1 Orlando and Sullivan 2013.
2 Walsh 2003.
3 Not all expressions critical of Islam or Muslims are examples of Islamophobic bigotry. It is possible to criticize Islamic religious leaders, express disagreement with certain Islamic beliefs, or even plainly denounce the basic tenets of Islam without engaging in Islamophobia. Equating thoughtful discussion of Islam (or any religion) with racism would effectively silence legitimate debate and scholarship. That said, for the past several decades, comments critical of Islam as they appear in American discourse frequently have been rooted in a racialized bigotry.
4 FBI 2013.
5 I will use Middle Eastern and Middle Eastern American when referring to the racial category, but I will also refer to Arab, Muslim, Sikh, and South Asian American communities as well.
6 Marvasti and McKinney 2004.
7 Oxford English Dictionary 2015.
8 See Aidi 2014; Bakalian and Bozorgmehr 2009; Beydoun 2014; Marvasti and McKinney 2004; Meer 2013; Rana 2011; Volpp 2002; Werbner 2005.
9 Bakalian and Bozorgmehr 2009; Saito 2001; Whidden 2001.
10 MPAC 2012; Kurzman 2011; 2015.
11 Perliger 2013.
12 Interview June 2008a.
13 Aaronson 2013; Human Rights Watch 2014.
14 Center for Human Rights and Global Justice 2011.
15 Aaronson 2013; Center for Human Rights and Global Justice 2011; Human Rights Watch 2014.
16 Aaronson 2015.
17 Human Rights Watch 2014.
18 Aaronson 2013.
19 Sanchez, Pérez, and Prokupecz 2015; Lichtblau 2016.
20 Omi and Winant 2015.
21 Hollinger 2006.
22 O’Reilly 2016.
23 Rau 2010.
24 Meer 2013, 386.
25 For excellent analyses of recent “Islamophobia scholarship” and the overall lack of a discussion of race in the academic literature, see Meer 2013; Garner and Selod 2014.
26 Skrentny 2006.
27 Berry and Wilcox 2009.
28 Trump 2015.
29 Moore 2016.
30 Diamond 2016.
31 Moore 2016.
32 SAALT 2010a, 12.
33 King 2011.
34 SAALT 2010a, 19.
35 Somander 2010.
36 Media Matters 2013.
37 Ali et al. 2011.
38 Sherman 2014.
39 Quoted in Sherman 2014.
40 Here and throughout the book, I have obscured identifying details to maintain the confidentiality of people who spoke with me in interviews for this project. Where possible, I identify the specific organization that the person works for; their role, gender, and nationality; the month and year of the interview; and other pertinent details. When necessary some minor details have been changed or omitted to maintain confidentiality. In this instance, I have omitted the advocate’s specific role at CAIR, because otherwise I would inadvertently identify him. On rare occasions, and only when given express written permission, I identify someone I interviewed by name.
41 Interview December 2007.
42 Hattaway Communications 2012, 3, 4.
43 CAIR 2010.
44 Ahlers 2010.
45 Quoted in Hing 2014.
46 This research was funded in part by a grant from the National Science Foundation, Grant No. 0802767. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
47 Minkoff 1991.
48 Guidestar is a product of Philanthropic Research Inc.
49 Jackson 2005; McCloud 2014.
50 Naber 2012; Cainkar 2009.
1 Quoted in Yoder 2013.
2 Bakalian and Bozorgmehr 2009, 68; Kayyali 2013; Census Bureau 2011a.
3 Alsultany 2012; Nacos and Torres-Reyna 2007.
4 For example, consider Hanson 2001.
5 Asbridge 2011.
6 Grosfoguel and Mielants 2006; Qureshi and Sells 2013; Said 1978.
7 Kahf 1999, 31.
8 Said 1978.
9 Edwards 2000.
10 Little 2002, 3.
11 Albrecht 2015; Bawardi 2014; Naff 1993; Suleiman 1999.
12 Shaheen 2003, 192.
13 To be clear, even though the most common term in use in the 2010s to refer to the racial identity formed by the socio-historical process described here is “Muslim,” it is not quite accurate to assume that all Muslim Americans are classified into the same racial group. Rather, a racial identity that includes some Muslims has been constructed.
14 Diouf 1998; GhaneaBassiri 2010; McCloud 2003, 160; Naff 1993; Suleiman 1999.
15 Beydoun 2014; Naff 1993; Suleiman 1999.
16 Leonard 1997, 39–84; Mehdi 1996, 249.
17 Moore 1995, 47–67.
18 Ibid., 29.
19 Roediger 2005.
20 Beydoun 2014; Gualtieri 2009; Tehranian 2007.
21 López 2006; Moore 1995, 47–67; Suleiman 1999, 7.
22 López 2006, 48.
23 In re Najour, 174 F. 735 (N.D. Ga. 1909).
24 López 2006, 49.
25 López 2006, 167; In re Ahmed Hassan 48 F. Supp. 843 (E.D. Mich. 1942).
26 Ex parte Mohriez, 54 F. Supp. 941 (D. Mass. 1944).
27 Moore 1995, 56, 57.
28 United States v. Thind, 261 US 204 (1923).
29 Moore 1995, 59.
30 Ibid., 47.
31 Hitti 1924, 89.
32 Cahn 2008.
33 Gualtieri 2004, 63.
34 Levine 1995.
35 Selzer and Anderson 2001; 2007.
36 Fred Korematsu v. United States, 323 US 214 (1944).
37 Kang 2005, 258.
38 Dempsey and Cole 1999.
39 Aswad 2003, 273.
40 Bakalian and Bozorgmehr 2009, 66–96.
41 Marvasti and McKinney 2004, 6; Gualtieri 2009.
42 Gallup 2009.
43 Suleiman 1999, 1–24.
44 Kayyali 2006, 33–34.
45 Census Bureau 2003.
46 Howell and Shryock 2003, 446.
47 Marvasti and McKinney 2004, 3–8.
48 Kurien 2001, 263–293; Leonard 2006, 91–114.
49 Leonard 1997, 77, 82.
50 Pew Research Center 2011.
51 Bagby 2012, 4.
52 Haddad 2004; Moore 2007, 116–132; Leonard 2003.
53 Pew Research Center 2011.
54 Jackson 2005, 23.
55 The structure and design of these tables is drawn directly from Bakalian and Bozorgmehr 2009, 72–86. The authors present additional demographic data as well.
56 Takaki 1998, 502.
57 Omi and Winant 2015, 44; Espiritu 1992; Okamoto 2014.
58 Berry and Wilcox 2009.
59 Omi and Winant 2015, 150.
60 Espiritu 1992; Okamoto 2014.
61 Omi and Winant 2015, 106.
62 Ibid., 109.
63 Ibid., 128; emphasis removed.
64 Feagin 2014.
65 Schmidt and Lichtblau 2012.
66 Nixon 2016.
67 Johnston 2013.
68 NPR 2006.
69 Omi and Winant 2015, 137–158.
70 Andrews and Edwards 2004, 481.
71 McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly 2001.
72 Ibid.
73 Winant 1995, 176.
74 Omi and Winant 2015, 131.
75 Ibid., 164.
76 Morris 1986, 4.
77 Roberts 2012, 254.
78 Tilly 2006.
79 Espiritu and Lopez 1990, 198.
80 Omi and Winant 2015, 131.
81 Okamoto 2014, 4, 6.
82 Espiritu and Lopez 1990, 198–200.
83 Nagel 1995; Okamoto 2014.
84 Espiritu and Lopez 1990, 200–203, 218, 219.
85 Nagel 1995, 956, 958, 961.
86 Parents v. Seattle School District, 551 US 701 (2007).
87 Gotanda 1991, 3.
88 Kim 2000, 17–18.
89 Omi and Winant 2015, 264; emphasis in original.
90 Spivak 1987, 281; Espiritu 1992.
91 Espiritu and Omi 2000.
92 Hollinger 2006.
1 Santora 2012.
2 Rosenberg 2015.
3 Ibid.
4 Smith 2006.
5 Iyer 2015, 104.
6 Ibid., 24.
7 McAlister 2001, 82.
8 Said 2001; Naber 2000.
9 Axel 2001; Ballantyne 2006; Rana 2011; Volpp 2002.
10 Gottschalk and Greenberg 2007, 118–125.
11 Shaheen 1980.
12 Maitland 1980.
13 Russell 2013.
14 Shaheen 1980.
15 Mahdavi 2006.
16 Shaheen 2003, 171–193.
17 Rahmani 2007.
18 Axel 2001; Ballantyne 2006.
19 Axel 2001, 79–120.
20 Michel and Herbeck 2001, 249.
21 Knowlton 1996.
22 Fedarko et al. 1996.
23 Bush 2001b.
24 Ibish 2003.
25 Kaplan 2006.
26 Kim 2015.
27 Kaplan 2015.
28 CAIR 2015.
29 EEOC 2002.
30 Malos 2010.
31 Ali et al. 2011.
32 CAIR 2013.
33 Elliott 2011.
34 Pew Research Center 2012a.
35 Kurzman 2011.
36 Kurzman 2013.
37 Southern Poverty Law Center 2009.
38 SAALT 2010a; 2014.
39 SAALT 2010a, 7.
40 Ibid., 11.
41 SAALT 2014a, 11.
42 SAALT 2010a, 21.
43 ThinkProgress 2007.
44 Phillips 2008.
45 Pew Research Center 2009.
46 Pew Research Center 2012b.
47 Noah 2007.
48 Detrow 2016.
49 Greenberg 2015.
50 Said 2001; Mamdani 2004; Rana 2011; Kumar 2012.
51 Bush 2001a.
52 United States Senate 1976.
53 Ibid.
54 Shah 1986, 2.
55 Shah 1986.
56 Dempsey and Cole 1999, 37.
57 Ibid.
58 Cole 2003.
59 Weinstein 2007.
60 Belkin 1991.
61 Elaasar 2004, 80; Nimer 2002, 178.
62 Wilgoren 2001.
63 Iyer 2015, 37.
64 Maira 2004.
65 Iyer 2015, 38.
66 Priest and Arkin 2010.
67 Bakalian and Bozorgmehr 2009, 182–184.
68 Kravets 2014.
69 ADC 2009; RWG 2012.
70 Kaplan 2005.
71 ACLU 2013, 14.
72 ACLU 2012.
73 ACLU 2009.
74 Risen and Lichtblau 2005.
75 Lichtblau and Risen 2005.
76 Greenwald 2013.
77 Obama 2013.
78 Scahill and Devereaux 2014.
79 Apuzzo and Goldman 2011a.
80 Apuzzo and Goldman 2011b.
81 Sullivan 2011.
82 Hawley 2012.
83 Apuzzo and Goldman 2011c.
84 Goldman and Apuzzo 2012.
85 Goodman 2013.
86 Shamsi 2016. Notably, the NYPD admitted to no “fault or liability” in the settlement.
87 Ackerman 2011a.
88 FBI 2011.
89 Ackerman 2011b.
90 Aaronson 2013, 20.
91 Ibid., 22.
92 Ibid., 23.
93 Aaronson 2013, 16.
94 Henderson 2010.
95 United States v. Armstrong, 517 US 456 (1996).
96 Kim 2012.
97 United States Department of Justice 2014.
98 FBI 2005.
99 National Counterterrorism Center 2014. As an aside, the official website for the NCTC shows in profound ways how the government generally classifies attacks as terrorism based on the identity of the attacker, rather than the motives. A “content note” dated August 15, 2014 on the website (www.nctc.gov) offers a disclaimer on the “spelling of Arabic names and terms,” which explains that transliteration from Arabic into English is difficult. The unstated assumption is that most terrorism information on their webpage will contain names and terms from the Arabic language. Following this is a brief explanation of the “Islamic calendar,” which again leaves implicit the idea that this information is somehow relevant to counterterrorism. Finally, the “historic timeline” that lists terrorist attacks is weighted heavily toward events in the Middle East, and violence carried out by Middle Easterners in the West. Not mentioned are a large number of shootings of civilians with political motives who are not Middle Eastern or Muslim.
100 Cole 2013.
101 Bankoff 2012.
102 See Lysiak 2015; cf. Chu 2015.
103 BBC News 2015; Serrano, Bennett, and Karalamangla 2015.
104 Farook was a second-generation Pakistani American, and Malik was a first-generation Pakistani American by way of Saudi Arabia.
105 United States Executive Office of the President 2011, 2.
106 Sethi 2015.
107 Currier and Hussain 2016.
108 Scahill 2015.
109 Quoted in Friedersdorf 2013.
110 Friedersdorf 2013.
111 White House 2010; Brennan 2010.
112 Ruane, Duggan, and Williams 2009.
113 Hannan 2010.
114 DHS 2009.
115 Thompson 2009.
116 CNN 2010.
117 Gibbs 2010.
118 Hsu 2010.
1 Bakalian and Bozorgmehr 2009, 97–124.
2 Berry and Wilcox 2009.
3 Marquez 2001, 230.
4 Bawardi 2014.
5 Wright 1995.
6 Quoted in Gale Group 1980.
7 Minkoff, Aisenbrey, and Agnone 2008; Skocpol 1999; Putnam 2000.
8 Bawardi 2014, 3.
9 Ibid., 291.
10 Naff 1993; Suleiman 1999; Joseph 1999; Saliba 1999; Bawardi 2014; Naber 2012; Gualtieri 2009.
11 Suleiman 1999.
12 Bawardi 2014; Saliba 1999.
13 Aburish 2004.
14 Abu-Laban and Suleiman 1989; Kayyali 2006, 106.
15 Abu-Laban 2007, 47.
16 Interview February 2008a.
17 Ibid.
18 Hagopian 1975, 109.
19 Kayyali 2006.
20 Interview February 2008a.
21 Ibid.
22 ADC 2001.
23 Interview February 2008b.
24 ADC 2015.
25 Interviews May 2008a; February 2008a; February 2008c.
26 AAI 2015.
27 Philanthropic Research Inc. 2013.
28 Interview February 2008a.
29 Interview March 2008b.
30 Interview February 2008a.
31 Roy 1994; Haddad et al. 1991.
32 Leonard 2003.
33 MPAC 2015.
34 Interview September 2008a.
35 MPAC 2015; Interview September 2008a.
36 Interview September 2008a.
37 MPAC 2015.
38 cf. Bilici 2012.
39 Philanthropic Research Inc. 2014.
40 Interview September 2008a.
41 Nimer 2002; Leonard 2003.
42 Brooke 1995.
43 Interview January 2008a.
44 Interview January 2008a; January 2008b; March 2008c; October 2008a.
45 Abrams 2009.
46 Interview February 2012a.
47 CAIR 2012.
48 Philanthropic Research Inc. 2014.
49 Kurien 2001, 263–293; Leonard 2006, 91–114.
50 Leonard 1997, 77, 82.
51 Kurien 2003, 263–265.
52 Singh 2008, 4.
53 Ibid., 5.
54 Interview February 2008e; April 2008a.
55 Singh 2008, 4; Interview April 2008a.
56 Interview April 2008a.
57 Ibid.
58 Ibid.
59 Interview February 2008e.
60 United States Department of Justice 2007.
61 Philanthropic Research Inc. 2014.
62 Kurien 2003, 269; Interview June 2008b.
63 Interview June 2008b.
64 Kurien 2003, 269; Interviews June 2008b; February 2008d.
65 Interview June 2008b.
66 Interview February 2008d.
67 Interview June 2008b.
68 Philanthropic Research Inc. 2014.
69 Iyer 2015, 112.
1 Quoted in Bean 2013.
2 Quoted in Bean 2013.
3 Han 2014.
4 Perlstein 2008.
5 ADC 1981; Shah 1986.
6 ADC 1980a.
7 ADC 1980b.
8 ADC 1980a.
9 ADC 1980b.
10 ADC 1984a; 1987.
11 Gebert 1981.
12 Ibid.
13 ADC 1984b.
14 Interview February 2008a.
15 Samhan 1999; Kayyali 2013; Aidi 2014.
16 Interviews November 2014; June 2014; December 2014.
17 Interviews November 2014a; December 2014a.
18 Interview November 2014a.
19 Interview May 2008a.
20 Interview May 2008a.
21 One community advocate who worked closely with ADC and AAI told me that the split between Abourezk and Zogby did not come about because of a disagreement over the strategy of partnering with Black Americans, and that the split was instead entirely about non-strategic, “personal” issues (Interview September 2015).
22 Interviews February 2008a; May 2008a.
23 AAI 1988.
24 Interviews May 2008a; February 2008c.
25 Interview February 2008b.
26 Interviews January 2008a; February 2008a; May 2008a; September 2008a.
27 Interview January 2008c.
28 Interview February 2008a.
29 Interview May 2008b.
30 Interview February 2008a.
31 Interview March 2008a.
32 Interview February 2008b.
33 Ibid.
34 Interview February 2008c.
35 Ibid.
36 Interview February 2008a.
37 Interview August 2009.
38 ADC 1996.
39 Interview March 2008b.
40 Interview April 2008; Singh 2008.
41 Interview June 2008b.
42 Huntington 1993.
43 Interview April 2008.
44 Interview February 2008b.
45 Interview February 2008d.
46 Interview January 2008b.
47 Interview September 2008a.
48 Interview July 2008a.
49 Interview January 2008a.
50 Interview February 2008b.
51 Interview February 2008a.
52 RWG 2010.
53 Interviews June 2008c; June 2008d.
54 Espiritu 1992.
55 Rights Working Group Executive Committee to RWG Supporters mailing list, March 10, 2016.
56 ICIRR 2008.
57 Interview June 2008e.
58 Interview June 2008f.
59 Interview June 2008e.
60 ICIRR 2010.
61 United States Department of Justice 2002, 2. The interagency working group on post-9/11 discrimination and hate crimes came about due to the work of Arab, Muslim, and South Asian American attorneys working at the DOJ Civil Rights Division on 9/11, who immediately recognized the need for an innovative response. They pressed Boyd and other top officials to organize various efforts to deal with the crisis of Islamophobic backlash in the days right after 9/11. Their knowledge of advocacy efforts and connections in their communities were instrumental in causing the Civil Rights Division as an institution to undertake outreach and enforcement efforts including the interagency meeting. These actions were definitive in enabling Arab, Muslim, Sikh, and South Asian Americans to have status as protected classes under anti-discrimination statutes.
62 Kaplan 2006, 21; United States Department of Justice 2002.
63 United States Department of Justice 2002, 2.
64 Interview February 2012a.
65 United States Department of Justice 2002.
66 Interviews January 2008c; February 2008b; February 2008d; February 2008e; February 2012a.
67 Interview July 2009a.
68 Maryland Office of the Governor 2007.
69 Interview February 2009a.
70 Ibid.
71 Michigan Office of the Governor 2015.
72 Associated Press 2015.
73 Interview June 2008b.
74 Interview February 2008d.
75 SAALT 2008; 2010b.
76 SAALT 2008.
77 SAALT 2010b.
78 Interview February 2008e.
79 Ibid.
80 Interview December 2007.
81 Ibid.
82 Interview January 2008a.
83 Interview January 2008b.
84 Interview January 2008b.
85 Interview June 2008b.
86 Interview June 2008a.
87 Interview March 2008b.
88 Interview February 2008a.
89 Interview February 2008b.
90 Interview February 2008b.
91 Interviews July 2005b; February 2008h.
1 Elliott 2010.
2 Sargent 2010.
3 Bloomberg 2010.
4 CNN Opinion Research 2010.
5 Goodstein 2010.
6 BBC News 2010.
7 Hannan 2010.
8 Bail 2012; 2015.
9 See Ansell 2006; Bonilla-Silva 2014; Carr 1997; Kim 2000.
10 Shelby County v. Holder 570 US ___ (2013).
11 University of Texas Southwestern Medical v. Nassar 570 US ___ (2013). Coincidentally, this decision was handed down the day before the landmark Shelby County decision that nullified much of the Voting Rights Act, and that is likely why it received less attention than it deserved.
12 Maghbouleh 2017; Naber 2000; Tehranian 2008; Read 2008.
13 Tehranian 2008; Iyer 2015, 104.
14 Shryock 2008, 104.
15 Abdulrahim 2008; Read 2008; Samhan 1999.
16 Census Bureau 2011b.
17 Clemetson 2004; Interview December 2014a.
18 Aidi 2014.
19 Interview December 2014a.
20 ADC 2014; Interview June 2014a.
21 Hochschild 2005, 75.
22 Collins 2000; Nadia Kim 2007; Claire Jean Kim 2000; Bonilla-Silva 2004.
23 Alexander 2012, 237.
24 Ibid., 238.
25 Ibid., 240.
26 Ibid., 243.
27 Sunaina Maira (2016) describes a “new civil rights movement,” where younger Middle Eastern Americans have built “cross-racial alliances.” Deepa Iyer’s (2015) analysis finds similar trends. Perhaps the most recent efforts by advocates and activists described by these two scholars portend significant developments in the near future.