Rococo

Emerging from the gilded splendour of the Palace of Versailles (1623–82), the rococo developed as a lavish, decorative style in contrast with the baroque preceding it. The name derives from the French word rocaille, which described the shell-covered rock-work used to decorate artificial grottoes, and coquille, meaning seashell. Rococo architecture is light-hearted and frivolous, with abundant curves, scrolls, gilding, elements of fantasy and ornament. Where the drama of the baroque emphasized balance and stability, rococo was graceful and fluid, and accentuated asymmetry. Outstanding examples include the Catherine Palace in St Petersburg (1717–23), designed by Johann-Friedrich Braunstein, the Queluz National Palace in Portugal (1747–92), designed by Mateus Vicente de Oliveira (1706–86), and the Chinese House in Potsdam, Germany (1738), designed by Emmanuel Héré de Corny (1705–63). Other notable rococo architects include Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700–71), Philip de Lange (c.1705–66) and Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann (1662–1736).

Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, Ouro Preto, Brazil, 1766

The Wieskirche

One of the most famous works of rococo architecture, the Wieskirche in Steingaden, Germany, was built in 1745–54 to house a dilapidated wooden statue of the Scourged Christ that in 1738 had been seen by several locals to shed real tears. As pilgrims arrived from all over Europe to see the miraculous statue, the local abbot decided to commission a special shrine. Local artists and architects Dominikus Zimmerman (1685–1766) and his brother Johann Baptist (1680–1758), designed a confection of a building, chiefly white and gold, and filled with elaborately curving and gilded stucco and colourful paintings. The church is oval in plan, with columns in front of the walls supporting a cut-out cornice and wooden vaulting. To the east, a long, deep choir is surrounded by an upper and lower gallery. Dominikus, in charge of the project, ensured that all the elements worked together – so for instance, the building harmonizes with the surrounding landscape, and the trompe-l’œil ceiling paintings appear as an iridescent blue sky with flying angels, contributing to the atmosphere of exuberance.

Neoclassicism

The shift in thinking known as the Enlightenment marked a period of intellectual, social and political zeal that began in France in the early 18th century and rapidly spread abroad. Developments in printing had increased literacy among the middle classes, and ideas developed in nearly every aspect of life, including education, economics, law, science and social and political reform. The key terms for the age became order, balance and harmony, and once again the virtues of ancient Greece and Rome were seen as the height of discernment. Neoclassicism was also inspired by discoveries in the 18th century of two ancient Roman cities beneath volcanic ash from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. It signalled a return to order and rationality after the theatrical baroque and the frivolous rococo (although its earliest traces were apparent in baroque buildings, such as St Paul’s Cathedral). Neoclassical architecture is characterized by grandeur of scale, simplicity and geometric forms, Greek or Roman detail, dramatic use of columns and a preference for plain white walls.

Vilnius Roman Catholic Cathedral, Lithuania (1769–83)

Parisian Neoclassicism

Neoclassicism had surfaced in architectural design late in Louis XVI’s reign, emerging more fully during the first Napoleonic Empire as architects experimented with a range of civic buildings. It had begun with the Church of Saint Genevieve – or the Panthéon – in Paris (1756–97), designed by Jacques-Germain Soufflot (1713–80), which combines the purity and magnificence of Greek architecture with the lightness and daring of Gothic construction. This unorthodox interpretation of classical forms became even bolder leading up to the French Revolution, with the Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans (1775–8), designed by Claude-Nicolas Ledoux (1736–1806), and the Arc de Triomphe (1806–36), by Jean Chalgrin (1739–1811). The Place de la Concorde, an octagon spanning 359 x 212 metres (1,176 x 696 ft), bordered by the River Seine to the south and neoclassical buildings to the north, was designed by Ange-Jacques Gabriel (1698–1782) in 1755; Pierre-Alexandre Vignon (1763–1828) designed the Church of the Madeleine (c.1842, opposite), a monumental temple-like building with Corinthian columns.

Neoclassicism in Britain, Germany and Russia

In newly industrialized Britain, architects such as John Nash (1752–1835) and John Wood the Younger (1728–82) reshaped London and Bath with neoclassical streets, crescents and parks. Sir John Soane (1753–1837) designed the Bank of England (1792); and Sir Robert Smirke (1780–1867) created the British Museum (begun 1823). Robert Adam (1728–92) designed country houses in his own detailed and unique interpretation of the classical style.

German neoclassicism was inspired by the writings of Johann Winckelmann (1717–68) and supported by Friedrich Wilhelm II of Prussia. It emerged through architects such as Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781–1841), who designed Berlin’s many-columned Altes Museum (1823–30), and Carl Gotthard Langhans (1732–1808), whose Brandenburg Gate (1793) was based on the Propylaea of the Acropolis. In Russia, meanwhile, Catherine the Great commissioned Charles Cameron (1745–1812) to design the Pavlovsk Palace (opposite, 1782–6), and Giacomo Quarenghi (1744–1817) to plan the Alexander Palace (1812).

Neoclassicism in the USA

By the late 18th century in the United States, ancient Greek and Roman architectural styles had become very popular as they were expressive of the young nation’s democratic ideals. The Capitol, with its neoclassical façade and dome, is attributed to William Thornton (1759–1828), Benjamin Latrobe (1764–1820) and Charles Bulfinch (1863–44), and was begun in 1793, following Thornton’s plan. Inspired by the Louvre and the Panthéon in Paris, the building is centred on a grand entrance (opposite), framed with projecting wings and accentuated by vertical columns. Initially timber, the dome and rotunda were later rebuilt in stone and cast iron. The third US president, Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), drew upon Palladian and classical ideals in his designs for the Virginia State Capitol (1788), the Rotunda at the University of Virginia (1822–6), and Monticello House (1768–1809). The White House in Washington DC was designed by James Hoban (1758–1800), following his Charleston County Courthouse (1790–2); Jefferson and Latrobe added the east and west colonnades, for laundry and stables, in the 1900s.

Beaux-Arts

France had been one of the first countries to create a formal system of architectural training with the founding of the Académie Royale d’Architecture in 1671. Although the academy was closed during the French Revolution, its function was revived in the École des Beaux-Arts, which Napoleon opened in 1803. Developed from the teachings at the new school, Beaux-Arts – ‘fine arts’ – architecture is an ornate classical style that spread rapidly, emerging in public buildings around the world.

Beaux-Arts architecture focused on symmetrical plans and drew inspiration from classical styles. It often features slightly oversized details, high rusticated basements, deep cornices, and recessed arches and pediments that are commonly adorned with reliefs. The Paris Opéra (1860–75, opposite), designed by Charles Garnier (1825–98), and the Petit Palais (1896–1900) by Charles Girault (1851–1932) – both students of the École des Beaux-Arts – embody the style.