Admiral Thomas C. Hart assumed command of the United States Asiatic Fleet on 25 July 1939*, when relations with Japan were already strained by Japan’s continuing aggression in China and its sinking, a year and a half earlier, of an American gunboat, the Panay, on the Yangtze River. Relations did not improve with the passing of time and, along with its growing military might, Japan’s arrogance and insulting attitude toward most foreigners in China, particularly Americans, increased.
By late September 1940, the Japanese Army had moved into northern French Indochina to prevent war supplies from being routed through Hanoi to the forces of Chiang Kai-shek, and Japan had signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy. Among other things, the pact recognized Japan’s right to establish a new order in Asia, and pledged that the Axis partners would “assist one another with all political, economic, and military means if one of the others should be attacked by the United States.”
President Franklin D. Roosevelt responded by putting an embargo on the sale of scrap iron and steel to nations outside the British Commonwealth and the Western Hemisphere. Also, on 16 October 1940, he rushed through Congress a selective service and training act, under which sixteen million Americans registered for military duty.
To Admiral Hart, the handwriting was on the wall. He ordered the withdrawal of all major fleet units from China and, on 21 October 1940, permanently established his headquarters in Manila. From that time on, no ships of the Asiatic Fleet, other than the gunboats in China and an occasional navy transport, operated north of Philippine waters. In addition, when replacements for the marine detachments at Tientsin and Peking arrived in the Philippines, they were not sent forward. Later, this practice was applied to the Fourth Marines stationed at Shanghai, so that as the size of all marine detachments in China decreased, the number of marines in the Philippines increased.
During the latter part of 1940, relations with Japan seemed to be heading toward the point of no return. Bombastic politicians and others in America were mounting a barrage of threatening speeches, most of them unofficial, which were headlined in newspapers throughout the world. Hart viewed such pronouncements with alarm and wrote, “nothing is ever gained by threatening the Japanese, their psychology being such that threats are likely to wholly prevent their exercise of correct judgement.”* His main concern, however, was that inflammatory speeches would tend to put the Japanese on guard against preparations then being considered to shore up the pathetically weak military forces in the Philippines.
The admiral’s assessment of the situation in early November 1940, concurred in by the Navy Department, was that Japan intended further aggression which, in all probability, would be directed southward. This resulted in more than 2,000 naval dependents being evacuated from the Asiatic Station by the end of December 1940. Army dependents followed a few months later.
Hart’s spirits were bolstered in mid-November 1940, when he received a letter from Admiral James O. Richardson, commander in chief of the U.S. Fleet, stating that he was preparing, for possible dispatch to the East Indies, a detachment of four heavy cruisers, an aircraft carrier, nine destroyers, and four fast minelayers to operate under the command of the Asiatic Fleet.
By January 1941, all units of the Asiatic Fleet were engaged in extensive training to make them operationally ready for any eventuality. These exercises, conducted mainly in the southern Philippines, continued until the end of October. It was a rigorous period for all concerned because the ships were at sea most of the time and far removed from Manila. When they did return for other than needed overhaul, they stayed in port only long enough to replenish supplies and give their crews the relaxation of a few nights on the town.
It must be mentioned that the twenty-eight PBY seaplanes of Patrol Wing 10 and their four seagoing tenders were not exempt from the admiral’s training directive. Based at Sangley Point, across the bay to the south of Manila, the wing, unlike the rest of the fleet, never had anything to do with China. Its activities were confined to the Philippine Islands. Starting in the summer of 1939, when it was established, the wing, operating from tenders, conducted “neutrality patrols,” whose principal mission was to report on the movements of Japanese ships. It also explored anchorages that might serve as seadromes in the event of war. In 1941, drums of aviation gasoline and other essential supplies were cached at several of these sites.
Admiral Hart learned, in May 1941, that the reinforcements he had been told he might get—an aircraft carrier, plus cruisers, destroyers, and minelayers—would not be forthcoming. He did, however, receive twenty-three new fleet-type submarines, which, added to the six old S-boats he already had, gave his fleet a potentially powerful striking force. That same month, it became apparent that slowdowns in British and Dutch deliveries of oil to Japan were preventing the latter from obtaining the 1,800,000 tons per annum it needed to keep its war machine and economy from foundering. The flow of other essential raw materials from the south and southwest, controlled by the British and Dutch, was also becoming more and more restricted. Japan’s situation was, in fact, becoming desperate and, like a cornered rat, it would have to move quickly if it was to survive.
The Japanese made their first major move south on 24 July 1941. With no more than token resistance from the Vichy French, their army took control of all French Indochina, while their navy moved into the ports of Saigon, Tourane (now Da Nang), and Camranh Bay. To this, President Roosevelt reacted by ordering all Japanese assets in the United States frozen, and, joined by the British and Dutch, placed an embargo on oil to Japan.
The Navy Department on 20 November 1941 directed Hart that, in the event of war, he was to deploy his surface forces southward, Singapore being envisaged as the logical base for operations until heavy units of the Pacific Fleet arrived to support them. It was expected that within a few months the British would reinforce Singapore with an aircraft carrier, seven battleships, four heavy cruisers, and thirteen light cruisers. Two major warships, Britain’s most powerful battleship, the Prince of Wales, and the battle cruiser Repulse, were already en route to Singapore. Scheduled to arrive with them on 2 December was the new British aircraft carrier Indomitable, but she had run aground and was undergoing repairs. At the time, however, the British had only three destroyers in the Far East.
In early November, the Navy Department ordered Hart to withdraw the Fourth Marines from China, a move he had previously recommended. By 1 December 1941, about 750 of these marines had arrived in Manila. Combined with marines already there, they made a crack fighting unit of about 1,600 officers and men who eventually fought, died, or were captured in the defense of Bataan and Corregidor. It was too late to evacuate the marines and navy personnel left in China, and the passenger liner President Harrison, in attempting to do so, was captured by the Japanese.
In mid-November, intelligence reports that considerable numbers of Japanese Army transports were moving along the coasts of Indochina and China augured either reinforcement of the occupation forces in Southern Indochina or an advance into Thailand. There was, however, no significant intelligence on Japanese naval activity. At the same time, the State Department’s prolonged negotiations with Japanese Ambassador Kichisaburo Nomura and Special Envoy Saburo Kurusu in Washington, aimed at easing tensions in the Far East, appeared to be bogging down. In view of this, and convinced that Japan was planning more aggression to the south, Admiral Hart began to deploy his surface and air units to the southern Philippines and East Borneo. On 29 November 1941 he received the following ominous dispatch from the chief of naval operations:
This dispatch is to be considered a war warning. Negotiations with Japan looking towards stabilization of conditions in the Pacific have ceased and an aggressive move by Japan is expected within the next few days. The number and equipment of Japanese troops and the organization of naval task forces indicates an amphibious expedition against either the Philippines Thai or Kra Peninsula or possibly Borneo. Execute an appropriate defense deployment preparatory to carrying out the tasks assigned in WP-46. Inform district and army authorities. A similar warning is being sent by War Department. SPENAVO [Special Naval Observer, London] inform British.
Rear Admiral William A. Glassford, Jr., commander, Yangtze Patrol, who had been ordered to withdraw his ships and staff from China, arrived in Manila on 5 December. Two of the seven gunboats in his command, the aged Wake (PR-3) and Tutuila (PR-4),* had to be left behind, but the others steamed safely to Manila. The day Glassford arrived, in the gunboat Luzon (PR-7), the Yangtze Patrol was dissolved, and he was designated commander, Task Force 5, with the heavy cruiser Houston (CA-30) as his flagship.
That same day, Admiral Sir Tom Phillips, the new commander in chief of the British Far East Fleet, arrived in Manila for a secret two-day conference with Admiral Hart and Lieutenant General Douglas MacArthur, who on 28 July 1941 had been recalled to active duty and placed in command of the newly formed U.S. Army Forces, Far East. The discussions centered around the Royal Navy’s urgent need for two divisions of American destroyers. Only four destroyers accompanied the Prince of Wales and Repulse to Singapore, and two of the three others in Phillips’s command were assigned to the defense of Hong Kong. Hart, having but three divisions of destroyers in his fleet, could not fill this need. Nevertheless, the following day, when British reconnaissance aircraft reported that a large Japanese amphibious expedition was heading westward in the Bay of Siam, Hart immediately ordered one of his destroyer divisions to steam for Singapore.
During the conference, no plans were made for Allied ships to operate jointly in the event of war. Admiral Phillips was more concerned with using British ships to protect the sea supply routes, as well as convoys bringing supplies and reinforcements from the west to Singapore. Although British, Dutch, and American naval representatives in the Far East had been informally discussing joint operations for nearly two years, nothing definite had resulted. This was unfortunate because, when such cooperation became essential a month after the war began, a combined command had to be hastily thrown together, and was forced to operate on a day-to-day basis with no common signals or codes and little coordination between fleet units; much less between land, sea, and air forces.
By 6 December 1941, war with Japan was practically assured. The only question was where it would strike. Ships of the Asiatic Fleet, unlike those in the States, had close to full complements of well-trained crews. When war did erupt, they would be ready. It was a different story, however, with the land-based forces in the Philippines.
General MacArthur’s command was to consist, by April 1942, of a trained army of 200,000 men, most of them Filipinos, equipped with American tanks and heavy artillery and backed by an air arm of 256 modern bombers and 195 fighters. By the first week of December 1941, four months after its inception, this massive but belated effort to organize, build training facilities, and train recruits was progressing well. Nevertheless, MacArthur had only about 130,000 men, 100,000 of whom were recently inducted and poorly equipped Filipino trainees. Some heavy weapons, such as tanks and artillery pieces, had arrived, but not nearly enough of them. The air arm’s strength had reached only 35 B-17 bombers and 107 fighter planes. That more war supplies were en route was beside the point; the army under MacArthur was in no way prepared for war.
The shock wave of the Pearl Harbor attack hit the Philippines during the early hours of 8 December 1941. The gutting of Battleship Row meant the Asiatic Fleet, which had no aircraft carriers and was not structured to take on Japanese air and sea armadas in a knock-down, drag-out war, would have to go it alone. For air support it was dependent upon the army, but that too was denied when Japanese air strikes in the Philippines knocked out two-thirds of the fighters and more than half the bombers of MacArthur’s Far East Air Force.
Two days later, unopposed Japanese bombers destroyed the Cavite Navy Yard, thus eliminating the Asiatic Fleet’s only overhaul and resupply facility of any significance in the Far East. Facilities at the large British naval base at Singapore, however, were available, and there was comfort in the knowledge that Britain’s most powerful battleship, the Prince of Wales, and her battle cruiser the Repulse were stationed there. But once again disaster struck the Allied cause. On the same day the Cavite Navy Yard was devastated, the Prince of Wales and Repulse, rushing headlong without air support to break up a Japanese landing on Malaya, were intercepted by hordes of enemy bombers and sunk. Now Singapore itself was threatened and, if it fell, the only remaining facilities for servicing the fleet would be those of the small Dutch naval base at Surabaja, Java.
To understand the Asiatic Fleet’s situation, it is helpful to compare its composition with that of the force against which it was pitted. The ships in Admiral Hart’s command, discussed at length in later chapters, consisted of 1 heavy and 2 light cruisers; 13 destroyers, and their tender; 23 large fleet-type and 6 small S-type submarines, and 3 tenders; 28 PBY seaplanes, 10 single-engine utility seaplanes, and 4 tenders; 2 tankers; 6 motor torpedo boats; 6 minesweepers; 1 submarine rescue vessel; 1 fleet tug; and an assortment of coastal gunboats, river gunboats, yachts, and yard craft. The Japanese had available in Southeast Asia 10 battleships, 10 aircraft carriers, 18 heavy cruisers, 18 light cruisers, 113 destroyers, 63 submarines, and hundreds of land-based bombers and fighter planes.
These staggering odds against the Asiatic Fleet were little changed by the presence of Allied warships in Southeast Asia. The Dutch could provide only two light cruisers, a destroyer leader and seven destroyers, twelve submarines, and a few PBY seaplanes. Land-based air support for ships was nonexistent, because most Dutch fighter planes had been sent to help defend Singapore, and the few American P-40s that reached Java were soon destroyed. The British at Singapore, having lost two major warships, were hard pressed to protect their sealanes from the west, and what few cruisers and destroyers they could spare from other areas were used for that single purpose.
As a result of Admiral Hart’s foresight, every major ship in the Asiatic Fleet, with the exception of the submarine Sealion (SS-195), which was undergoing repairs when the Cavite Navy Yard was bombed and was sunk, and the submarine tender Canopus (AS-9), which was held in Manila to service submarines, escaped to the Netherlands East Indies.
To meet the Japanese threat as best he could, Admiral Hart, on 2 December 1941, had divided his fleet into two task forces. Task Force 1, under his command, was headquartered in Manila, from where he planned to fight his submarines and the PBYs of Patrol Wing 10. Task Force 5, to be commanded by Admiral Glassford, was comprised of the fleet’s two cruisers, all of the destroyers, and all other surface ships, save the submarine and seaplane tenders, which were needed to back up operations in the Philippines. It was planned that if war came, the ships of Task Force 5 would immediately withdraw southward and base at either Singapore or ports in the Netherlands East Indies, in spite of the fact that no arrangements for them to do so had been made with the British or the Dutch.
Admiral Thomas C. Hart, commander in chief, U.S. Asiatic Fleet, from 25 July 1939 to 4 February 1942. National Archives, 80–G–302284
The advent of war and the suddenness with which Japan seized control of the skies over the Philippines forced immediate changes in the composition of both commands. For example, the light cruiser Boise (CL-47), having recently escorted an army convoy from the United States to Manila, was still in Philippine waters and was ordered to join Task Force 5. With enemy bombers certain to destroy them, Hart ordered three large auxiliaries—the aircraft tender Langley (AV-3) and the tankers Trinity (AO-13) and Pecos (AO-6)—being refueled and resupplied, to clear out of Manila Bay the first day of war and head south to join up with ships of Glassford’s command.
Following the bombing of the Cavite Navy Yard, two of the fleet’s three submarine tenders—Holland (AS-3) and Otus (AS-20)—were also ordered to the Netherlands East Indies, leaving only the Canopus (AS-9) to service submarines in Manila Bay. In addition, Patrol Wing 10, which in less than a week had lost more than one-third of its PBYs to enemy action, was also ordered to bases in the Indies. Thus, by mid-December, all major units of the Asiatic Fleet, less the submarines and one tender, were operating under the direction of commander, Task Force 5.
Hart’s plans to fight his submarines from Manila Bay were seriously jeopardized when he had to make do with only one tender. However, all thought of operating submarines from Manila went by the board when Japanese troops landed on Luzon and, by 23 December 1941, were marching on the capital city. With his American and Filipino forces falling back to the Bataan Peninsula for a last-ditch fight and bombs falling on Manila, MacArthur had no recourse but to declare it, as of midnight 24 December, an “open city.” All American military and naval activities in Manila thereupon ceased, and Hart and his staff hastily moved to the island fortress of Corregidor.
All hope of safely basing units of the Asiatic Fleet in Manila Bay, or any other place in the Philippines, having been wiped out, Hart decided to establish new headquarters at Surabaja, Java. Accordingly, on the forenoon of 25 December, he turned over command of the few naval activities remaining in the Phillipines to Rear Admiral Francis W. Rockwell, commandant of the Sixteenth Naval District, whose command post was in a tunnel on Corregidor. That night Hart and members of his staff boarded the submarine Shark (SS-174) which, at 0200 on 26 December 1941, got under way for the Netherlands East Indies. Thus ended a legendary naval activity in the Orient for, since Admiral Hart’s departure, the flag of commander in chief, U.S. Asiatic Fleet, has not been flown on the old China Station.
Soon after Hart’s arrival in Java on 15 January 1942, American, British, Dutch, and Australian forces in the Far East were formed into a unified command known as ABDACOM. Its main headquarters were near Bandung, in the mountains of central Java. In overall command was British Field Marshal Sir Archibald Percival Wavell (ABDACOM); British Air Chief Marshal Sir Richard E. C. Peirse was in command of the air forces (ABDAIR); Dutch Lieutenant General Hein ter Poorten was in command of army forces (ABDARM); and in command of the sea forces was Admiral Hart (ABDAFLOAT). Hart had little, if any, control over British or Dutch ships, which were concerned with their own areas of operations. The British operated from Singapore west to Ceylon, the Dutch in the waters around Sumatra and the Java Sea, and the Americans were responsible for all the area east of Java, with boundaries stretching from northern Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago eastward past Halmahera to the western tip of New Guinea, and south to northern Australia. Admiral Hart, however, retained control of the Asiatic Fleet, whose surface ships operated under Admiral Glassford as commander, Task Force 5, and whose submarines were under Captain John Wilkes.
On 27 January the Navy Department unceremoniously deactivated the Asiatic Fleet and placed all its ships under the newly formed Southwest Pacific Command. Glassford, temporarily promoted to vice admiral, was designated commander, Southwest Pacific, a move that created considerable confusion: by direction from Washington, Hart remained the nominal commander in chief of the “deactivated” Asiatic Fleet, which was composed of the identical forces assigned to Glassford. This confused situation persisted until 14 February 1942, when Admiral Hart, ordered back to the States, was relieved as the ABDA naval commander by Vice Admiral Conrad E. L. Helfrich of the Royal Netherlands Navy. At that point, Admiral Glassford, as commander, Western Pacific, became the undisputed commander of all American naval forces in the Far East.
Singapore fell on 15 February 1942. Ten days later, Field Marshal Wavell, relieved of his ABDA command, departed for India, and the Dutch assumed full responsibility for the defense of Java. Admiral Helfrich became commander in chief of Allied naval forces in the Southwest Pacific. Although he was in a position to direct the movement of American, British, and Australian ships, protocol dictated that he do so only after consultation with the senior staff officers of each navy. Insofar as American submarines were concerned, however, he could not direct, only suggest.
The disastrous Battle of the Java Sea on 27 February 1942 broke the back of the ABDA fleet. On 1 March, with no warships or aircraft left to defend Java and with Japanese troops, supported by fighters and bombers, streaming ashore, Helfrich had no alternative but to dissolve the Allied command. Accordingly, he advised his senior staff officers to get out of Java, then wasted no time in making good his own escape.
Admiral Glassford, accompanied by Rear Admiral Arthur F. E. Palliser, RN, who was chief of staff to Helfrich, beat a hasty retreat to Tjilatjap, on the south coast of Java, and, under cover of darkness, departed the night of 1 March for Perth, Australia, in one of the three remaining PBY seaplanes of Patrol Wing 10. Soon after arriving in Perth, Glassford was ordered to turn over his Southwest Pacific command to Vice Admiral Arthur S. Carpender, USN, and, in so doing, he reverted to the rank of rear admiral.
The fall of Java ended the first phase of the war at sea with Japan. The little Asiatic Fleet, pressed into fighting a war it could not win, had sustained appalling losses; many of its officers and men were either dead or prisoners of the Japanese, and its few battered remnants were steaming for the safety of southwestern Australia. Two months later, when Corregidor fell, all of the fleet units left to fight in the Philippines were also sacrificed.
In the chapters that follow, the operations of the Asiatic Fleet in World War II are grouped by ship types, rather than recounted chronologically. The reason for this approach is that the Asiatic Fleet was not an integrated organization, as are the fleets of today. It was a collection of ships, submarines, and aircraft, all performing their separate missions. In fact, the only way one part of the fleet could find out what another part was doing was by illegally decoding their messages.
No attempt has been made to discuss in depth the political maneuvering and petty jealousies that resulted in the removal of the very capable Admiral Hart as commander of ABDA’s naval forces or the inept decisions of those charged with directing ABDA’s operations. These shortcomings are not within the purview of this work. They do, however, become self-evident as the stories of Asiatic Fleet losses unfold.
*To arrive at Pearl Harbor dates, subtract one day from all dates cited in this book.
*Hart, “Narrative of Events,” p. 8.
*Hull numbers are given with the first mention of each ship or boat. Please see “U.S. Asiatic Fleet, December 1941,” at the end of the text, for a complete list.