Palladio

The enduring fame of Andrea Palladio (1508–80) – who gave his name to an entire style – rests largely on the beautifully proportioned town and country villas he built for rich patrons in and around Venice. As a young man he visited Rome and absorbed the styles of antiquity, particularly the proportions of Greek and Roman temples; he later assimilated the style of the Mannerist Michele Sanmicheli (1484–1559). From his first designs around 1540, Palladio’s signature elements became apparent, including paired flanking wings for stables and barns, walled courtyards and arcaded pavements, as well as impeccably symmetrical colonnaded façades. His designs did not call for expensive materials; stuccoed brickwork, hinting at Roman classicism, was a common feature. Published later in life, his Four Books of Architecture (1570), summarizing his studies of classical forms, gained him wide recognition, and his Antiquities of Rome (1554–6) was for 200 years the standard guidebook to the city. The timeless appeal of Palladian style would be eagerly taken up in 18th-century England.

Villa Foscari near Venice, Palladio, 1558–60

Palladian style

Based on Palladio’s designs and theories, the Palladian style found its greatest expression in Britain during the 17th and 18th centuries, peaking in fashion during the Georgian era, c.1715–60. With emphasis on clarity, order and symmetry, Palladianism asserted the primacy of reason and the principles of classical antiquity (leading, in the work of some later architects, to a rather sterile academic formula devoid of Palladio’s own forcefulness and poetry).

Palladian buildings include churches, country houses, palaces and civic buildings, usually with plain, symmetrical exteriors and richly decorated interiors. Common elements include porticoes, grand staircases, rusticated ground floors, giant Corinthian columns supporting entablatures, semicircular arches, scallop shell motifs, and pediments over exterior doors and windows. The style was established in Britain by Inigo Jones (1573–1652), William Kent (1685–1748) and Richard Boyle (1694–1753), and its legacy is apparent in neoclassical and baroque architecture.

Chiswick House London, William Kent, 1726–9

Inigo Jones

Inigo Jones was one of the greatest English architects of his era. After returning from travels in France and Italy (1613–14), he developed his own unique style from a blend of ancient, Renaissance and Palladian architecture. His plain, dignified designs for the Queen’s House at Greenwich (1635)were based to some extent on the Medici villa at Poggio a Caiano, near Florence, but detailed in a style closer to Palladio or Vincenzo Scamozzi (1552–1616). The Queen’s House, the severely classical Banqueting House in Whitehall (1619–22) and the Queen’s Chapel at St James’s Palace (1623) were radically different from the picturesque Jacobean style of the day. With their focus on symmetry and harmony, directly inspired by Palladio’s Four Books of Architecture, Jones’s designs sparked a revolution in English architecture. He was also in charge of the regulation of new buildings in London; his Covent Garden (1630), an open space surrounded by arcaded houses and a church (opposite, dubbed ‘the handsomest barn in England’), effectively introduced formal town planning to the capital.

Domes

The Roman development of concrete made it possible to build large, hemispherical domes. These became a major feature of Byzantine churches, especially once builders began using pendentives or squinches (corner supports) to mount them on rectangular buildings. Because of their comparatively shallow shape, Roman domes are sometimes described as ‘saucer’ domes. Islamic architects often created pointed or bulbous domes – such as on the Taj Mahal at Agra, India – which can be compared to the onion-shaped dome used in Russia, Germany and eastern Europe. In Italy, both Brunelleschi and Michelangelo designed double-shelled domes that were hemispherical internally, but slightly pointed externally to direct the weight more downward than outward; both the inner and outer domes rest on a circular drum, which is often set with windows. St Paul’s Cathedral in London is a triple-shelled dome. Compound domes are groups of multiple domes on one building, as seen on, for instance, St Basil’s in Moscow. Generally, domes are crowned with a lantern or cupola.

Interior dome of St Peter’s Basilica, Rome

St Basil’s Cathedral

Built in 1555–61 on Moscow’s main marketplace by the order of Ivan IV the Terrible (1530–84), the Cathedral of Vasily the Blessed – St Basil – was a symbol of the might of Russia and its tsars, commemorating Russian victory over the Mongols at Kazan in 1552. The architect is not known, though the names Barma and Posnik are cited. The colourful variegated onion domes have become a symbol of Moscow, and of Russia as a whole, though they are in fact 17th-century replacements for the original helmet-shaped domes

Although the building looks asymmetrical from the outside, the interior follows a formally structured plan, with the main church in the centre and eight chapels arranged evenly around it. Each side chapel has its own distinctive tower, surmounted by a dome, and is connected to the others by narrow winding passages. While the style of the church appears unique, some elements resemble those in the wooden churches built in northern Russia in previous eras.

Humayun’s tomb

The first example of Mughal architecture in India was the Tomb of Humayun (1508–56), the second Mughal emperor. Built in Delhi, it was commissioned by his widow, Bega Begum (1511–82), who was also buried there. Designed and built by the Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, it was also the first Mughal structure to use red sandstone on such a scale. Construction began in 1566 and continued under the reign of Humayun’s son, Akbar the Great (1542–1605).

White marble was used for cladding, flooring, lattice screens (jaalis), door frames, eaves (chhajja), and for the double-shelled main dome, which stands 47 metres (154 ft) high and 91 metres (299 ft) wide. Set on a high, square platform, the tomb is the focal point of a garden divided formally into four quarters, each of which is then subdivided into nine. This quartered garden is a Persian representation of paradise, with flat surfaces separated by ornamental streams, paved pathways and avenues of trees. Humayun’s tomb directly inspired the design of the Taj Mahal.

Blue Mosque

The Blue Mosque in Istanbul is arguably the last great mosque of the classical period of Ottoman architecture (1437–1703). Its correct name is the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, but the popular title comes from the blue paint and 21,043 Iznik tiles, which cast an atmospheric glow. Designed by Sedefkar Mehmed Agha (c.1540–1617) on the site of the former Roman hippodrome, the mosque amalgamates some Byzantine elements of the neighbouring Hagia Sophia with traditions of Islamic architecture. With one main dome, six minarets and eight secondary domes, the Blue Mosque is surrounded on three sides by a marble courtyard, which includes an imperial lodge, double-height shops and a theological college. The main dome is 43 metres (141 ft) high and 23.5 metres (77 ft) in diameter. The interior is illuminated by over 260 stained-glass windows and hundreds of oil lamps hung from the ceilings. The Iznik ceramic wall tiles are decorated with flowers, fruit and cypresses, marble paving covers the floors, and the mihrab (a niche indicating the direction of Mecca) is also of fine marble.

Taj Mahal

Expanding on design traditions of both Persian and Mughal architecture, the Taj Mahal near Agra was inspired by love and grief and took over 20,000 workers 22 years to build. In 1631, the fifth Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (1592–1666) ordered the mausoleum to be built for his late wife, Mumtaz Mahal (1593–1631), who had died giving birth to their 14th child. Wanting the mausoleum to be more beautiful than anything ever built, he rejected red sandstone as its main fabric, which had become the primary Mughal building material, and chose instead white marble, decorated with inlay work of semi-precious and coloured stones. The Persian chief architect, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, designed it to be perfectly symmetrical: a square building in the centre of a marble plinth almost 6 metres (20 ft) high and 96 metres (315 ft) square, with a huge double-constructed central dome. The inner dome is 24 metres (79 ft) high, and the central octagonal structure beneath it is surrounded by a two-levelled passageway with an octagonal tower at each corner. A raised rectangular pool reflects the building serenely.

Baroque

The first truly international movement in architecture and art, the baroque style originated in the early 17th century in Rome, then spread across Italy and to Spain, France, Germany and Britain, and later to Scandinavia, Russia and parts of South America, lasting until the mid-18th century. Extending ideas of the Renaissance, the style manifested in different ways in different countries. As part of the Counter-Reformation, it was a singular attempt by the Catholic Church to strengthen its image, show its power and make a strong emotional and sensory appeal to the faithful through art and architecture. Characterized by sweeping curves, complex plans, trompe l’oeil, drama, grandeur and dramatic effects of light and shade, the style also features highly decorated interiors and rich surface treatments that blur the lines between architecture and art. Many baroque buildings feature bright colours and vividly painted ceilings. The word comes from the Portuguese barocco, meaning misshapen pearl, and was applied to the movement retrospectively.

Church of St Nicholas, Prague, 1703–52

Bernini, Borromini and da Cortona

Prominent baroque architects included Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598–1680), Francesco Borromini (1599–1667) and Pietro da Cortona (1596/7–1669). Early on, they worked together on the Palazzo Barberini, which had been started by the architect Carlo Maderno, but they became fierce rivals. Bernini was also the greatest sculptor of the baroque, as well as a painter and poet; his sculpture and buildings epitomize the flamboyance, theatricality and splendour of the period. Among many prestigious commissions were his contributions to St Peter’s in Rome: the large piazza in front of the basilica, an immense gilt-bronze baldachin (canopy) over St Peter’s tomb inside, and the decoration of the four huge piers supporting the dome, plus grand statues. Borromini, originally a mason, challenged tradition with audacious combinations of elements and proportions. Cortona’s church of Santi Luca e Martina (opposite, 1634) was one of the first curved façades in baroque Rome, with closely packed composite orders, while his Santa Maria della Pace has an unexpected, temple-like semi-oval portico.

Venice

Venice’s architecture developed as a fusion of Italian, Byzantine and Islamic ideas. Sculptor and architect Jacopo d’Antonio Sansovino (1486–1570) introduced High Renaissance architecture there, particularly in his Biblioteca Marciana (1537–60) and mint (1537–45), facing the Doge’s Palace (opposite). Palladio declared that the library, with its 21-bay arcade and barrel-vaulted staircase, was the finest building erected since antiquity. Scamozzi extended Sansovino’s library and completed Palladio’s San Giorgio Maggiore and Teatrico Olimpico after their deaths. His treatise The Idea of a Universal Architecture, along with buildings such as the Palazzo Contarini (1609–16), provide a link between the High Renaissance and the baroque. Baldassare Longhena (1598–1682), who trained with Scamozzi, completed his Procuratie Nuove in St Mark’s Square. His Santa Maria della Salute shows the influence of Palladian classicism, while its huge dome is anchored by massive baroque scrolls to an octagonal base, and his Ca’ Pesaro (begun 1659) exemplifies the Venetian baroque.

François Mansart and Jules Hardouin-Mansart

Henry IV’s entry into Paris in 1594 as king of France heralded a period of political and social aspiration. Architecture reflected this, with the bourgeoisie commissioning country houses – châteaux – and town mansions, or hôtels. By the mid-17th century, the baroque style had found expression in the form of palaces, first in France with the Château de Maisons (opposite, 1651) near Paris, built by François Mansart (1598–1666), and later across Europe. Most of Mansart’s patrons were those who had prospered in the service of the crown. His buildings are elegant and harmonious, as can be seen in his Château de Blois (1635–8); his extensive use of a four-sided, double-slope roof, with dormer windows, lent its name to the mansard roof.

Adopting his grand-uncle and teacher’s surname, Jules Hardouin-Mansart (1646–1708) served as Louis XIV’s chief architect. He enlarged the royal château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and from 1675 added extensions to Versailles, including the Grand Trianon, the Orangerie and the fifth chapel.

Versailles

Starting life as an extension of Louis XIII’s hunting lodge in 1623, the Palace of Versailles was built for Louis XIV, the ‘Sun King’, from 1668 to 1710. The main architects were Louis le Vau (1612–70) and Hardouin-Mansart, whose many collaborators included landscape architect André Le Nôtre (1613–1700) and painter Charles Le Brun (1619–90). Versailles grew into one of the world’s largest palaces, the summit of French baroque, embodying the absolutism of the monarchy. Standing more than 400 metres (1,300 ft) long, the palace takes the form of a grand central block and two flanking wings set around a central courtyard. The complex includes five chapels, the Grand Trianon (1687–8), the Pavilion Français (1749) and the Petit Trianon (1762–8). The Hall of Mirrors (Galerie des Glaces), the palace’s glittering central gallery, is one of the most famous rooms in the world. The palace, its decoration and extensive grounds stimulated a rebirth of decorative art. From 1682 to 1789, approximately 3,000 people, including the king and the entire French royal court, lived at Versailles.

Melk Abbey

Towering over the River Danube in Lower Austria, Melk Abbey was commissioned by the abbot Berthold Dietmayr (1670–1739). It follows the designs of Jakob Prandtauer (c.1660–1726), and was completed in 1736 after his death by his nephew, Joseph Munggenast (1680–1741). The Benedictine abbey, church and monastery is the largest in Austria and Germany, standing as a bastion of Catholicism and exemplifying the spirited approach to the baroque taken by its country’s architects. On the site of a previous 11th-century abbey, the imposing ochre-and-white stuccoed building features a grand dome topped by an exotic lantern, with a curved façade emphasized by two onion-domed bell towers. Planned around a central axis 320 metres (1,050ft) in length, the main building is flanked by outbuildings, including the huge marble abbey hall and a double-storey library. Elaborately painted ceilings, gilded decoration and sculpture feature throughout, created by Johann Michael Rottmayr (1656–1730), Paul Troger (1698–1762), Lorenzo Mattielli (1687–1748) and Peter Widerin (1684–1760).

Christopher Wren

Although best known as an architect, Sir Christopher Wren (1632–1723) was also an expert in anatomy, astronomy, mathematics, geometry, mechanics, biology and optics. After founding the Royal Society and reading Vitruvius, he took an interest in architecture and in 1665 visited Bernini in Paris. At the time, the profession of architect did not formally exist, and it was not unusual for well-educated gentlemen to take it up as a branch of mathematics. His first project was the chapel of Pembroke College in Cambridge, commissioned by his uncle, the bishop of Ely, in 1663, but he is remembered best for St Paul’s Cathedral (1674–1710). He had been involved in repairing the old cathedral since 1661, and in 1666 he designed a dome for it – but within a week, the Great Fire destroyed the building along with most of London. So Wren designed a new cathedral, along with the entire City of London, including several new churches. Wren also built the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford (1663), the Royal Hospital at Greenwich (opposite, 1696–1742), and the Wren Library at Trinity College, Cambridge (1676–84).

Hawksmoor

Nicholas Hawksmoor (1661–1736) was a leading architect of the English Baroque, along with Wren and Vanbrugh. He helped design some of the finest buildings of the period, including St Paul’s Cathedral and Hampton Court Palace, but also made his own singular contributions.

Raised in Nottinghamshire, Hawksmoor became clerk to Wren at age 18. From c.1700, he helped Vanbrugh at Castle Howard (where he designed the Mausoleum, opposite) and Blenheim Palace. He designed London churches, including Christ Church, Spitalfields and St George’s in Bloomsbury, its pyramidal steeple a clue to his unusual taste for pagan symbols. He also designed university colleges – notably in the heart of Oxford, where he added a Gothic flavour to All Soul’s College (1716–35) to integrate it with the adjacent medieval buildings, and conceived the Clarendon Building (1711–15) in the neoclassical style. One of his last commissions was for Westminster Abbey, where he designed the great towers flanking the western front.

Vanbrugh

Architect, soldier, playwright and politician John Vanbrugh (1664–1726) was, with Hawksmoor, the leading exponent of the English Baroque style, demonstrating it abundantly in two colossal palaces. The first, Castle Howard in Yorkshire (opposite, 1702–12), won him instant acclaim as well as his next commission, Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire (1705–22). He later designed Seaton Delaval, Northumberland (1718–28).

Though still untrained when he took on Castle Howard, Vanbrugh had an inherent grasp of architecture, particularly in creating a sense of grandeur and drama, and many of his buildings incorporate elements from castles, such as battlements and towers. He also blended medieval and classical forms with traditional English ideas. It is possible that he was influenced by the French Baroque style while imprisoned in France for espionage (1688–93). All his buildings were collaborations with Hawksmoor, who provided the practicality that Vanbrugh needed to realize his ambitious designs.

St Paul’s Cathedral

Until the late 20th century, St Paul’s Cathedral was the tallest building on London’s City skyline, designed by its architect, Sir Christopher Wren, to tower over the spires of his other city churches. Its location on Ludgate Hill has been a site of worship for over 1,400 years. Wren’s cathedral, completed in 1708, replaced Old St Paul’s, destroyed by the Great Fire of 1666. A synthesis of medieval, Gothic, classical and baroque styles, its commanding feature is the dome rising 111 metres (365 ft) to the spire at its summit. Built on a Latin cross plan, St Paul’s has a classical portico at each end. Wren was familiar with the unique octagonal lantern tower of Ely Cathedral (where his uncle was bishop), which spans the aisles as well as the central nave. He adapted this for St Paul’s dome, which is raised on a tall drum surrounded by pilasters and pierced with windows in groups of three, separated by gilded niches. Echoing St Peter’s Basilica in Rome, the dome is double-shelled, with a load-bearing brick core. The west front is based on the eastern façade of the Louvre, designed by Claude Perrault (1613–88).

Johann Neumann

Johann Balthasar Neumann (1687–1753) was a late baroque architect working mainly in the towns of Würzburg and Bamberg in Bavaria. His original style amalgamated Austrian, Bohemian, Italian and French elements, creating commanding and well-balanced buildings, and he introduced the new rococo style to his interiors.

Neumann’s work was exceptionally precise yet light-hearted, playful and colourful, with none of the heaviness of some baroque architecture. He used symmetry and harmony to create astonishing visual effects, mainly for churches and palaces such as the Würzburg Residenz (1720–44, opposite). Domes and barrel vaults enhance the illusion of elegance, while light streams through huge windows onto lavish ornamentation, murals and gilding. His Wallfahrtskirche or ‘pilgrim’s church’ (1730–9) in the town of Gossweinstein was a colossal sandstone building with two high towers facing the town. His final work, the Marienkirche at Limbach (1747–52), is a masterpiece of the baroque style.