavenly vision, ²⁰ but declared first to those in Damascus and in Jerusalem, and throughout all the region of Judea, and then to the Gentiles, that they should repent, turn to God, and do works befitting repentance. ²¹ For these reasons the Jews seized me in the temple and tried to kill me. ²² Therefore, having obtained help from God, to this day I stand, witnessing both to small and great, saying no other things than those which the prophets and Moses said would come— ²³ that the Christ would suffer, that He would be the first to rise from the dead, and would proclaim light to the Jewish people and to the Gentiles.”

Agrippa Parries Paul’s Challenge

²⁴ Now as he thus made his defense, Festus said with a loud voice, “Paul, you are beside yourself! Much learning is driving you mad!”

²⁵ But he said, “I am not mad, most noble Festus, but speak the words of truth and reason. ²⁶ For the king, before whom I also speak freely, knows these things; for I am convinced that none of these things escapes his attention, since this thing was not done in a corner. ²⁷ King Agrippa, do you believe the prophets? I know that you do believe.”

²⁸ Then Agrippa said to Paul, “You almost persuade me to become a Christian.”

²⁹ And Paul said, “I would to God that not only you, but also all who hear me today, might become both almost and altogether such as I am, except for these chains.”

³⁰ When he had said these things, the king stood up, as well as the governor and Bernice and those who sat with them; ³¹ and when they had gone aside, they talked among themselves, saying, “This man is doing nothing deserving of death or chains.”

³² Then Agrippa said to Festus, “This man might have been set free if he had not appealed to Caesar.”

Transition

The Voyage to Rome

All the participants in the trial at Caesarea, even Agrippa, agreed that Paul was innocent. Christianity was not a crime before a Roman court, and Paul should rightfully have been set free (Acts 26:32). Instead, after having spent approximately 2 years in Roman custody in Caesarea, Paul was sent by ship to Rome (ca. A.D. 59 or 60).

The voyage to Rome did not turn out to be a pleasure cruise. Contrary winds had delayed the grain ship until fall weather made sailing dangerous (Acts 27:7, 8). It was already late September or early October, the time when the fast on the Day of Atonement was observed (27:9). This late season, plus Paul’s God-given foresight, led to his bold prediction: “this voyage will end with disaster” (27:9, 10). After departing the island of Crete late in the fall, his party was shipwrecked on Malta during a storm.

Paul spent the 3 winter months ministering on the island of Malta. According to Pliny the Elder, the seas could open up for safe sailing as early as February, though weather conditions could delay a voyage until sometime in March. So it was possibly in the spring of A.D. 60 that Paul’s journey finally reached Italy. Appii Forum, 43 miles from Rome, and Three Inns, 33 miles from Rome (Acts 28:15), were well-known stopping places on the main highway from southern Italy to Rome.

• Acts 27:1–28:15

* The Natives of Malta (Acts 28:1, 2)

Late in the autumn of A.D. 59 a ship carrying the apostle Paul to Rome was shipwrecked on a small island. About 60 miles south of Sicily lies the island of Malta, and on the northern part of Malta is the site traditionally called “St. Paul’s Bay.” Some scholars believe that St. Paul’s Bay fits the description of Acts 27:39 which mentions “a bay with a beach,” meaning a bay with a beach suitable to run aground a ship.

Before 700 B.C. Malta was a Phoenician trading colony. Diodorus Siculus, who between 60 to 30 B.C. wrote a world history, described Malta as the place where traders stopped off for trade with Spain. The island was also located on the shipping route from Rome to Egypt.

Phoenician culture and language existed on Malta long after the Romans took control of the island in 218 B.C. The Maltese people spoke Punic, a Phoenician language of ancient Carthage. Luke refers to them as “natives” (Acts 28:2, 4), but he does not mean they were primitive or uncivilized. The Greek word barbaros, which is translated “native,” was used by Greeks for foreigners, meaning those who were not Greek. Luke calls the Maltese people barbaros only because they were of Phoenician descent and did not speak Greek.

The Maltese natives were a religious people. One of their beliefs was that someone guilty of murder, or some such crime, who escaped a tragic death (such as Paul did at sea) would soon face some other form of death. So they concluded that a Phoenician deity had caused Paul’s viper attack. Luke expresses their idea in Greek thought: the goddess Justice will not allow a “guilty” Paul to live (Acts 28:4).

When Paul survived, the natives’ pagan beliefs led them to mistake Paul himself for a god (28:6). But the writer Luke credits the safety of Paul and those with him to another deity: God is the true protector who had a mission for Paul to fulfill (Acts 27:21–26).

Ramla Bay, Gozo, Malta. Taken from the western cliff.

Acts

The Voyage Begins

27

27:1 And when it was decided that we should sail to Italy, they delivered Paul and some other prisoners to one named Julius, a centurion of the Augustan Regiment. ² So, entering a ship of Adramyttium, we put to sea, meaning to sail along the coasts of Asia. Aristarchus, a Macedonian of Thessalonica, was with us. ³ And the next day we landed at Sidon. And Julius treated Paul kindly and gave him liberty to go to his friends and receive care. ⁴ When we had put to sea from there, we sailed under the shelter of Cyprus, because the winds were contrary. ⁵ And when we had sailed over the sea which is off Cilicia and Pamphylia, we came to Myra, a city of Lycia. ⁶ There the centurion found an Alexandrian ship sailing to Italy, and he put us on board.

⁷ When we had sailed slowly many days, and arrived with difficulty off Cnidus, the wind not permitting us to proceed, we sailed under the shelter of Crete off Salmone. ⁸ Passing it with difficulty, we came to a place called Fair Havens, near the city of Lasea.

Paul’s Warning Ignored

⁹ Now when much time had been spent, and sailing was now dangerous because the Fast was already over, Paul advised them, ¹⁰ saying, “Men, I perceive that this voyage will end with disaster and much loss, not only of the cargo and ship, but also our lives.” ¹¹ Nevertheless the centurion was more persuaded by the helmsman and the owner of the ship than by the things spoken by Paul. ¹² And because the harbor was not suitable to winter in, the majority advised to set sail from there also, if by any means they could reach Phoenix, a harbor of Crete opening toward the southwest and northwest, and winter there.

In the Tempest

¹³ When the south wind blew softly, supposing that they had obtained their desire, putting out to sea, they sailed close by Crete. ¹⁴ But not long after, a tempestuous head wind arose, called Euroclydon.^{a 15} So when the ship was caught, and could not head into the wind, we let her drive. ¹⁶ And running under the shelter of an island called Clauda,^a we secured the skiff with difficulty. ¹⁷ When they had taken it on board, they used cables to undergird the ship; and fearing lest they should run aground on the Syrtis^a Sands, they struck sail and so were driven. ¹⁸ And because we were exceedingly tempest-tossed, the next day they lightened the ship. ¹⁹ On the third day we threw the ship’s tackle overboard with our own hands. ²⁰ Now when neither sun nor stars appeared for many days, and no small tempest beat on us, all hope that we would be saved was finally given up.

On to Rome

In Jerusalem following his third missionary journey, Paul struggled with Jews who accused him of profaning the temple (Acts 21:26–34). He was placed in Roman custody in Caesarea for two years, but, after appealing to the emperor, was sent by ship to Rome. During this fourth journey (Acts 27:1–28:16), Paul’s party departed from the island of Crete only to be shipwrecked on Malta by a great storm. Three months later he finally arrived at the imperial city.

Trade & Economics

Merchant ships in the 1st century were made of wood and powered by sail. They were mostly from 50 to 120 feet long, and thus could carry 200 to 300 tons of cargo. Passengers also traveled on cargo ships (Acts 27:6). The weather was dangerous after mid-September, and except for emergencies, the sea was closed to shipping between November 12 and March 10.

²¹ But after long abstinence from food, then Paul stood in the midst of them and said, “Men, you should have listened to me, and not have sailed from Crete and incurred this disaster and loss. ²² And now I urge you to take heart, for there will be no loss of life among you, but only of the ship. ²³ For there stood by me this night an angel of the God to whom I belong and whom I serve, ²⁴ saying, ‘Do not be afraid, Paul; you must be brought before Caesar; and indeed God has granted you all those who sail with you.’ ²⁵ Therefore take heart, men, for I believe God that it will be just as it was told me. ²⁶ However, we must run aground on a certain island.”

²⁷ Now when the fourteenth night had come, as we were driven up and down in the Adriatic Sea, about midnight the sailors sensed that they were drawing near some land. ²⁸ And they took soundings and found it to be twenty fathoms; and when they had gone a little farther, they took soundings again and found it to be fifteen fathoms. ²⁹ Then, fearing lest we should run aground on the rocks, they dropped four anchors from the stern, and prayed for day to come. ³⁰ And as the sailors were seeking to escape from the ship, when they had let down the skiff into the sea, under pretense of putting out anchors from the prow, ³¹ Paul said to the centurion and the soldiers, “Unless these men stay in the ship, you cannot be saved.” ³² Then the soldiers cut away the ropes of the skiff and let it fall off.

³³ And as day was about to dawn, Paul implored them all to take food, saying, “Today is the fourteenth day you have waited and continued without food, and eaten nothing. ³⁴ Therefore I urge you to take nourishment, for this is for your survival, since not a hair will fall from the head of any of you.” ³⁵ And when he had said these things, he took bread and gave thanks to God in the presence of them all; and when he had broken it he began to eat. ³⁶ Then they were all encouraged, and also took food themselves. ³⁷ And in all we were two hundred and seventy-six persons on the ship. ³⁸ So when they had eaten enough, they lightened the ship and threw out the wheat into the sea.

Shipwrecked On Malta

³⁹ When it was day, they did not recognize the land; but they observed a bay with a beach, onto which they planned to run the ship if possible. ⁴⁰ And they let go the anchors and left them in the sea, meanwhile loosing the rudder ropes; and they hoisted the mainsail to the wind and made for shore. ⁴¹ But striking a place where two seas met, they ran the ship aground; and the prow stuck fast and remained immovable, but the stern was being broken up by the violence of the waves.

⁴² And the soldiers’ plan was to kill the prisoners, lest any of them should swim away and escape. ⁴³ But the centurion, wanting to save Paul, kept them from their purpose, and commanded that those who could swim should jump overboard first and get to land, ⁴⁴ and the rest, some on boards and some on parts of the ship. And so it was that they all escaped safely to land.

Paul’s Ministry On Malta

28

28:1 Now when they had escaped, they then found out that the island was called Malta.² And the natives showed us unusual kindness; for they kindled a fire and made us all welcome, because of the rain that was falling and because of the cold. ³ But when Paul had gathered a bundle of sticks and laid them on the fire, a viper came out because of the heat, and fastened on his hand. ⁴ So when the natives saw the creature hanging from his hand, they said to one another, “No doubt this man is a murderer, whom, though he has escaped the sea, yet justice does not allow to live.” ⁵ But he shook off the creature into the fire and suffered no harm. ⁶ However, they were expecting that he would swell up or suddenly fall down dead. But after they had looked for a long time and saw no harm come to him, they changed their minds and said that he was a god.

⁷ In that region there was an estate of the leading citizen of the island, whose name was Publius, who received us and entertained us courteously for three days. ⁸ And it happened that the father of Publius lay sick of a fever and dysentery. Paul went in to him and prayed, and he laid his hands on him and healed him. ⁹ So when this was done, the rest of those on the island who had diseases also came and were healed. ¹⁰ They also honored us in many ways; and when we departed, they provided such things as were necessary.

Arrival At Rome

¹¹ After three months we sailed in an Alexandrian ship whose figurehead was the Twin Brothers, which had wintered at the island. ¹² And landing at Syracuse, we stayed three days. ¹³ From there we circled round and reached Rhegium. And after one day the south wind blew; and the next day we came to Puteoli, ¹⁴ where we found brethren, and were invited to stay with them seven days. And so we went toward Rome. ¹⁵ And from there, when the brethren heard about us, they came to meet us as far as Appii Forum and Three Inns. When Paul saw them, he thanked God and took courage.

Transition

Imprisonment in Rome

According to the Book of Acts, Paul spent 2 years under house arrest in Rome (Acts 28:16, 30). Acts is silent, however, regarding what happened to him at the end of that time, in late A.D. 62 or early 63. Some scholars argue that Luke intended the prophecy of Paul’s martyrdom (Acts 20:24, 38) to inform the reader about his fate. Paul’s execution under Nero sometime between the summers of A.D. 62 and 64 would also fit with two developments in Roman history of this period. First, Nero reinstated laws against treason in early 62, and Paul’s execution may have been ordered based on such a charge (though Paul claims innocence of such; see Acts 25:8). Second, Nero married Poppaea in the spring of A.D. 62. Her strong support of the Jews may have negatively influenced the disposition of Paul’s case.

Other scholars have suggested that Paul, after 2 years of imprisonment, was released about A.D. 63. He then carried on further missionary work in Macedonia (see 1 Tim. 1:3) and, according to some early Christian traditions, possibly also in Spain (see Rom. 15:28). Details of the end of Paul’s life are unknown. Apparently he was subsequently rearrested and imprisoned, and Tertullian describes Paul’s execution by beheading. Eusebius, the church historian, dates Paul’s death in A.D. 67.

• Acts 28:16–31

Acts

28

28:16 Now when we came to Rome, the centurion delivered the prisoners to the captain of the guard; but Paul was permitted to dwell by himself with the soldier who guarded him.

Paul’s Ministry At Rome

¹⁷ And it came to pass after three days that Paul called the leaders of the Jews together. So when they had come together, he said to them: “Men and brethren, though I have done nothing against our people or the customs of our fathers, yet I was delivered as a prisoner from Jerusalem into the hands of the Romans, ¹⁸ who, when they had examined me, wanted to let me go, because there was no cause for putting me to death. ¹⁹ But when the Jews^a spoke against it, I was compelled to appeal to Caesar, not that I had anything of which to accuse my nation. ²⁰ For this reason therefore I have called for you, to see you and speak with you, because for the hope of Israel I am bound with this chain.”

²¹ Then they said to him, “We neither received letters from Judea concerning you, nor have any of the brethren who came reported or spoken any evil of you. ²² But we desire to hear from you what you think; for concerning this sect, we know that it is spoken against everywhere.”

²³ So when they had appointed him a day, many came to him at his lodging, to whom he explained and solemnly testified of the kingdom of God, persuading them concerning Jesus from both the Law of Moses and the Prophets, from morning till evening. ²⁴ And some were persuaded by the things which were spoken, and some disbelieved. ²⁵ So when they did not agree among themselves, they departed after Paul had said one word: “The Holy Spirit spoke rightly through Isaiah the prophet to our^a fathers, ²⁶ saying,

‘Go to this people and say:

“ Hearing you will hear, and shall not understand;

And seeing you will see, and not perceive;

²⁷ For the hearts of this people have grown dull.

Their ears are hard of hearing,

And their eyes they have closed,

Lest they should see with their eyes and hear with their ears,

Lest they should understand with their hearts and turn,

So that I should heal them.” ’^a

²⁸ “Therefore let it be known to you that the salvation of God has been sent to the Gentiles, and they will hear it!” ²⁹ And when he had said these words, the Jews departed and had a great dispute among themselves.^a

TIME CAPSULE A.D. 60 to 61

60 • The Romans defeat the Druids and stop their human sacrifices

60 • Boudicca (Boadicea) leads a revolt against the Romans in Britain

60 • Paul and Luke arrive at Rome (Acts 28:16)

60 • Earthquake strikes Anatolia near Colosse and Laodicea

61 • Nero puts Gentiles over Caesarea, capital of Judea

³⁰ Then Paul dwelt two whole years in his own rented house, and received all who came to him, ³¹ preaching the kingdom of God and teaching the things which concern the Lord Jesus Christ with all confidence, no one forbidding him.

Transition

The Letter to Philemon

Philemon probably lived in the Lycus Valley where Colosse and Laodicea were located (see Col. 4:15). He was a close friend of Paul, indebted to him spiritually, and a helper in his ministry (Philem. 1:1, 19). Onesimus, Philemon’s slave, had run away and been converted by Paul. Paul offers two reasons for writing this letter to Philemon: (1) an appeal for him to receive Onesimus as a brother in Christ (1:10–17), and (2) a request for him to prepare a guest room for Paul’s coming visit (1:22).

The letters to Philemon and to the Colossians were possibly written by Paul at the same time, about A.D. 62, during his imprisonment at Rome (Acts 28:16–31). Paul described himself both as a prisoner (Philem. 1:1, 9, 23) and as being aged (1:9). Many of the people mentioned in Philemon are also mentioned in Colossians: Archippus (Col. 4:17), Onesimus (Col. 4:9), Epaphras (Col. 1:7; 4:12), Mark, Aristarchus (Col. 4:10), Demas, and Luke (Col. 4:14). Onesimus and Tychicus (Col. 4:7–9) were the bearers of these letters.

An earlier imprisonment, either in Ephesus around A.D. 54 or 55 or in Caesarea, has also been suggested as the time of Paul’s writing (see “The Letter to the Philippians” at Phil. 1:1). Ephesus is closer to Colosse than is Rome, thus the close proximity of Ephesus would make more likely both the capture of the runaway slave Onesimus, as well as Paul’s own hopes to visit Philemon in the near future (Philem. 1:22). Nevertheless, the chance that Paul wrote from his Caesarean imprisonment (see “Paul Escorted to Caesarea” at Acts 23:23) has been considered, although Caesarea is even farther from Colosse than Rome.

• Philemon 1:1–25

Philemon

Greeting

1

1:1 Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother,

To Philemon our beloved friend and fellow laborer, ² to the beloved^a Apphia, Archippus our fellow soldier, and to the church in your house:

³ Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

Philemon’s Love and Faith

⁴ I thank my God, making mention of you always in my prayers, ⁵ hearing of your love and faith which you have toward the Lord Jesus and toward all the saints, ⁶ that the sharing of your faith may become effective by the acknowledgment of every good thing which is in you^a in Christ Jesus. ⁷ For we have^a great joy^b and consolation in your love, because the hearts of the saints have been refreshed by you, brother.

The Plea for Onesimus

⁸ Therefore, though I might be very bold in Christ to command you what is fitting, ⁹ yet for love’s sake I rather appeal to you—being such a one as Paul, the aged, and now also a prisoner of Jesus Christ— ¹⁰ I appeal to you for my son Onesimus, whom I have begotten while in my chains, ¹¹ who once was unprofitable to you, but now is profitable to you and to me.

¹² I am sending him back.^a You therefore receive him, that is, my own heart, ¹³ whom I wished to keep with me, that on your behalf he might minister to me in my chains for the gospel. ¹⁴ But without your consent I wanted to do nothing, that your good deed might not be by compulsion, as it were, but voluntary.

¹⁵ For perhaps he departed for a while for this purpose, that you might receive him forever, ¹⁶ no longer as a slave but more than a slave—a beloved brother, especially to me but how much more to you, both in the flesh and in the Lord.

* More Than a Slave (Philem. 1:16)

Roman law in some respects treated slaves as persons but also viewed them economically as property. While slaves could hold property and buy their freedom, they also could be beaten and interrogated under torture. In the rare case where a head of a household was murdered by one of his slaves, all of his slaves would be executed. Thus, the term “beloved brother” (Philem. 1:16), as Paul calls Onesimus, indicated something more than a slave.

Onesimus was probably a household slave, the only type of slave addressed in Paul’s letters, which were written to urban congregations. Household slaves had greater opportunities for social advancement than did free peasants, and, in prominent households, often became powerful. Indeed, some noble women even married slaves of Caesar, thereby becoming slaves, to increase their social status! By saving money on the side, household slaves often purchased their freedom, and, with help from their former slaveholders, sometimes attained social prominence and wealth.

Slaveholders would send their trusted slaves, especially the more educated ones, on errands, often with money. Occasionally a slave chose to escape rather than return home, dangerous as such a venture was. Such may be the situation faced by Onesimus.

Roman law required Paul to return Onesimus to his master Philemon, or else face severe punishment. Paul does not advise Philemon to receive back Onesimus as a slave; he invites Philemon to embrace him as a brother. The letter to Philemon took the form of a “letter of recommendation,” in which a person of equal or higher status asked a favor for a person of lower status.

Escaped slaves, once recaptured, normally received severe punishment. One option for the slave was to seek out an advocate who would beseech the slaveowner on the slave’s behalf. In one situation, a close parallel to Paul’s letter, a Roman writer requested clemency for an escaped slave. Paul, however, asks not merely for clemency, but for Onesimus’s freedom.

Philemon’s Obedience Encouraged

¹⁷ If then you count me as a partner, receive him as you would me. ¹⁸ But if he has wronged you or owes anything, put that on my account. ¹⁹ I, Paul, am writing with my own hand. I will repay—not to mention to you that you owe me even your own self besides. ²⁰ Yes, brother, let me have joy from you in the Lord; refresh my heart in the Lord.

²¹ Having confidence in your obedience, I write to you, knowing that you will do even more than I say. ²² But, meanwhile, also prepare a guest room for me, for I trust that through your prayers I shall be granted to you.

Farewell

²³ Epaphras, my fellow prisoner in Christ Jesus, greets you, ²⁴ as do Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, Luke, my fellow laborers.

²⁵ The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with your spirit. Amen.

Politics & Government

In the Roman Empire, slaves were not permitted to marry, and any children they did have belonged to their owners. Slaves were at the service of their owners, male or female, who were free to punish or kill any slave who “wronged” them (Philem. 1:18). Even though there were few slave revolts, the fear that slaves would revolt or harm their owners was always present.

Transition

The Letter to the Colossians

The Book of Colossians is closely related to the books of Ephesians and Philemon. Colossians was probably written before Ephesians, with which it shares main ideas and a general outline. Ephesians seems to expand some of the key ideas of Colossians.

Paul wrote this epistle from prison, as he did Philippians and Philemon. Some scholars believe this was during a first imprisonment in Rome (see “Imprisonment in Rome” at Acts 28:16). Colossians could then have been written about A.D. 62, not long before Paul’s release. Yet others would place the writing of this letter during an Ephesian imprisonment around A.D. 54 or 55 (see “The Letter to the Philippians” at Phil. 1:1, and “The Letter to Philemon” at Philem. 1:1).

The significant difference of the Greek vocabulary and style in Colossians from that of other Pauline letters raises a question whether Paul actually wrote Colossians. Some scholars argue that the theology of the letter and the understanding and organization of the church are more developed than in letters Paul himself wrote. This may indicate that Colossians was written by one of Paul’s associates in the decade following his death (perhaps between A.D. 70–75).

Colosse was located on the south bank of the Lycus River near Laodicea and Hierapolis in western Asia Minor, about 100 miles east of Ephesus on the important trade route between Ephesus and the Euphrates Valley. Paul had never visited Colosse, but the gospel had been preached there, as well as in Laodicea and Hierapolis, while he was in Ephesus.

This letter deals primarily with doctrinal heresy that possibly mixed Judaism with some early form of Gnosticism. Jesus was super-human, but not truly God. He was greater than human beings, but not great enough to be the Savior. Those who believe in Christ must go through angels to get to the deeper levels of spirituality. Paul built a positive case for the Christian truth in order to show the Colossians the futility of ideas such as these.

• Colossians 1:1–4:18