PROLOGUE: THE MIDDLE EAST: THE PROSPECTS
1.Akbar, Ganji The Middle East: “Money Can’t Buy Us Democracy,” The New York Times, Aug. 1, 2006.
2.“Bloggers May Be the Real Opposition,” The Economist, Apr. 12, 2007.
3.Final statement of a conference, Arab Reform Issues: Vision and Implementation, held March 12–14, 2004 at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina in Egypt. Participating organizations included: the Arab Academy for Science and Technology, the Arab Business Council, the Arab Women’s Organization, the Economic Research Forum, and the Arab Organization for Human Rights. This text is available at arabreformforum.com in Arabic and English.
4.“Stop Terror Sheikhs, Muslim Academics Demand,” Arab News, Oct. 30, 2004.
5.Brian Murphy, “Moderate Muslims Using Quran to Wage ‘Counter-jihad’ against Radicals’ Interpretation of Islam,” Associated Press. Mar. 28, 2006.
6.Rami Khouri, “A Sensible Path to Arab Modernity,” distributed by Agence Global, Aug. 21, 2005.
7.Arab Human Development Report 2004: Towards Freedom in the Arab World (New York: United Nations, 2005).
8.Samir Kassir, “Being Arab” (New York: Verso. 2006), p. 28.
9.Jim Krane, “Voters in United Arab Emirates Set to Vote in Historic Elections Saturday,” Associated Press, Dec. 15, 2006.
10.Marina Ottaway, “Tyranny’s Full Tank,” The New York Times, Mar. 31, 2005.
11.Rami Khouri, “From Paris to Sydney, Baywatch to Bombers,” column distributed by Agence Global, Nov. 2005.
12.Ibid.
13.“How to Beat the Terrorists: Lessons from a Journey Across the Arab World,” Rami Khouri, column distributed by Agence Global, July 20, 2005.
14.Interview with pollster Nader Said of Birzeit University in Ramallah, Jan. 23, 2006.
15.Arab Media: Tools of the Governments, Tools for the People? United States Institute of Peace, Virtual Diplomacy Series, No. 18, Apr 12, 2005.
16.Robin Wright and Peter Baker, “Iraq, Jordan See Threat to Election from Iran; Leaders Warn Against Forming Religious State,” The Washington Post, Dec. 8, 2004.
17.Hugh Poulton, Top Hat, Grey Wolf and Crescent: Turkish Nationalism and the Turkish Republic (New York: New York University Press, 1997), p. 93.
CHAPTER ONE: THE PALESTINIANS: THE CONUNDRUM
1.Two of the eight factions in the Palestine Liberation Organization were founded and led by Christians. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine was founded by George Habash, and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine was founded by Nayif Hawatmeh.
2.Janet Wallach and John Wallach, Arafat: In the Eyes of the Beholder, (New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1990), p. 108.
3.Robin Wright, “Jeans and Dolls Put PLO into the Big Money,” The Sunday Times (London), Oct. 4, 1981.
4.Nathan J. Brown, Requiem for Palestinian Reform: Clear Lessons from a Troubled Record, Carnegie Papers Middle East Series, No. 81, Democracy and Rule of Law Program, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Feb. 2007.
5.Khalil Shikaki, “The Future of Palestine,” Foreign Affairs, vol. 83, no. 6, Nov.–Dec. 2004.
6.“Palestinian Corruption,” Middle East Reporter, Feb. 6, 2006.
7.Shikaki’s work has been groundbreaking in identifying trends and surveying public opinion among Palestinians. The United States Institute of Peace, the congressionally created and funded think tank in Washington, D.C., has supported his research and hosted his speeches in Washington. It described him as “one of the foremost authorities on Palestinian national politics.” The Ford Foundation is among several American and European funders of his projects. He has been a fellow at the Brookings Institution’s Saban Center for Middle East Studies and was the first appointment by Brandeis University’s new Crown Center for Middle East Studies in 2005. He has conducted joint projects with Hebrew University and worked with other Israeli academics. Khalil Shikaki would not discuss his estranged brother more than a decade after his death. His brother’s extremism has haunted his own career. In the early 1990s, before returning to the West Bank, Shikaki taught at Columbia, the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, and the World and Islam Studies Enterprise, a University of South Florida think tank. But Campus Watch, a group that monitors courses, faculty, and writings about the Middle East on American campuses, published allegations in 2006 that the younger Shikaki in the early 1990s also had connections to Islamic Jihad, had maintained covert contact with his brother, and had contributed funds that ended up with the extremist group. Khalil Shikaki, the report charged, was “a key intermediary in the organization of the American arm of the Palestine Islamic Jihad.” Brandeis University immediately issued a strong denial. Khalil Shikaki, it said, is “among the most serious, responsible, credible, committed and courageous observers of Middle East politics. For more than a decade and a half, he has been at the forefront of numerous attempts to help reach a peaceful resolution of the Palestinian-Israeli dispute.” He had often briefed American officials and had specifically reached out to Israeli and Jewish groups in the United States, it noted, including the Anti-Defamation League and the America-Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC). The allegations, the university countered, were based entirely on “unsubstantiated claims, mischaracterizations, innuendos, and guilt by association.”
8.Palestinians charged the crash was deliberate; the accident followed the stabbing of an Israeli shopping in Gaza a few days earlier.
9.The interview was posted on the Internet several years later: http://www.palestineremembered.com/al-ramla/zarnuqa/story455.html.
10.The turning point was a controversial visit by Ariel Sharon to the Temple Mount, the site of the Dome of the Rock and the al Aqsa mosque. Al Aqsa is the third holiest site in Islam. Muslims believe the prophet Mohammed ascended into heaven from a rock at the mosque to hear the word of God. The Dome of the Rock—a spectacular gold-domed structure built around the rock and decorated with azure blue and teal green tiles—is the dominant landmark on Jerusalem’s skyline. But both structures are also built on a plateau above the Jews’ First and Second Temples, the holiest site in Judaism. Competing claims to the thirty-five-acre plateau make it the most contested religious site in the world. Sharon, the rotund former general who then led the Israeli opposition, reportedly had Palestinian approval for the visit but had been warned that the Palestinians could not provide protection. So Sharon was accompanied by hundreds of well-armed Israeli police. Soon after his half-hour visit, clashes broke out on the Temple Mount between rock-throwing Palestinians and Israeli troops responding with tear gas and rubber bullets. Many Palestinians thought Sharon’s visit was political, since he was under assault from right-wing rivals in the Likud Party and was likely to face a national election soon. Five months later, in fact, he won a landslide victory and became Israel’s prime minister—in part because of insecurity sparked by the new intifada. Many Israelis, in turn, charged that the Palestinian Authority encouraged confrontation to deflect attention from Arafat’s failure to make peace. The official media called on Palestinians to support their brothers who had taken a stand at the Temple Mount.
11.Daniel Williams, “The Second Uprising,” The Washington Post, Jan. 21, 2001.
12.According to statistics from the Israeli Foreign Ministry and Human Rights Watch, some 120 Israelis were killed in attacks between 1994 and the outbreak of the uprising in September 2000. Between 2000 and 2005, hundreds of Israelis were killed in dozens of attacks each year. In the spring of 2005, the main Palestinian militant factions declared an unofficial cease-fire or hudna.
13.The al Qassam Brigade was named after Izz al-Din al-Qassam, a Syrian-born cleric who had led attacks against British colonial officials and Jewish targets in the 1920s and 1930s. He was killed by British forces after he murdered a Jewish policeman.
14.International Crisis Group, Enter Hamas: The Challenges of Political Integration, Middle East Report No. 49, Jan. 18, 2006; and Hamas, Council on Foreign Relations, June 8, 2007, http://www.cfr.org/publication/8968.
15.Khalil Shikaki, “The Future of Palestine,” Foreign Affairs, vol. 83, no. 6, Nov.–Dec. 2004.
16.Jim Hoagland, “Friends of the CIA,” The Washington Post, Apr. 7, 2002.
17.United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine, “Chronological Review of Events Relating to the Question of Palestine: Monthly Media Monitoring Review,” July 2001.
18.Hanna Rosin, “Schools’ Links to Hamas Give Arafat Dilemma,” The Washington Post, Jan. 2, 2002.
19.Greg Myre, “Political Sibling Rivalry: Hebron Parliamentary Race Pits Brother Against Brother,” The New York Times, Jan. 24, 2006.
20.International Crisis Group, Enter Hamas: The Challenges of Political Integration, Middle East Report No. 49, Jan. 18. 2006.
21.The full text of the March 19, 2005 Cairo Declaration:
(1) Those gathered confirmed their adherence to Palestinian principles, without any neglect, and the right of the Palestinian people to resistance in order to end the occupation, establish a Palestinian state with full sovereignty with Jerusalem as its capital, and the guaranteeing of the right of return of refugees to their homes and property.
(2) Those gathered agreed on a program for the year 2005, centered on the continuation of the atmosphere of calm in return for Israel’s adherence to stopping all forms of aggression against our land and our Palestinian people, no matter where they are, as well as the release of all prisoners and detainees.
(3) Those gathered confirmed that the continuation of settlement and the construction of the wall and the Judaization of Jerusalem are explosive issues.
(4) Those gathered explored the internal Palestinian situation and agreed on the necessity of completing total reform in all areas, of supporting the democratic process in its various aspects and of holding local and legislative elections at their determined time according to an election law to be agreed upon. The conference recommends to the Legislative Council that it take steps to amend the legislative elections law, relying on an equal division (of seats) in a mixed system, and it recommends that the law for elections of local councils be amended on the basis of proportional representation.
(5) Those gathered agreed to develop the Palestine Liberation Organization on bases that will be settled upon in order to include all the Palestinian powers and factions, as the organizationis the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. To do this, it has been agreed upon to form a committee to define these bases, and the committee will be made up of the president of the National Council, the members of the PLO’s Executive Committee, the secretaries general of all Palestinian factions and independent national personalities. The president of the executive committee will convene this committee.
(6) Those gathered felt unanimously that dialogue is the sole means of interaction among all the factions, as a support to national unity and the unity of the Palestinian ranks. They were unanimous in forbidding the use of weapons in internal disputes, respecting the rights of the Palestinian citizen and refraining from violating them, and that continuing dialogue through the coming period is a basic necessity toward unifying our speech and preserving Palestinian rights.
22.International Crisis Group, Enter Hamas: The Challenges of Political Integration, Middle East Report No. 49, Jan. 18. 2006.
23.Hamas, Council on Foreign Relations, June 8, 2007, http://www.cfr.org/publication/8968; and “Hamas Terrorist Attacks,” Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Mar. 22, 2004, www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/terrorism.
24.Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, press briefing en route to London, Jan. 29. 2006.
25.“Hamas: Palestinians Suffering Moral Crisis,” interview with Sheikh Nayef Rajoub, aljazeera.net, Jan. 17, 2006.
26.International Crisis Group, Enter Hamas: The Challenges of Political Integration, Middle East Report No. 49, Jan. 18. 2006.
27.Interview with Italy’s La Repubblica cited by Samia Nakhoul, “Arabs Face Stark Choice: Reform or Ruin,” Reuters, Mar. 25, 2004.
28.Mohammed Yaghi, “The Growing Anarchy in the Palestinian Territories,” Washington Institute for Near East Policy, May 16, 2006.
29.Mathew Levitt, “Hamas’s Hidden Economy,” Los Angeles Times, July 3, 2007.
30.Khaled Mashaal, “We Will Not Sell Our People or Principles for Foreign Aid,” The Guardian, Jan. 31, 2006.
31.Dion Nissenbaum, “Islamic Fundamentalist Group Suspected of Killing Prostitutes,” McClatchy Newspapers, Mar. 1, 2007.
32.Jake Lipton, “The War of Words Between Hamas and al Qaeda,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, June 28, 2007.
33.Nathan J. Brown, “The Peace Process Has No Clothes: The Decay of the Palestinian Authority and the International Response,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, June 14, 2007.
34.Jake Lipton, “The War of Words Between Hamas and al Qaeda,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, June 28, 2007.
35.“Israel-Palestinians Q & A,” The Associated Press, June 13, 2007.
36.Nidal al-Mughrabi, “Bloody Day in Gaza Raises Civil War Fears,” Reuters, June 12, 2007.
37.Nidal al-Mughrabi, “Hamas Gunmen Hunt Down Fatah Rivals in Gaza Strip,” Reuters, June 14, 2007.
38.Dion Nissenbaum, “Hamas Fighters Tighten Hold on Gaza,” McClatchy Newspapers, June 13, 2007.
39.Nidal al-Mughrabi, “Hamas Defeat Fatah in Gaza, Abbas Declares Emergency,” Reuters, June 14, 2007.
40.Dion Nissenbaum, “Hamas’ Rule over Gaza Begins with Promises, Pillaging,” McClatchy Newspapers, June 15, 2007.
41.Scott Wilson, “Fatah Gunmen Assert Authority in West Bank,” The Washington Post, July 8, 2007.
42.Dion Nissenbaum, “Hamas Fighters Tighten Hold on Gaza,” McClatchy Newspapers, June 13, 2007.
43.“Mashaal: Hamas to Work with Fatah,” Alalam News, June 15, 2007.
44.Craig S. Smith and Greg Myre, “Hamas May Find It Needs Its Enemy,” The New York Times, June 17, 2007.
CHAPTER TWO: EGYPT: THE TURNING POINTS
1.“Shayfeen.com Report on Egypt’s First Presidential Campaign” (English), Sept. 7, 2005.
2.“Shayfeen.com Report on Egypt’s First Presidential Campaign” (English), Sept. 7, 2005, and “Shayfeen.com Special Report” (Arabic), Sept. 8, 2005.
3.Reem Nafie, “Illiteracy Revisited: A Major New Project Aiming to Significantly Reduce Illiteracy Has Just Been Launched,” Al-Ahram Weekly, Sept. 4–10, 2003.
4.“2005 Human Rights Report: Egypt,” U.S. Department of State, Mar. 8, 2006.
5.Interviews with United States officials in Cairo, Feb.–Mar. 2006.
6.“Egypt: Flawed Election But…,” Democracy Digest, vol. 2, no. 9, Sept. 13, 2005.
7.“2005 Human Rights Report: Egypt,” U.S. Department of State, Mar. 8, 2006.
8.Telephone interview with a senior Western diplomat in Cairo who stipulated that I could use the information only if I protected his name and nationality, Mar. 2, 2006.
9.“Multiple Violations in the Third Round and the Responsibility of the Security Services,” Shayfeen.com, Dec. 3, 2006.
10.“The Last Days of the Elections Are the Worst,” Shayfeencom, Dec. 8, 2005.
11.“Egypt: Fear of Torture or Ill-Treatment/Incommunicado Detention,” Amnesty International, Apr. 16, 2003.
12.Megan K. Stack, “Pain of Political Change,” Los Angeles Times, Dec. 7, 2005.
13.“Egypt: Human Rights Developments,” Human Rights Watch, World Report 2001.
14.Charles Levinson, “Brotherhood Blues,” Cairo Times, vol. 7, no. 28, Sept. 18–24, 2003.
15.Samia Mehrez, “Take Them Out of the Ball Game: Egypt’s Cultural Players in Crisis,” Middle East Report No. 219, Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP), vol. 31, no. 2, Summer 2001.
16.Mohamed Sid-Ahmed, “The Intelligentsia and Politics,” Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 517, Jan. 18–24, 2001.
17.Gamal Essam el-Din, “Brotherhood in the Crossfire,” Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 620, Jan. 9–15, 2003.
18.“Egypt: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2004,” Human Rights Report, U.S. Department of State, Feb. 28, 2005.
19.Stack, “Pain of Political Change.”
20.Ibid.
21.Nathan J. Brown and Hesham Nasr, “Egypt’s Judges Step Forward,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Policy Outlook, Democracy and Rule of Law Project, May 2005.
22.Dina Shehata, “Egyptian Judges Test the Government’s Commitment to Democratic Reform,” Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies, no. 36, June 28, 2005. http//www.ahram.org./eg/acpss/Eng/ahram/2004/7/5/ESYP43/htm.
23.Brown and Nasr, “Egypt’s Judges Step Forward”; and Shehata, “Egyptian Judges Test the Government’s Commitment to Democratic Reform.”
24.Telephone interviews with the two lawyers in the case, Yosry el Sawy, Mar. 16, 2006, and Ayman el Foly, Mar. 14, 2006.
25.Megan K. Stack, “Some Judges in Egypt Lend Voice to Chorus for Reform, The Los Angeles Times, May 2, 2005; and Mona El-Nahhas, “Judges of Character,” Al-Ahram Weekly, Dec. 29, 2005–Jan. 4, 2006.
26.Mona el-Nahhas, “Judges of Character.”
27.Mona el-Nahhas, “Judicial Stand-off,” Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 783, Feb. 23–Mar. 1, 2006.
28.Nadia Abou el-Magd, “Egyptian Judges Protest Lack of Freedom,” Associated Press, Mar. 17, 2006.
29.“Egypt Judges Take Protest to the Streets,” aljazeera.net, Mar. 17, 2006.
30.Nadia Abou el-Magd, “Egyptian Judges Protest Lack of Freedom.”
31.“Mandate,” Baheyya: Egypt Analysis and Whimsy: Commentary on Egyptian Politics and Culture by an Egyptian Citizen with a Room of Her Own, Baheyya.blogspot.com, Dec. 20, 2005.
32.“Egypt Threatens Journalists over Referendum Violence Complaints,” Agence France Presse, June 14, 2005; and Amira Howeidy, “Zero Tolerance for Torture,” Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 749, June 30–July 6, 2005.
33.Amira Howeidy, “Zero Tolerance for Torture.”
34.Amnesty International Report 1989 (London: Amnesty International Publications, 1989), p. 253.
35.Ibid.
36.Glenn E. Perry, “Challenging Islamic Fundamentalism: The Writings of Muhammad Said al-Ashmawy,” Ethnic NewsWatch, Digest of Middle East Studies ( DOMES ), July 31, 1999; and Rose Ismail, “Political Islam a Deviation?” The New Straits Times (Malaysia), Apr. 21, 2000.
37.Pamela Nice, “Finding the Right Language: A Conversation with Syrian Filmmaker Usama Muhammad,” Al Jadid, vol. 6, no. 31, Spring 2000.
38.Alan Sipress, “Creativity Under Siege in Egypt,” The Philadelphia Inquirer, Feb. 28, 1994.
CHAPTER THREE: EGYPT: THE PLAYERS
1.Ziad Munson, “Islamic Mobilization: Social Movement Theory and the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood,” The Sociological Quarterly, vol. 42, no. 4, Fall 2001, pp. 487–510.
2.Interview with Assistant Foreign Minister Sallama Shaker, Feb. 21, 2006.
3.Amira Howeidy, “Politics in God’s Name,” Al Ahram Weekly, no. 247, Nov. 16–22, 1995.
4.Daniel Williams, “Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood May Be Model for Islam’s Political Adaptation,” The Washington Post, Feb. 3, 2006.
5.Ibid.
6.Sarah Gauch, “Egypt’s Opposition Targets Reforms,” The Christian Science Monitor, Mar. 23, 2006.
7.Amira Howeidy, “Muslim Brotherhood Flexes Muscles,” aljazeera.net, Dec. 5, 2005.
8.http://www.ummah.net/ikhwan.
9.Robin Wright, Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), p. 178.
10.Amira Howeidy, “Politics in God’s Name,” Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 247, Nov. 16–22, 1995.
11.http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h2177.html
12.Sayyid Qutb, Milestones (Indianapolis: American Trust Publications, 1990).
13.Ibid.
14.Steve Coll, “Letter from Jedda. Young Osama: How He Learned Radicalism, and May Have Seen America,” The New Yorker, Dec. 12, 2005.
15.Robin Wright, “Quiet Revolution: Islamic Movement’s New Phase,” third of a five-part series, “Politics in the Name of God,” The Christian Science Monitor, Nov. 6, 1987.
16.John Walsh, “Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood: Understanding Centrist Islam,” Perspectives on the United States: A Splintered Mirror, Harvard International Review, vol. 24, Winter 2003.
17.Robin Wright, Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), pp. 175–178.
18.Ibid.
19.Ibid.
20.Omar Sinan, “Al Qaeda Touts U.S. Troop Cuts in Iraq in a New Zawahiri Tape,” Associated Press, Jan. 6, 2006.
21.Steven Stalinsky, “Egyptian Support for Killing American Soldiers in Iraq,” Middle East Media Research Institute, Dec. 2, 2004.
22.www.harakamasria.org, www.harakamasria.net. and www.harakamasria.com.
23.Shaden Shehab, “Gomaa’s Last Stand,” Al-Ahram Weekly, Apr. 6–12, 2006; and Miret el-Nagger, “Standoff Deals Blow to Secular Parties in Egypt,” Knight Ridder, Apr. 7, 2006.
24.Ron Nordland, “The Pharaoh and the Rebel,” Newsweek, Dec. 30, 2005.
25.Ayman Nour, “Letter from Prison: Did I Take Democracy Too Seriously?” Newsweek, Mar. 14, 2005.
26.“Egypt: Focus on Second Week of Campaigning,” IRINnews.org, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Aug. 25, 2005.
27.Daniel Williams, “Mubarak’s 2005 Election Rival Sits in Jail as Movement Withers,” Bloomberg News, Mar. 6, 2007.
28.Gamal Essam el-Din, “Re-introducing Gamal Mubarak,” Al-Ahram Weekly, Mar. 30–Apr. 5, 2006.
29.The reign of Ramses II was the longest, at more than sixty years in the thirteenth century B.C. That of Mohammed Ali was the second longest, at forty years in the nineteenth century. From Saad Eddin Ibrahim at the Capitol Hill Conference Series on U.S. Middle East Policy, Hart Senate Office Buildling, Apr. 22, 2005.
30.Gamal Essam el-Din, “It Won’t Happen Here,” Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 672, Jan. 8–14, 2004.
31.Gamal Essam el-Din, “Re-introducing Gamal Mubarak.”
32.Gamal Essam el-Din, “It Won’t Happen Here,” Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 672, Jan. 8–14, 2004.
33.Nevine Khalil, “Young Minds, Open Debate,” Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 637, May 8–14, 2003.
34.Daniel Williams, “Egyptians Wonder If Dynasty Is Near; Mubarak’s Son Gaining Prominence,” The Washington Post, Sept. 24, 2004.
35.“Book Eulogises Mubarak’s Son,” Agence France Presse, Mar. 9, 2004.
36.Tom Perry, “Egypt Islamist Sees Mubarak’s Son Seeking Presidency,” Reuters, Feb. 27, 2006.
37.Rod Nordland, “The Pharaoh and the Rebel,” Newsweek, Dec. 30, 2005.
38.Interview with Mohammed el-Sayed Said, deputy director of the Al-Ahram Center for Political and Strategic Studies.
39.“Egypt Detaining More People, Rights Council Says,” Reuters, Apr. 5, 2006.
40.Hannah Allam, “Egyptian Reformer’s Experience a Cautionary Tale, Knight Ridder Newspapers, Mar. 30, 2006.
41.Amira Howeidy, “I Fear For Egypt,” Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 786, Mar. 16–22, 2006.
42.Hannah Allam, “Egyptian Reformer’s Experience a Cautionary Tale.”
43.Abigail Hauslohner, “Egypt Monitoring Group Reports Vote Fraud.” Reuters, June 13, 2007.
44.Paul Schemm, “Egyptian-American Academic Fears Arrest if He Returns Home from U.S.” Associated Press, Aug. 26, 2007.
45.Saad Eddin Ibrahim, “Egypt’s Unchecked Repression.” The Washington Post, Aug. 21, 2007.
CHAPTER FOUR: LEBANON: THE DREAMERS
1.“Index Ranks Middle East Freedom,” BBC News, Nov. 18, 2005. The Economist Intelligence Unit ranked twenty countries based on fifteen indicators of political and civil liberty. The ratings were:
Israel 8.20
Lebanon 6.55
Morocco 5.20
Iraq 5.05
Palestine 5.05
Kuwait 4.90
Tunisia 4.60
Jordan 4.45
Qatar 4.45
Egypt 4.30
Sudan 4.30
Yemen 4.30
Algeria 4.15
Oman 4.00
Bahrain 3.85
Iran 3.85
United Arab Emirates 3.70
Saudi Arabia 2.80
Syria 2.80
Libya 2.05
2.Ramsay Short, A Hedonist’s Guide to Beirut (London: Filmer, 2005), p. 134.
3.“Censors Raid Beirut’s Virgin Megastore,” BBC News, Jan. 7, 2002.
4.Background Notes: Lebanon, U.S. Department of State, Aug. 2005, p. 2. The United States reports that as many as seven percent of Lebanon’s population was killed during the war, which is higher than most estimates. The generally accepted figures range from 100,000 to 150,000 killed, with some 100,000 injured or handicapped, and up to 17,000 missing.
5.Susan Sachs, “Rafiq Hariri Is Dead at 60; Ex-premier of Lebanon,” The New York Times, Feb. 15, 2005.
6.Ghassan Charbel “The Long Interview: Rafiq al Hariri,” Al Hayat, reprinted in English in The Journal of Turkish Weekly, Feb. 17, 2005.
7.Gary C. Gambill, and Ziad K. Abdelnour, “Dossier: Rafiq Hariri,” Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 7, July 2001.
8.Ghassan Charbel, “The Long Interview: Rafiq al Hariri.” Hariri told Al Hayat that his personal contribution to reconstruction of Beirut’s war-ravaged commercial district downtown was $125 million, or about seven percent of the total.
9.Ethan Bronner, “A Builder in Lebanon; New Prime Minister Wealthy, Fiercely Dedicated,” The Boston Globe, Mar. 22, 1993.
10.Oussama Safa, “Lebanon Springs Forward,” Journal of Democracy, vol. 17, no. 1, Jan. 2006, pp. 28–34.
11.Nora Boustany, “Lebanon’s Sorrow: Hariri’s Murderers Were Targeting Democracy,” The Washington Post, Feb. 20, 2005.
12.Oussama Safa, “Lebanon Springs Forward.”
13.Gary C. Gambill and Ziad K. Abdelnour, “Dossier: Rafiq Hariri.”
14.Ethan Bronner, “A Builder in Lebanon.”
15.Oussama Safa, “Lebanon Springs Forward.”
16.Robin Wright and Colum Lynch, “Syria Blamed in Death of Hariri; U.N. Also Faults Lebanese Officials,” The Washington Post, Oct. 21, 2005.
17.United Nations Security Council report by investigator Detlev Mehlis, circulated Oct. 20, 2005.
18.Hassan M. Fattah, “Wails at Loss of Lebanese Leader, Cries for His Vision,” The New York Times, Feb. 17, 2005.
19.Megan K. Stack, “Mourners in Lebanon Say Syria Must Go,” Los Angeles Times, Feb. 17, 2005.
20.Megan K. Stack, “Son of Slain Former Leader Triumphs in Beirut Vote,” Los Angeles Times, May 30, 2005.
21.Lally Weymouth, “The Next Prime Minister?” The Washington Post, May 29, 2005.
22.Scott MacLeod, “Days of Cedar,” Time Europe, vol. 166, no. 15, Oct. 10, 2005.
CHAPTER FIVE: LEBANON: THE SHADOWS
1.David Ignatius, “An Interview with Sayyed Hasan Nasrallah,” The Washington Post, Feb. 3, 2006.
2.Of the fourteen, four are independents who are aligned with Hezbollah and vote with the party. Two are Sunni and one is Maronite.
3.Hassan Nasrallah, speech addressing the nation on the publication of cartoons about the Prophet Mohammed, Al Arabiya television, Feb. 9, 2006.
4.Richard Armitage, “America and the World Since 9/11,” luncheon speech at the United States Institute of Peace, Sept. 12, 2002. In reply to a question, Armitage, the Bush Administration’s first deputy secretary of state, said, “Hezbollah may be the A-Team of terrorists, and maybe al Qaeda is actually the B-Team. They’re on the list, and their time will come. There is no question about it. They have a blood debt to us…and we’re not going to forget it, and it’s all in good time. We’re going to go after these problems just like a high-school wrestler goes after a match: We’re going to take them down one at a time.”
5.Sami Moubayed, “Nasrallah and the Three Lebanons,” Asia Times, Aug. 3, 2006.
6.Julie Goodman, “Cleric’s Disappearance Sensitive Issue for Shiites,” International Reporting Project, Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies, Fall 2004.
7.Augustus Richard Norton, “Hizballah: From Radicalism to Pragmatism?” Middle East Policy Council Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, Jan. 1998.
8.The spark for Israel’s invasion, somewhat ironically, was an assassination attempt on its ambassador to Britain by a Palestinian renegade group led by Abu Nidal. His group had split from the Palestine Liberation Organization and later tried to kill Yasser Arafat, too. But the attack on Israel’s ambassador provided the pretext to deal with the long-standing problem of the PLO in neighboring Lebanon.
9.Al Manar television, Mar. 20, 2002, on www.islamicdigest.net.
10.Robin Wright, Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), pp. 69–110.
11.Robin Wright, Sacred Rage, p. 73.
12.“An Interview with Yitzhak Rabin: They Want Lebanon, Let Them Enjoy It,” Time, Feb. 11, 1985, p. 44; and Robin Wright, Sacred Rage, p. 233.
13.Enno Franzius, History of the Order of the Assassins (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1969) and Bernard Lewis, The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam (New York: Basic Books, 1968, 2002; London: Al Saqi Books, 1985).
14.Bernard Lewis, The Assassins.
15.Robert Fisk, “Dialogue Is No Longer Enough; Muslims in the Arab World Are Despairing of the West’s Attitude to Them,” The Independent, Dec. 7, 1993.
16.The first American taken hostage in Lebanon—and the only one taken to Iran—was David Dodge, the president of American University of Beirut. He was kidnapped when four Iranian diplomats went missing in Lebanon days after Israel’s 1982 invasion. Tehran demanded pressure by the international community to free them; when nothing happened, Dodge went missing. He was held for 366 days. Syria mediated his release. The four Iranians, whose vehicle with diplomatic plates had been stopped at a checkpoint run by a right-wing Christian militia, were never heard from again. In the search for information to win the release of American hostages, U.S. diplomats were told that the four had been murdered.
17.“An Open Letter: The Hezbollah Program,” As Safir, Feb. 16, 1985; and Augustus Richard Norton, Amal and the Shi’a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1987).
18.“An Open Letter: The Hezbollah Program”; and Augustus Richard Norton, Amal and the Shi’a.
19.“Return to the Lion’s Den,” CNN On-Air, Dec. 1, 1996.
20.“Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001,” Background Information on Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations, Appendix B, U.S. Department of State.
21.Augustus Richard Norton, “Hizballah: From Radicalism to Pragmatism?” Middle East Policy Council Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, Jan. 1998.
22.“Hezbollah Leader Addresses Election Rally in Beirut’s Southern Suburb,” excerpt from report by Hezbollah Radio, BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, Aug. 26, 1992.
23.The quotation is actually by Heraclitus, fragment 41 from On the Universe: “You could not step twice into the same river…”
24.Gary C. Gambill and Ziad K. Abdelnour, “Hezbollah: Between Tehran and Damascus,” Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, vol. 4, no. 2, Feb. 2002.
25.Sami Moubayed, “Who Is Hasan Nasrallah?” World Politics Watch, July 17, 2006.
26.“Treasury Designation Targets Hizballah’s Bank,” U.S. Treasury Department, Sept. 7, 2006.
27.Jeffrey Goldberg, “In the Party of God: Hezbollah Sets Up Operations in South America and the United States,” The New Yorker, Oct. 28, 2002; “Hezbollah and the West African Diamond Trade,” Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, vol. 6, no. 6–7, June–July 2004; and Douglas Farah, “Hezbollah’s External Support Network in West Africa and Latin America,” International Assessment and Strategy Center, Aug. 4, 2006.
28.“Hezbollah Leader Says Lebanon at a ‘Dangerous Stage,’” excerpts from a report in As Safir, BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, Dec. 29, 1997.
29.“Hezbollah Leader Addresses Beirut Rally, Sees End of Israeli ‘Dream,’” al Manar television Web site in Arabic, May 7, 1998.
30.Avi Jorisch, “Al-Manar: Hizbullah TV 24/7,” Middle East Quarterly, vol. 11, no. 1, Winter 2004; and Avi Jorisch, “Terrorist Television,” National Review, Dec. 22, 2004.
31.Robin Wright, “Iran Shipping Arms to Hezbollah,” Los Angeles Times, Apr. 18, 1996; and Robin Wright, “Iran Boosts Arms Supplies to Hezbollah,” Los Angeles Times, Dec. 13, 1996.
32.In 1993, via Syria, the United States brokered an unwritten deal: Israel ended attacks on Lebanese civilians, while Hezbollah limited operations to Israelis in Lebanon. It broke down in 1996 in a brutal sixteen-day onslaught by both sides. The United States renegotiated the same deal, this time in writing.
33.Oscar Serrat, “Argentine Prosecutors Seek Arrest of Former Iranian President in Jewish Center Bombing,” Associated Press, Oct. 25, 2006.
34.Richard Engle, “Hezbollah Guerrillas Taunt Israeli Soldiers, Loot Abandoned Border Posts,” Agence France Presse, May 24, 2000.
35.Deborah Sontag, “Retreat from Lebanon: The Triumphal Procession, Israel out of Lebanon after 22 Years,” The New York Times, May 24, 2000.
36.“Hezbollah Leader Calls for Muslim-Christian Coexistence,” Lebanese Broadcasting Corp., broadcast aired May 26, 2000, and published by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts May 27, 2000.
37.Daniel Sobelman, “Hezbollah Two Years After the Withdrawal—A Compromise Between Ideology, Interests, and Exigencies,” Strategic Assessment, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel Aviv University, vol. 5, no. 2, Aug. 2002.
38.Daniel Sobelman, “Four Years After the Withdrawal from Lebanon: Refining the Rules of the Game,” Strategic Assessment, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel Aviv University, vol. 7, no. 2, Aug. 2004.
39.Robin Wright, “Most of Iran’s Troops in Lebanon Are Out, Western Officials Say,” The Washington Post. Apr. 13, 2005.
40.Daniel Sobelman, “Hezbollah After the Syrian Withdrawal,” Strategic Assessment, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel Aviv University, vol. 8, no. 1, Aug. 2005.
41.“The Electoral Program of Hezbollah 1996,” Distributed by al Manar television, online at http://almashriq.hiof.no/lebanon/300/320/324/324.2/hizballah/hizballah-platform.html.
42.Hassan Nasrallah, speech addressing the nation on the publication of cartoons about the Prophet Mohammed, al Arabiya television, Feb. 9, 2006.
43.Will Rasmussen, “Hezbollah Hasn’t Moderated, but It Has Been Humbled,” The New Republic Online, Jan. 4, 2006.
44.“Hizbullah Risks Becoming Part of ‘Business as Usual’ in Beirut,” The Daily Star editorial, July 8, 2006.
45.Interview with Egyptian television, June 2, 2000.
46.Daniel Sobelman, “Hezbollah Two Years After the Withdrawal”: Daniel Sobelman, “Four Years After the Withdrawal from Lebanon”; and Reuven Pedatzur, “Plays by the Rules,” Haaretz, Aug. 16, 2004.
47.Daniel Sobelman, “Hezbollah Two Years After the Withdrawal.”
48.Nightline, ABC News, Oct. 19, 2000.
49.“Lebanese Hezbollah Leader Views Capability of New Drone to Bomb Israel,” al Manar Television, Nov. 12, 2004, published by BBC Worldwide Monitoring, Nov. 13, 2004.
50.Daniel Sobelman, “Four Years After the Withdrawal from Lebanon.”
51.“Factbox: How Hizbollah Captured Israeli Soldiers,” Reuters, July 13, 2006.
52.“Nasrallah: We Are Working on Making This Year the Year to Free Our Brothers in Israeli Detention,” The Daily Star, Feb. 10, 2006.
53.Greg Myre and Steven Erlanger, “Israelis Enter Lebanon After Attacks,” The New York Times, July 13, 2006.
54.Amir Oren, “The Longest Month,” Haaretz, Aug. 18, 2006.
55.Jon Finer, “Israeli Soldiers Find a Tenacious Foe in Hezbollah,” The Washington Post, Aug. 8, 2006; and Lin Noueihed, “Israel Faces Invisible Enemy in Southern Lebanon,” Reuters, Aug. 2, 2006.
56.“Nasrallah: No Second Round,” As Safir, Aug. 28, 2006, translation of interview on New TV by Miriam al Bassam.
57.Adam Entous, “More Than 60 pct of Israelis Want Olmert to Quit—Poll,” Reuters, Aug. 25, 2006.
58.“Poll Finds Support for Hizbullah’s Retaliation: Opinions Diverge on Sectarian Lines—But Not Completely,” Beirut Center for Research & Information, July 29, 2006.
59.Edward Cody, “Staying Power Adds to Hezbollah’s Appeal,” The Washington Post, Aug. 2, 2006.
60.Steven Erlanger, “Israeli Officer Says Army Aims to Kill Nasrallah,” The New York Times, Aug. 20, 2006.
61.Zeina Karam, “Hezbollah Leader Says He Wouldn’t Have Ordered the Capture of Two Israeli Soldiers Knowing It Would Lead to Such a War,” Associated Press, Aug. 27, 2006; and “Nasrallah Regrets War in Hindsight,” The Daily Star, Aug. 27, 2006.
62.“Hizbullah Shuts Down Posts Near Shabaa Farms, Moves Out Weapons,” Agence France Presse, quoted by Naharnet, Aug. 28, 2006.
63.Nadia Abou El-Magd, “For Majority of Arabs, Hezbollah Won, Israel Army No Longer Unbeatable,” Associated Press, Aug. 17, 2006.
64.Ibid.
65.David Rising, “Hezbollah’s Fierce Resistance Giving Rise to Increased Arab Support,” Associated Press, July 30, 2006.
66.Nadia Abou El-Magd, “Nearly a Month Into Lebanon Fighting, Arab Anger at Their Governments Grows,” Associated Press, Aug. 7, 2006.
67.Mohammed Bazzi, “Some Fear a Thousand New Bin Ladens,” Newsday, Aug. 1, 2006.
68.Interview with Hassan Nasrallah, al Jazeera, Sept. 12, 2006.
69.Robin Wright and Peter Baker, “Iraq, Jordan See Threat to Election from Iran: Leaders Warn Against Forming Religious State,” The Washington Post, Dec. 8, 2004.
70.Hassan Hassan and Abdullah Taa’i, “Hizbullah in the Eyes of Syrians During the War,” written for SyriaComment.com, Sept. 6, 2006.
CHAPTER SIX: SYRIA: THE OUTLAWS
1.Patrick Seale, Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), p. 153.
2.Patrick Seale, Asad, pp. 3–8.
3.Gary C. Gambill, “Riyad al-Turk: Secretary-General of the Syrian Community Party Political Bureau,” Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 9, Sept. 2001; and Ranwa Yehia, “The Shackles of Leadership,” Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 563, Dec. 6–12, 2001.
4.Patrick Seale, Asad, pp. 441–460.
5.Michael Jansen, “Spring Time in Syria,” Al-Ahram Weekly, no. 526, March 22–28, 2001.
6.Inaugural Address, Syrian Arab News Agency, July 17, 2000.
7.“Statement by 99 Syrian Intellectuals,” Al Hayat, Sept. 27, 2000.
8.Eli Karmelli, and Yotam Feldner, “The Battle for Reforms and Civil Society in Syria—Part I,” Middle East Media Research Institute, no. 47, Feb. 9, 2001.
9.Flynt Leverett, Inheriting Syria: Bashar’s Trial by Fire (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2005).
10.Deborah Amos, “Syria’s Efforts to Reform Its Economy,” All Things Considered, National Public Radio, Aug. 2, 2005.
11.Sami Moubayed, “Dateline Damascus: Threatened by Its Neighbors, Damascus Clamps Down on ‘Opinion of the Other,’” Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, Dec. 2001.
12.Rhonda Roumani, “Syria Frees Five Political Activists,” The Washington Post, Jan. 19, 2006.
13.Patrick Seale, Asad, pp. 3–8.
14.Yassin Haj Saleh, “Don’t Rush the Revolution,” The New York Times, June 4, 2005.
15.Howard Schneider, “For First Time, a Pope Sets Foot in a Mosque,” The Washington Post, May 7, 2001.
16.Zeina Karam, “Planner of Assault on Munich Olympics Has No Regrets,” Associated Press. Feb. 23, 2006.
17.Gary C. Gambill, “The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood, Mideast Mirror, vol. 1, no. 2, Apr.–May 2006.
18.The Muslim Brotherhood was also banned during Syria’s union with Egypt between 1958 and 1961, but allowed to run after the United Arab Republic crumbled.
19.Patrick Seale, Asad, pp. 316–338.
20.Ibid.
21.The Massacres of Hama: Law Enforcement Requires Accountability, Syrian Human Rights Committee, Feb. 1, 2005.
22.Thomas L. Friedman, From Beirut to Jerusalem (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1989), p. 80.
23.The Massacres of Hama; and interviews with human rights groups in Damascus, Apr. 2006.
24.“Mid-Range Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century,” http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat4.htm.
25.Ibrahim Hamidi, “Islamist Streams on the March in Syria,” Al Hayat, Jan. 4, 2006.
26.Anthony Shadid, “Inside and Outside Syria, a Debate to Decide the Future,” The Washington Post, Nov. 9, 2005.
27.Deborah Amos, “Exiled Opposition Leader for Democracy in Syria,” National Public Radio, Dec. 1, 2005.
28.Ibrahim Hamidi, “Islamist Streams on the March in Syria.”
29.Charles Glass, “Is Syria Next?” London Review of Books, vol. 25, no. 14, July 24, 2003.
30.Flynt Leverett, “Syria’s Wobbly Godfather Jr.: Will the Hariri Affair Be a Turning Point in the Assad Family Saga? The Washington Post, Oct. 30, 2005.
31.Bouthaina Shaaban, “Outside View: Who Killed Hariri?” United Press International, Feb. 19, 2005, and www.bouthainashaaban.com, Feb. 22, 2005.
32.Gary C. Gambill, “The Kurdish Reawakening in Syria,” Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, vol. 6, no. 4, April 2004.
33.Christine Spolar, “Fearful Iraqis Seek Haven in Syria,” The Chicago Tribune, May 22, 2006.
34.Dr. Nimrod Raphaeli, “The Syrian Economy under Bashar al Assad,” Middle East Media Research Institute, no. 259, Jan. 13, 2006.
35.Matthew Levitt, “Syria and the War on Terrorism: Challenges for U.S. Policy (Part II),” PolicyWatch No. 596, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Jan. 24, 2002.
36.Thomas L. Friedman, From Beirut to Jerusalem, p. 80.
37.Albert Aji, “Prominent Syrian Human Rights Lawyer Among 6 Detained in Large Roundup,” Associated Press, May 17, 2006; and Mohammed Bazzi, “Syria Cracks Down on Dissidents,” Newsday, May 19, 2006.
CHAPTER SEVEN: IRAN: THE REVOLUTIONARIES
1.Hamid Algar, Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini (Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press, 1981) , pp. 169–173.
2.Ironically, the loan was largely to buy American arms.
3.Hamid Algar, Islam and Revolution, pp. 181–88.
4.Muqtedar Khan, “Two Theories of Ijtihad,” Common Ground News Service, Mar. 22, 2006.
5.Other faiths are deliberately excluded, notably the Baha’i, and often persecuted. The Baha’i are particularly viewed as heretics. They are also resented politically, as many were close to or worked for the monarchy.
6.The Soviet Union and Britain invaded Iran in 1941 and forced Reza Shah to abdicate in favor of his twenty-two-year-old son. Reza Shah Pahlavi fled to South Africa, where he died three years later.
7.Akbar Ganji, Republican Manifesto, Sept. 2, 2002.
8.Akbar Ganji, Republican Manifesto II, May 30, 2005.
9.Akbar Ganji, “Second Letter to the Free people of the World,” July 10, 2005.
10.Akbar Ganji, “Letter to America,” The Washington Post, Sept. 21, 2006.
CHAPTER EIGHT: IRAN: THE REACTIONARIES
1.Robin Wright, In the Name of God: The Khomeini Decade (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), p. 227.
2.“Abolishing the Ruling Islamic Party: Why and for Whose Sake? The Middle East Reporter, July 11, 1987, pp 13–15.
3.Cheryl Benard and Zalmay Khalilzad, The Government of God: Iran’s Islamic Republic (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), p. 110.
4.Shaul Bakhash, The Reign of the Ayatollahs: Iran and the Islamic Revolution (New York: Basic Books 1989), p. 75.
5.“Chronology,” Middle East Journal, vol. 36, no. 1, Winter 1982, p. 75.
6.Among the Web sites collecting these are http://www.khamenei.de and http://www.khamenei.ir.
7.Youssef M. Ibrahim, “Montazeri’s Evolution: An Heir Is Gone,” The New York Times, Apr. 2, 1989.
8.Patrick E. Tyler, “Ten Days of Dawn, Ten Years of Struggle,” The Washington Post, Feb. 2, 1989.
9.“Ayatollah Khomeini’s Criticism of the Government,” The Echo of Iran, Oct. 18, 1988, p. 9.
10.The fatwa, read on Tehran Radio afternoon news, also called for the death of all those involved in the book’s publication. “I call on zealous Muslims to promptly execute them on the spot they find them, so that no one else will dare to blaspheme Muslim sanctities,” his fatwa declared.
11.Elaine Sciolino, “Montazeri, Khomeini’s Designated Successor in Iran, Quits Under Pressure,” The New York Times, Mar. 29, 1989.
12.Nazenin Ansari, “An Ayatollah Under Siege in Tehran,” Open Democracy, Oct. 4, 2006; and Nazila Fathi, “Iran Arrests Outspoken Cleric Who Opposes Religious Rule,” The New York Times, Oct. 9, 2006.
13.Nazila Fathi, “Qum Journal: Where the Austerity of Islam Yields to a Yen for Chic,” The New York Times, June 7, 2005.
14.Shaul Bakhash, “Iran’s Unlikely President,” The New York Review of Books, vol. 45, no. 17, Nov. 5, 1998.
15.Neil MacFarquhar, “Iran Leader Vows to Enact Reforms in His Second Term,” The New York Times, Aug. 9, 2001.
16.“Khatami Threatens Resignation over Power Struggle with Hard-Liners: Move Comes in Response to Widespread Dissatisfaction,” The Daily Star, July 14, 2003.
17.Joe Klein, “Who Is Winning the Fight for Iran’s Future?” The New Yorker, Feb. 18–25, 2002.
18.Karl Vick, “Iranian Elections Marked by Secular Messages, Apathy,” The Washington Post, June 15, 2005.
19.Naysan Rafati, “Iran’s President Election: The Candidates Speak,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, June 23, 2005.
20.Shaul Bakhash, “Reading Jefferson in Tehran,” The Washington Post, Aug. 13, 2006.
21.“Iran’s Revolutionary Manager: Ahmadinejad in His Own Words,” Agence France Presse, June 25, 2005.
22.Michael Slackman, “Winner in Iran Calls for Unity; Reformists Reel,” The New York Times, June 26, 2005.
23.Shaul Bakhash, “Iran’s Unlikely President,” The New York Review of Books, vol. 45, no. 17, Nov. 5, 1998.
24.Nasser Karimi, “Iran’s President Bans Western Music on Radio and Television,” Associated Press, Dec. 19, 2005.
25.“Iran’s Revolutionary Manager: Ahmadinejad in his own words,” Agence France Presse, June 25, 2005.
26.Karl Vick, “A Man of the People’s Needs and Wants; Ahmadinejad Praised in Iran as Caring Leader,” The Washington Post, June 3, 2006.
27.Neil MacFarquar, “Iran’s New Ideal: Small Families,” International Herald Tribune, Sept. 9, 2006.
28.Anthony Shadid, “Iran’s Population Program Cited as a Model,” Associated Press, Feb. 6, 1995.
29.Robert Tait, “Ahmadinejad Urges Iranian Baby Boom to Challenge West,” The Guardian, Oct. 23, 2006.
30.Ibid.
31.www.ahmadinejad.ir/en/autobiography.
32.Robin Wright, “Chemical Arms’ Effects Linger Long After War,” Los Angeles Times, Nov. 19, 2002.
33.Robin Wright, “Years After Exposure, Germ Warfare Victims Deteriorate,” Los Angeles Times, Nov. 27, 2002. In a declassified report, the CIA estimated in 1991 that Iran suffered more than 50,000 casualties, including untold thousands of deaths, from Iraq’s use of several chemical weapons. But Iran claims the tally has since soared as both troops and civilians have developed the telltale symptoms up to fifteen years later because low-dose exposure deferred physical deterioration or collapse.
34.Brenda Shaffer, “Iran at the Nuclear Threshold,” Arms Control Today, November 2003; and interview with Robert Einhorn, former State Department Assistant Secretary for Nonproliferation, Apr. 9, 2007.
35.Ali Akbar Dareini, “Iran Issues New Bank Note with Nuclear Symbol, Amid Standoff with the West,” Associated Press, Mar. 12, 2007.
36.http://www.ahmadinejad.ir
37.John Daniszewski, “Iran’s Runner-Up Puts Fundamentalists in the Race,” Los Angeles Times, June 21, 2005.
38.Paul Hughes, “Iran President Paves the Way for Arabs’ Imam Return,” Reuters, Nov. 17, 2005.
39.Interview with Kenneth Katzman, March 2007; and Kenneth Katzman, The Warriors of Islam: Iran’s Revolutionary Guards (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993).
40.Anthony Cordesman and Martin Kleiber, Iran’s Assymetric Warfighting Capabilities (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Affairs, 2007).
41.Ibid.
42.“Quds Force: Iranian Regime’s Instrument for Extraterritorial Terror Activities,” National Council of Resistance of Iran, Dec. 26, 2006, http://www.ncr-iran.org/content/view/2686/69.
43.Anthony Cordesman and Martin Kleiber, Iran’s Assymetric Warfighting Capabilities. Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Affairs. 2007.
CHAPTER NINE: MOROCCO: THE COMPROMISES
1.Thomas Carothers, “The ‘Sequencing’ Fallacy: How Democracies Emerge,” Journal of Democracy, vol. 18, no. 1, Jan. 2007.
2.Hitler actually never won more than forty-four percent in popular elections. He came to power through coalitions.
3.“Human Rights in Morocco,” press conference of Driss Benzekri, National Press Club, Washington D.C., Jan. 19, 2006.
4.Geoff Pingree and Lisa Abend, “Morocco Moves Gradually to Address Past Repression,” The Christian Science Monitor, Sept. 23, 2005.
5.“Gradual Reform in Morocco,” The Economist, Aug. 7, 2004.
6.Marina Ottaway, “Morocco: From Top-down Reform to Democratic Transition?” Carnegie Paper Middle East Series No. 71, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Oct. 2006.
7.Charles Levinson, “Letter from Rabat,” MEIonline.com, Sept. 15, 2005.
8.Scott MacLeod, “Whatever I Do, It Will Never Be Good Enough,” Time Europe, vol. 155, no. 15, June 26, 2000.
9.“Human Rights after the Casablanca Bombings,” Human Rights Watch, Oct. 2004.
10.Dana Priest, “CIA Holds Terror Suspects in Secret Prisons: Debate Is Growing Within Agency About Legality and Morality of Overseas System Set Up After 9/11,” The Washington Post, Nov. 2, 2005.
11.“Morocco: Counter-terror Crackdown Sets Back Rights Progress,” Human Rights Watch, Oct. 21, 2004.
12.Fatima Mernissi, Dreams of Trespass: Tales of a Harem Girlhood (New York: Basic Books, 1994), p. 78.
13.Ibid., p. 22.
14.Translations of the Koran vary (as do translations of the Bible). The authorized English translation of Sura (or chapter) 41, verse 34 reads: “Not equal is the good response and the bad response. You shall resort to the nicest possible response. Thus, the one who used to be your enemy may become your best friend.”
15.Fatima Mernissi, Dreams of Trespass pp. 118–19.
16.Ibid., pp. 200–1.
17.Ted Thornton, “Qasim Amin,” History of the Middle East Database, Aug. 7, 2006; and Susan Muaddi Darraj, “Understanding the Other Sister: The Case of Arab Feminism,” Monthly Review, vol. 53, no. 10, Mar. 2002.
18.Fatima Mernissi, The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist’s Interpretation of Women’s Rights in Islam (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Books, 1987), p. 102.
19.Fatima Mernissi, Women and Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 1991).
20.The Arab Human Development Report 2005 (New York: The United Nations, Dec. 2006), pp. 9, 106–7.
21.Ibid., pp. 7–8, 72–83, 305–7. In contrast, only thirty-eight percent of Moroccan men are illiterate.
22.Iman Ghazalla, Sculpting the Rock of Women’s Rights: The Role of Women’s Organizations in Promoting the National Plan of Action To Integrate Women in Development in Morocco (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, 2001).
23.“Morocco Gets First Women Preachers,” Agence France Press, Apr. 28, 2006.
24.Rabea Naciri, “Morocco,” in Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Citizenship and Justice, Sameena Nazir and Leigh Tomppert, eds. (New York: Freedom House, 2005).
25.“Morocco: Hidden Child Workers Face Abuse: Girls Working as Domestics Denied Basic Rights.” Human Rights Watch, Dec. 20. 2005.
26.Middle East Policy Council, Capitol Hill Conference Series on U.S. Middle East Policy, Hart Senate Office Building, Apr. 22, 2005.
27.Rachid Idrissi Kaitouni, “The Moroccan Parliamentary System,” 107th Interparliamentary Conference, Marrakech, Mar. 17–23, 2002.
28.Roula Khalaf, “Morocco Sees the Rise of ‘Acceptable’ Islamist Party, The Financial Times, May 23, 2006.
29.Saadeddine Othmani, “Islamist Political Parties and Winning the Challenge of Democratic Reform,” Paper delivered at the 2006 annual conference of the Center for the Study of Islam and Democracy, Washington, D.C., May 5, 2006.
30.“Islamic Extremism: Common Concern for Muslim and Western Publics: Support for Terror Wanes Among Muslim Publics,” Pew Research Center Global Survey, July 14, 2005.
31.“Landmarks in the Party’s History,” on the Justice and Development Party Web site, http://www.pjd.ma.
32.Saadeddine Othmani, “Islamist Political Parties.”
33.“In the Spotlight: Moroccan Combatant Group,” Center for Defense Information, May 21, 2004; “Fighting Back: The Hunt for Terrorists in Spain and France,” The Economist, Apr. 7, 2004; and Peter Finn and Keith B. Richburg, “Madrid Probe Turns to Islamic Cell in Morocco,” The Washington Post, Mar. 20, 2004.
34.Marina Ottaway, “Morocco: From Top-down Reform to Democratic Transition?” Carnegie Paper, Middle East Series, no. 71, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Oct. 2006.
35.Bruce Maddy-Weitzman, “Islamism, Moroccan Style: The Ideas of Sheikh Yassine,” Middle East Quarterly, vol. 10, no. 1, Winter 2003.
36.Geoff Pingree and Lisa Abend, “Morocco’s Rising Islamist Challenge,” The Christian Science Monitor, Nov. 23, 2005.
CHAPTER TEN: IRAQ AND THE UNITED STATES: THE FURIES
1.Joshua Landis, “Riad al Turk Interview: 11 March 2005,” www.syriacomment.com, Mar. 19, 2005.
2.BBC interview by Lise Doucet, Aug. 8, 2006.
3.Country studies, CIA Factbook.
4.“Whatever Happened to the Iraqi Kurds?” Human Rights Watch, Mar. 11, 1991.
5.Saddam’s intervention also forced the United States to abandon a large CIA covert operation supporting an opposition coalition based in Kurdistan.
6.Robin Wright, “Families Are Harassed or Starved Out: A Decree Allows Minorities to Change Their Ethnicity,” Los Angeles Times, Dec. 3, 2002.
7.Isam al Khafaji, “The Myth of Iraqi Exceptionalism,” Middle East Policy, vol. 7, no. 4, October 2000; Phoebe Marr, “Comment on Isam al-Khafaji’s ‘The Myth of Iraqi Exceptionalism,’ Middle East Policy, vol. 7, no. 4, October 2000; and George Packer, “Dreaming of Democracy,” The New York Times Magazine, Mar. 2, 2003.
8.Ellen Laipson, “Assessing the Long-Term Challenges,” The Stimson Center, www.stimson.org, Sept. 2002.
9.Bill Keller, “The Sunshine Warrior,” The New York Times Magazine, Sept. 22, 2002.
10.Audrey Gillan, “The Regrets of the Man Who Brought Down Saddam,” The Guardian, Mar. 19, 2007.
11.Helen Chapin Metz, ed., A Country Study: Iraq, Library of Congress, Nov. 8, 2005.
12.Islam was not the only religion in the new Iraq. When the country was carved out of the Ottoman empire, one third of Baghdad was Jewish. Modern Iraq’s first finance minister was Jewish, as was much of the symphony orchestra and chamber of commerce. Christian denominations included Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Catholics.
13.Abd el Karim al Uzri, “The Problem of Governance in Iraq,” self-published, London, 1991, pp. 2–9; and Ali Allawi, The Occupation of Iraq: Winning the War, Losing the Peace (New Haven Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007), p. 17.
14.Ronald L. Kuipers, “Entrance to the Ruins of Babylon,” in A Country Study: Iraq, Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Library of Congress, May 1988.
15.Ali Allawi, The Occupation of Iraq, p. 162.
16.In the most extensive advance planning, a panel of Iraqis organized by the State Department in the Future of Iraq Project recommended that 100,000 soldiers should form the nucleus of a new defensive military force. Special Forces should be adapted for work in counterterrorism, antinarcotics, and peacekeeping. Intelligence units could work with American forces in cleaning up any postwar security problems. Military police could focus on internal vulnerabilities, such as pipeline security. Conscripts could be used for agricultural development, postwar reconstruction, and the serious environmental damage that was part of Saddam’s legacy.
17.Mark Fineman, Warren Vieth, and Robin Wright, “Dissolving Iraqi Army Seen by Many as a Costly Move,” Los Angeles Times, Aug. 24, 2003.
18.Mark Fineman, Robin Wright, and Doyle McManus, “Washington’s Battle Plan: Preparing for War, Stumbling to Peace, Los Angeles Times, July 18, 2003.
19.Council on Foreign Relations, Washington, D.C., Apr. 10, 2007.
20.Mark Fineman, Warren Vieth, and Robin Wright, “Dissolving Iraqi Army Seen by Many as a Costly Move.”
21.Ibid.
22.Council on Foreign Relations.
23.“Iraq War, the Notable Quotes, Reuters, Mar. 8, 2007.
24.Ali Allawi, The Occupation of Iraq, p. 393.
25.The shrine was also one of the places where Shiites believe the twelfth and final imam, the Mahdi, went into occultation, or hiding, to return before the Day of Judgment to deliver perfect justice.
26.Nancy A. Youssef, “These Tatoos Aren’t Artful—They Help Identify Iraq’s Dead,” McClatchy Newspapers, Nov. 1, 2006.
27.Leila Fadel and Mohammed al Dulaimy, “Violence, Fear Pervade Once-Vibrant Baghdad,” McClatchy Newspapers, Mar. 18, 2007.
28.Ali Allawi, The Occupation of Iraq, p. 457.
29.Ibid., pp. 459–60.
30.Ibid.
31.Audrey Gillan, “The Regrets of the Man Who Brought Down Saddam,” The Guardian, Mar. 19, 2007.
32.Vanessa Arrington, “Iraqi Political Cartoonists, Free from Fear of Saddam, Now Face Death Threats from Extremists,” Associated Press, May 13, 2006.
33.Cameron W. Barr, and Jon Cohen, “Poll Shows Iraqis Feel Quality of Life Has Plunged,” The Washington Post, Mar. 19, 2007.
34.Solomon Moore, “A Battlefield Called School: Iraq Violence Threatens Teachers and Students: Campuses are Closing,” Los Angeles Times, Dec. 16, 2006.
35.“A Look at the Iraqi Refugee Situation,” Associated Press, Feb. 12, 2007; and Hamza Hendawi, “Iraq War Spawns a Growing Refugee Problem for Its Neighbors,” Associated Press, Feb. 4, 2007.
36.Karin Brulliard, “Iraq Reimposes Freeze on Medical Diplomas in Bid to Keep Doctors,” The Washington Post, May 5, 2007.
37.Christian Berthesen, “Study: One-third of Iraqis Live in Poverty,” Los Angeles Times, Feb. 19, 2007; and “Iraq: Unemployment and Violence Increase Poverty,” UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Oct. 17, 2006.
38.At its peak in the 1970s, the country with the world’s third-largest oil reserves produced 3.7 million barrels per day. Production varied, but on the war’s fourth anniversary, it produced just over half that—about 2.1 million barrels per day.
39.Charles J. Hanley, “Bush Plan’s $1 Billion in Aid Would Make Small Dent in Iraq’s Needs,” Associated Press, Jan. 14, 2007.
40.Cameron W. Barr, and Jon Cohen, “Poll Shows Iraqis Feel Quality of Life Has Plunged,” The Washington Post, Mar. 19, 2007.
41.“Key Figures About Iraq Since the War Began in March 2003,” Associated Press, Mar. 1, 2007.
42.Laith Hammoudi, “Traditional Mud Oven Makes a Comeback in Iraq,” McClatchy Newspapers, Mar. 8, 2007.
43.John F. Burns, “U.S. Finds Insurgency Has Funds to Sustain Itself,” The New York Times, Nov. 26, 2006.
44.Hamza Hendawi, “Egyptian Activists Turn from Democracy Campaign to Bitterness at Israel and the U.S.,” Associated Press, Sept. 14, 2006.
45.Capitol Hill Conference Series on U.S. Middle East Policy, Hart Senate Office Buildling, Apr. 22, 2005. The poll was conducted by Zogby International and Shibley Telhami, who holds the Anwar Sadat Chair of Peace and Development at the University of Maryland and is a fellow at the Brookings Institution’s Saban Center for Middle East Policy.
46.Carol Giacomo, “Polls Show Arabs Dislike Bush, See U.S. as a Threat,” Reuters, Feb. 8, 2007.
47.“Kuwait Marchers Slam Lebanon War, Back Hezbollah,” Reuters, Aug. 7, 2006.
48.The twenty-five countries were Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, China, Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Kenya, Lebanon, Mexico, Nigeria, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Russia, South Korea, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States.
49.Keith Sullivan, “Worldwide Poll Shows Most Dislike U.S. Policy,” The Washington Post, Jan. 22, 2007.
50.Rami Khouri, “The Great Arab Unraveling,” The Jordan Times, Mar. 2, 2007.