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A-77003
Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center
Abbott Laboratories
at AIDS conference in Berlin
diagnostic kits
Erickson and
finances
Goldwasser and
government funding and
history
NCI and
protease inhibitors and
Rathmann at
ritonavir and
ABI Prism 3700
“Achilles’ heel of HIV”
acyclovir
Adamson, John
adrenergic blockers
advertising
Agenerase
Agouron Pharmaceuticals
AIDS: in developing countries
epidemiology
in the media
public attitudes toward
task force to fight
AIDS activism
AIDS activist groups
AIDS activists
Merck’s relations with
AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG)
Abbott, ritonavir, and
AIDS activists and
clarithromycin and
combination therapy and
ddC and
financial incentive for companies to work with
functions
Ho and
Hoth and
Merck and
origin
Roche, saquinavir, and
AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT UP)
AIDS drugs: buyers clubs
combinations of
development of
high prices
problem of patient adherence
profits from
resistance to (see also HIV: mutations). See also specific drugs and drug classes
AIDS metaphor
AIDS patients: in New York City
surrogate markers
AIDS research: government funded
money spent by private industry on
AIDS test
AIDS vaccines
AIDS virus: discovery
sequencing of its genes. See also HIV
Allegra
allergy medicines. See also antihistamines
alpha-galactosidase
patent for. See also Fabry enzyme
Altman, Lawrence
Altman, Stuart
board members
American Society for Clinical Oncology (ASCO)
American Society for the Control of Cancer (ASCC)
Ames, Bruce
Ames test
Amgen
formation
Goldwasser’s joining
Lin at
marketing, sales, and finances
patent litigation fight with TKT
research
Vapnek as director of research. See also specific products
amino acid sequences
amprenavir
anemia. See erythropoietin
anesthetics
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors
antacids
antibiotics
antibodies
monoclonal
antihistamines
Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT)
antihypertensive drugs. See blood-pressure medications
antiviral drugs, market for
appetite suppressants
Applera. See Applied Biosystems
Applied Biosystems. See also PE Biosystems
Applied Molecular Genetics. See Amgen
applied research
funding for. See also under cancer research
Aranesp
Argonne National Laboratory
Ariad Pharmaceuticals
arsphenamine
arthritis
astimezole (Hismanal)
Astra Pharmaceuticals
AstraZeneca
atomic bomb, building
Atomic Energy Commission
Axys Pharmaceuticals
AZT (azidothymidine): Barr Laboratories’ license to manufacture and distribute
clinical trials
combined with other drugs
criticism of
FDA approval
history and development
patenting
price
safety tests
side effects and toxicity
Baltimore, David
Barney, Lawrence D.
Barr, David
Barr Laboratories
Barranger, John
Bayh-Dole Act (Bayh-Dole University and Small Business Patent Act)
Beckman, Arnold
Beckman Instruments
Berg, Paul
Berman, Robin Ely
beta-blockers
Bextra
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
Binder, George
Biogen
biotechnology revolution
Bishop, Michael
Black, James
black fever (leishmaniasis)
Blair, Henry
Blair, Tony
blood pressure
blood-pressure medications
Bobst, Elmer H.
Boger, Joshua
Bolognesi, Dani
Bowes, William
Boyer, Herbert
Brady, Roscoe
on Ceredase
Genzyme and
life history and background
and lysosomal storage disorders
research
Bragman, Keith
Brand, Mark
breast cancer
Breast Cancer Prevention Trial
Bristol-Myers Squibb
Broder, Samuel
Burnham, Duane
Burroughs Wellcome
patent suit against. See also AZT
Bush, Vannevar
businesses, small
Calhoun, David
California Institute of Technology (CalTech)
Canada
cancer: diagnostic techniques
dietary causes
environmental and toxic causes
epidemiology
genetic factors in (see also oncogenes); lung
ovarian
testicular
treatments (see also chemotherapy); viral causes
war on
Cancer Chemotherapy National Service Center
Cancer Letter, The
cancer lobby
cancer research
basic vs. applied/drug research
ethical guidelines. See also cancer: war on
capillary technology
Carson, Rachel
CD4 cells
celecoxib (Celebrex)
Celera Genomics
cell reproduction. See also DNA
Ceredase
cost
FDA approval
Cerezyme
Cetus Corporation
Chabner, Bruce
Chagas disease
chemotherapy: drugs administered along with
origin
targeted therapies
for testicular cancer. See also National Cancer Institute (NCI): drug development program
chemotherapy drugs
in the media
plant-derived (see also cancer research; specific drugs)
Childs, Starling
Chinese hamster ovaries (CHO) cells
chloroquine
Chockley, Nancy
Chodakewitz, Jeffrey
cholesterol-lowering drugs
Chow, Yung-King
chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)
cimetidine (Tagamet)
Cipla
cisplatin
Citizen’s Committee for the Conquest of Cancer
clarithromycin
Claritin (loratadine)
Clark, Paul
clinical trials
costs
recommendations regarding required
used for marketing. See also specific drugs
Clinton, Bill
Clinton administration
cocktail therapy. See AIDS drugs: combinations of
Coghill, Robert
Cohen, Stanley
Collier, Ann
Collins, Francis S.
“compassionate use”
competition between companies. See also me-too drugs
conflicts of interest
Conn, Doyt
contract research organizations
Cook-Deegan, Robert
Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA)
Corey, Lawrence
Crewdson, John
Crick, Francis
cyclo-oxygenase (Cox)
Cox-2 and Cox-2 inhibitors
cystic fibrosis
Danner, Sven
ddC. See zalcitabine
“dead body” trials
Delaney, Martin
DeLisi, Charles
Democratic Party
Department of Energy (DOE)
Depression, Great
desloratadine
Desnick, Robert J.
developing countries, diseases in
diabetes
dialysis. See kidney dialysis patients
Diamond, Aaron. See also Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center
Diamon, Irene
Dickinson, Becton
didanosine (ddI)
diet
diethylene glycol
DiMasi, Joseph E.
diphenhydramine (Benadryl)
diseases, rare
diuretics
DNA
attaching dyes to chain terminators
chemical method of identifying the order of bases in
DNA sequencing machine (see also prototype machine); model of double helix structure
replication process
ultra-thin capillaries for transporting fragments of
Dogmagk, Gerhard
Dole, Bob
Doll, John
Dovichi, Norman
Drews, Jürgen
Dreyer, William J.
drotrecogin alfa (Xigris)
drug applications: fees for new
normal vs. priority status
drug laws
drug prescriptions: inappropriate
number of
drug prices
compared with their benefits
new battle over pricing
price controls
reasons for high(er)
drug spending: annual national
runaway
drugs: costs of discovering new
generic vs. brand-name (see also“new and improved” drugs); with limited or no improvement over existing drugs
measuring new drugs against existing therapies
potential new
Druker, Brian
DuPont Pharmaceuticals
Ehrlich, Paul
Einhorn, Lawrence
Eisenberg, Rebecca S.
elderly. See also Medicare
Eli Lilly and Company
Elion, Gertrude
Embrel
Emini, Emilio
employers
enantiomers
Eng, Christine M.
entrepreneurial revolution
environmental toxins
enzyme replacement therapy. See also Ceredase; specific drugs
enzymes
missing
purification. See also protease
epidermal growth factor (EGF)
Epogen
Aranesp compared with
clinical trials
FDA approval
marketing and sales
price
reimbursement for
revenue generated by
Epstein, Samuel S.
Erbitux
Erickson, John
A-77003 and
Abbott and
background and career
description
and funding
HIV protease and
Kempf and
meeting with NIH
at NCI
X-ray crystallography and
erythropoietin (Epo)
Abbott and
Amgen and
anemia and
discovery of
Genetics Institute and
Goldwasser and
kidney dialysis patients and
Lin and
price
production
Rathmann and
recombinant
research on. See also Epogen
Eschbach, Joseph
esophagitis
estrogen blocking. See tamoxifen
etanercept. See Embrel
European Union (EU)
exercise
expressed sequence tags (ESTs)
Fabrase
Fabrazyme
Fabry disease
Brady and
Desnick and
Genzyme and
NIH funding for research on
Selden and
TKT and
Fabry enzyme
purification, production, and replacement (see also Fabrase). See also alpha-galactosidase
fast-track designation. See drug applications: normal vs. priority status
fat gene
Fauci, Anthony
Federal Technology Transfer Act of 1986
Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
Fischl, Margaret
Flavell, Richard
Fleming, Thomas
fluorescent tags
fluoxetine (Prozac)
folic acid
Folkman, Judah
food: contaminated
Food and Drug Act
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
accelerated approval
Antiviral Advisory Committee
cancer drugs approved by
Claritin and
Cox-2 inhibitors and
criticisms of
and drugs for rare diseases
Erbitux and
guidelines for drug approval
history
liberalization and reform
number of drugs approved by
Orphan Drug Development office
priority status
Freire, Maria
Frohlich, Edward D.
Furberg, Curt
G. D. Searle
Galambos, Louis
Gallo, Robert
Gambardella, Alfonso
gastritis. See also antacids
gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST)
Gates, Bill and Melinda
Gaucher disease
Genzyme and
Gaucher enzyme
GenBank
gene therapy
genes: activation
diseases caused by malfunctioning (see also specific diseases); mapping
chromosomes that contain
tumor suppressor
gene-splicing revolution
genetic engineering
Genetic Engineering Technology (Genentech)
genetic sequencing
automated
for commercial gain
high-speed sequencing. See also DNA: DNA sequencing machine
Genetics Institute
genome: mapping the human
race to complete the. See also Human Genome Project
Genzyme: Brady and
competition between TKT and
Desnick and
enzyme replacement therapy and (see also Ceredase);
Fabry disease and
FDA and
finances
Gaucher disease and
launched by Blair
NIH funding
Termeer and
Genzyme test
Gilbert, Walter
Gilmartin, Raymond V.
GlaxoSmithKline
Gleevec (ST-571)
Global Alliance for TB Drug Development
glucocerebrosidase: manufacturing
purifying. See also Ceredase; enzymes; Gaucher disease
glucocerebroside
Goldwasser, Eugene
Amgen and
Gilbert and
Jacobson and
legal battles
life history
Miyake and
problems funding his kidney research
rejected by Abbott Laboratories
research on Epo
search for and discovery of Epo
government: price controls (see also Medicare)
research funded by
role in technological innovation
government funding: for AIDS drugs research (see also specific drugs and drug companies)
government-funded inventions, pricing and commercialization of
Graham, Evarts
Groopman, Jerome
Grossman, Howard
Gurin, Samuel
Hale, Victoria
Harrington, Mark
Harris, Richard
Haseltine, William
Hassan, Fred
health care advocates
Health Care Finance Administration (HCFA)
Healy, Bernadine
heartburn
Helicobacter pylori
Her-2 (human-epidermal-growth-factor receptor-2)
Herceptin (trastuzumab)
Hewick, Rodney
Hirsch, Jules
Hismanal (astimezole)
histamine (H2) antagonists
histamines and histamine blockers
Hitachi
Hitler, Adolf
HIV: biology
markers (see viral load tests) mutations (see also AIDS drugs: resistance to)
rapid reproduction. See also AIDS virus
HIV protease
Hivid. See zalcitabine
Ho, David
Hoffmann-La Roche
ddC clinical trials
history
protease inhibitor program
saquinavir and
Holmer, Alan F.
Hood, Leroy
Horovitz, Zola
Horwitz, Susan
Hoth, Daniel
Howard Hughes Medical Institute
Hsu, Ming-Chu
Huang, Henry
Hueper, Wilhelm C.
Human Genome Project
government involvement in
Human Genome Day
Human Genome Sciences
human growth hormone
human-epidermal-growth-factor receptor-2 (Her-2)
Hybritech
Hygienic Laboratory
hypertensive drugs. See blood-pressure medications
ICI Pharmaceuticals
ImClone System
immune system. See also antibodies
Immunex
immunotoxin therapy
Incyte Pharmaceuticals
indinavir
inflammation
Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR)
Institute for Global Therapeutics
Institute for OneWorld Health
insulin
insurance companies
Intercompany Collaboration (ICC)
interferon
interleukin
interleukin 2 (IL-2)
International AIDS Conference: sixth (San Francisco)
ninth (Berlin)
Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC)
Ioannou, Yiannis
Iressa
Jackson, Dudley
Jacobson, Leon
Jaklevic, Joseph
James, John
Johnson, Lyndon Baines
Johnson and Johnson
Ortho-Biotech division
Jordan, Craig
Journal of the American Medical Association
Ju, Jingyue
kala azar
Karger, Barry
Kassebaum, Nancy
Kefauver, Estes
Kempf, Dale
Kennedy, Edward
Kennedy administration
Kessler, David
kidney dialysis patients. See also Fabry disease
kidney research, Goldwasser’s
kidneys
Kiley, Thomas D.
Kilgore, Harley
kinase proteins
Kineret
King, Mary-Clair
Kirin Brewery Company
Klugman, Jack
Koch, Robert
Kohl, Nancy
Kolata, Gina
Kramer, Larry
Krohn, Anthony
L-661
Landsberger, Frank
Larimer, David
Lasker, Mary
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Le Fanu, James
Lee, Philip R.
leishmaniasis (black fever)
Leonard, John
leptin
leukemia
chronic myeloid
Lev, Baruch
Levinson, Arthur
life expectancy, rising
lifestyle
Lin, Fu-Kuen
lipid levels
lipids
Little, Clarence Cook “Pete”
Long, Russell
loratadine (Claritin)
lung cancer
Lyden, Nicholas
lymphoma, non-Hodgkin’s
lysosomal storage disorders
M. D. Anderson Cancer Center
malaria
managed care
marketing expenses
Markowitz, Martin
Marshall, Barry
Marshall, Garland
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
Massengill and Company
Mathies, Richard
Maxam, Allan
Mayo Clinic
McCarthy, Joseph R.
McGowan, John
McGuire, William
McKinnell, Henry
mechlorethamine (Mustargen)
media
chemotherapy drugs in the. See also under AIDS
Medicaid
Medical Research Council (Britain)
Medicare
negotiation for reduced price of drugs
prescription drug benefit
Meduri, G. Umberto
Megabase
Memorial Hospital
Memorial Sloan-Kettering Hospital
Mendelsohn, John
Merck
commitment to combat AIDS
Cox inhibitors and
history
indinavir and
NNRTIs research
omeprazole, Astra, and
protease inhibitor research
relations with AIDS activists
streptomycin and
Merck, George W.
Merck
Merrell Dow
metabolic processes, patenting
methotrexate
me-too drugs. See also allergy medicines; antacids
Metzenbaum, Howard
Mexico
Meyers, Abbey
military research and technology
Mitsuya, Hiroaki “Mitch”
Miyake, Takaji
Molecular Dynamics
monoclonal antibodies
Montagnier, Luc
Moore, Francis
Mt. Sinai School of Medicine
Murad, Ferid
Murrow, Edward R.
mustard gas
Mustargen (mechlorethamine)
mycobacterium avium complex (MAC)
Myriad Genetics
Nacy, Carol
National Breast Cancer Coalition
National Cancer Act
National Cancer Institute (NCI)
Abbott and
advisory panel
and AIDS drugs
criticisms of
drug development program
Environmental Cancer Section
finances
Gleevec and
grant system
hunt for chemotherapy drugs
origin
as provider of clinical trials
purpose and direction
as research establishment focused on cancer biochemistry
research on natural products
shift in drug-hunting strategy
tamoxifen and
taxol and
UCSD cancer center funded by
National Cooperative Drug Development Grant (NCDDG)
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
National Institute for Health Care Management
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
AIDS and
allocation of funds
Brady and
creation
fear of getting involved in drug pricing
federal budget for
on gene patenting
grants
licensing activity
Office of Technology Transfer
purpose
reasonable pricing clause
technology transfer and
National Institute for Allergies and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)
AIDS activists and
AIDS program
and approval of AIDS drugs
Division of AIDS
interferon and
pharmaceutical assault on HIV
National Kidney Foundation
National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD)
National Science Foundation
natural products. See also under National Cancer Institute: research on natural products
Navia, Manuel
Needleman, Philip
Neely, Matthew
nelfinavir
Neupogen
nevirapine
“new and improved” drugs. See also drugs: generic vs. brand-name
New Deal
Nexium
NF-KB
Nissenson, Allen
Nixon, Richard M.
non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs)
nonprofit institutions
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
Norbeck, Daniel
Norvir
Novartis Pharma AG
nucleic acid molecules
nucleosides. See also reverse transcriptase inhibitors
obesity gene
Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases (Hueper)
Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD)
Committee on Medical Research
Office of Technology Transfer, NIH
Olshansky, Jay
omeprazole (Prilosec)
oncogenes
One World Health. See Institute for One World Health
Operation Shark Fin
opportunity cost of capital
Oracle Corp
Oroszlan, Steve
Orphan Drug Act
Orphan Drug Law
orphan drugs
development
Orphan Medical of Minnetonka, Minnesota
ovarian cancer
painkillers
Parke-Davis
paromomycin
Parran, Thomas
Pastores, Gregory
Patent and Trademark Office (PTO)
patent laws: recommended modifications of. See also Bayh-Dole Act
patenting: biological/metabolic processes
genes
life forms
research converted into intellectual property
patent(s)
criteria for obtaining
search for new drugs to replace ones coming off
Patient Bill of Rights movement
Patrinos, Aristides
PE Biosystems. See also Applied Biosystems
PE Corporation
Pearl, Laurence
penicillin
Perelman, Ronald
Perelson, Alan
Pernet, Andre
Pfizer
pharmaceutical firms: mergers between
outsourcing tasks
revenue and profits
Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers Association (Pharma/PhRMA)
Pharmacia
pharmacoeconomics
placentas
platinum
polio vaccine
political campaign contributions to pharmaceutical industry
Politics of Cancer, The (Epstein)
pollution
in the media
Praexis Pharmaceutical
Prasit, Peppi
Prescription Drug User Fee Act (PDUFA)
price controls
Prilosec (omeprazole)
Procrit
Progressive Era legislation
Prontosil
propranolol
prostaglandins
protease. See also HIV protease
protease inhibitors
Abbott and
cross-resistance
FDA approval
government-funded research on
price
side effects. See also specific drugs
protein sequencing machines. See also DNA: DNA sequencing machine
proteins and biotechnology
proton-pump inhibitors
proto-oncogenes. See oncogenes
prototype machine
Prozac (fluoxetine)
Public Citizen/Congress Watch
public health methods of disease control
Public Health Service’s Hygienic Laboratory
public interest groups
public opinion
Pure Food and Drug Act of
Quincy (television show)
Quinn, Mary Jean
raloxifene (Evista)
randomized clinical trials (RCTs). See clinical trials
ranitidine (Zantac)
Rathmann, George
Reagan, Ronald
Reagan administration
recombinant DNA engineering
recombinant Epo
red blood cells. See erythropoietin
Reimers, Niels
renin
renin inhibitors
Replagal
research: applied (see applied research); government vs. private funding for. See also specific topics
research-and-development spending
as reason for high prices
Retrovir. See AZT
retroviruses
reverse transcriptase
reverse transcriptase inhibitors
Rezulin
rheumatoid arthritis
Rhoads, Cornelius “Dusty”
ritonavir
Abbott’s license to sell
clinical trials
combined with other drugs
effectiveness
FDA approval
HIV mutations and resistance to
patenting
price and sales
problems with
synthesis
RNA
Roberts, Noel
Roche. See Hoffmann-La Roche
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research
Roosevelt, Franklin D., Jr.
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano
Rosenberg, Barnett
Rossmann, Michael
Rous, Peyton
Rutgers Research Foundation
Sachs, George
Salgo, Miklos
Salk, Jonas
Salser, Winston
Sanger, Frederick
saquinavir
clinical trials
combined with other drugs
effectiveness
FDA approval
price
reproduced by Merck
resistance to
side effects and other problems with
Schering-Plough
Schiffmann, Raphael
Schlager, Seymour
Schoellhorn, Robert A.
Schuler, Jack W.
science, basic/pure: research in (see also under cancer research)
Scolnick, Edward M.
Searle, G. D.
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
Seldane (terfenadine)
Selden, Richard
Sepracor
sepsis/septic shock
Sequella Foundation
Sharer, Kevin
Shaw, George
Shepard, Michael
Sigal, Irving
Silent Spring (Carson)
Silverman, Milton
single-capillary machine
Sinsheimer, Robert
Slamon, Dennis
Sloan-Kettering Institute
Smith, Kline, and French
Smith, Lloyd M.
smoking
SNP Consortium
SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms)
Soo, Whaijen
Special Virus Cancer Program (SVCP)
Specter, Arlen
Stark, Pete
statin drugs
Steinberg, Wallace
Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act
Stodolsky, Marvin
Stokes, Donald E.
stomach acid wars
streptococcus
streptomycin
sulfa drugs
sulfanilamide
Sullivan, Louis
Sulston, John
Supreme Court
Surgeon General
surrogate markers
Swanson, Robert
swelling
Synergen
Tagamet (cimetidine)
Takeda Chemical Industries
tamoxifen
TAP Pharmaceuticals
Tartikoff, Brandon
tatIII and tat inhibitors
tax deductions for research and development
Taxol
adverse effects
discovery
effectiveness
FDA approval
price
research on
supply and production
Taylor, Susan
Taylor, William
3TC
technology-transfer policy
open-door. See also Bayh-Dole Act; Federal Technology Transfer Act
Temin, Howard
Temin, Peter
terfenadine (Seldane)
Termeer, Henri
testicular cancer
thalidomide
third-world. See developing countries
Tibotec
tiered payment plan
TMC
tobacco industry. See also smoking
Tobacco Industry Research Committee
Tobey, George, Jr.
tranquilizers, minor
Transkaryotic Therapies (TKT)
trihexosidase-alpha
Tufts University Center for the Study of Drug Development
tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
tumor suppressor gene
tyrosine kinase inhibitors
ulcers. See also antacids
Ullrich, Axel
United Nations (UN)
universities: discoveries made on government grants
University of California at San Diego (UCSD)
vaccine(s): AIDS
development
polio
Vagelos, P. Roy
Vapnek, Daniel
Varmus, Harold
Vasella, Daniel
Venter, J. Craig
Vertex Pharmaceuticals
Viagra
vinblastine
vincristine
Vioxx
Viracept. See nelfinavir
viral load tests
Vitetta, Ellen
Volwiler, Ernest H.
Wade, Nicholas
Waksal, Harlan
Waksal, Samuel
Waksman, Selman
Waldholz, Michael
Wall Street: biotechnology revolution on (see also biotechnology revolution); gene patents and
Walpole, Arthur
war-time research
Watson, James
Waxman, Henry
Weinberg, Robert A.
Whitcombe, Phil
White, Tony
Whitfield, Roy
Witte, Owen
Wlodawer, Alex
Wolfe, M. Michael
Women’s Field Army
World Health Organization (WHO)
World War II
Wyden, Ron
Wynder, Ernst L.
Xigris (drotrecogin alfa)
X-ray crystallography
commercialization
Yarchoan, Robert
Young, Frank
zalcitabine (ddC)
clinical trials
combined with other drugs
companies competing to develop
FDA approval
NCI and
side effects
zidovudine. See AZT