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absorption spectrum, 94
Adams, Roger, 183, 184
aerobic glycolysis (Warburg effect), xviii
Africa, absence of cancer in, 25–26, 27, 28, 29, 106, 210
aging, and cancer, xix, 21–22, 148, 296
agriculture:
development of, 82
organic, 209
production in, 88–89, 235, 236, 237
and soil depletion, 235
AKT (oncogene), 261–63, 290
Aktion T4 (Nazi killing program), 159
alcohol, fermentation of grains for, 82
aldolase (zymohexase), 167–68
Allen, Frederick, 283
American Cancer Society, 270–71, 280
American Diabetes Association, 280, 315
Ames, Bruce, 219, 228–29
Ames test, 219
amino acids, 10, 48, 72, 219
ammonia, 236–37
Andrews, Peter, 319
androgens, 297
animal fat hypothesis, 310
anthrax, 153, 265
antioxidants, 294, 302–3
anti-Semitism, see Jews
apoptosis, 253–58
Arabia, absence of cancer in, 25
Arctic, absence of cancer in, 26–28, 106, 279
Ardenne, Manfred von, 268, 327
Aretaeus of Cappadocia, 277
Arrowsmith (Lewis), 11
artificial sweeteners, 310
Aryanization, via German Blood Certificate, 159–62, 166–67, 185
asbestos, 228
Asia, absence of cancer in, 28, 106, 210, 279, 309
athreptic immunity, 40–42
Atlantik Hotel, Hamburg, 110
Auler, Hans, 163
Baltzer, Fritz, 4
Banting, Frederick, 281, 293
Bauer, Julius, 284
Bayliss, William, 321
BCL-2 proteins, 253, 256
bees, epigenetic change in, 264–65, 317
beet sugar industry, 304–5, 307, 310, 323
Benson, Andrew, 220–22
benzoyl peroxide, 104, 137
beriberi, 146
Berlin, cultural and intellectual life in, 90
Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 332
Berliner, Arnold, 101
Berlin Olympic Games, 125, 128
Berlin Physiological Society, 153
Berlin Wall, 268, 332
Berson, Solomon, 282–83, 315
“between ferment,” 147
Bevis, Brooke, 254
bicarbonate effect, 302
biochemistry:
building on “outdated theories” in, 252–54, 255–56, 260–62, 294
Warburg’s innovations in, 82–83, 95, 150, 253, 294
Biokhimiya, 183
biological warfare, 203
Bircher-Benner, Max, 176
Bishop, J. Michael, 245–46, 247, 248, 274
Bismarck, Otto von, 154
bladder cancer, 211
Blaschke, Hugo, 174–75, 176
Bliss, Michael, 293
Blitzed (Ohler), 324
Bloch, Eduard, 30–32
blood pressure, 315
blood sugar, see glucose
body fat, see obesity
body weight, 240
Boston Globe, 128
Bouhler, Philipp, 159–62, 171
Boveri, Theodor, 3–6, 15, 35, 46, 58, 61–62, 91, 246
Brack, Viktor, 159, 161–63, 164, 187
Brandt, Karl, 140
Braun, Eva, 177
breast cancer, xx, 289, 291, 297, 309, 310, 319
Brown, Guy, 145
Bücher, Theodor, 170–72
Bueb, Julius, 323
Burk, Dean, 192
on glucose and Warburg effect, 285, 287
on insulin-cancer link, 285–87, 288
at National Cancer Institute, 77, 193, 286
as tireless Warburg champion, 77, 192, 193
Warburg’s communications with, 222, 245, 326
and Warburg’s publications, 230
and Warburg-Weinhouse disagreement, 201
Butenandt, Adolf, 133, 200
Cahill, George, 287
Calle, Eugenia, 270–71
Cameron, Gladys, 198–99
Campbell, George, 279
cancer:
and aging, xix, 21–22, 148, 296
and asbestos, 228
avoidable, 228
and bad luck, 247, 297
causes sought in, xvi-xviii, 23, 30, 91–92, 103, 137, 155, 174, 218, 223, 225–27, 232, 269, 285, 296–97; see also specific causes
cells transformed into, xviii; see also cancer cells
as common disease, xix, xxi
cure for, 247
death rates, xix, 21–23, 25, 30, 101–2, 104, 105, 218, 224, 277, 297
as defining illness of our time, xix
and diabetes, 277–87
diagnosis of, xviii, xix, 22–23, 31, 167, 174, 224–25, 296
and diet, see diet; food
as disease of bad information, 5
as “disease of civilization,” xx, xxi, 25–30, 102–3, 104, 107, 109, 140, 210, 218, 219, 279
and energy, 245
environmental links to, xx, 103, 138, 208–10, 212–14, 228–29, 246–47
fear of, 208, 218, 324
feeding studies, 86–87, 287, 316
and fructose, 315–16, 318–21
and glucose, see glucose
and growth processes, 50, 285
harmless, 290
in history, xvii, xix, 28–29
“hunger cures” for, 233
increases in, xix-xxi, 21–23, 101–2, 105, 211, 218, 224–25
in indigenous populations, 25–29, 106, 279
and inflammation, 297
and insulin, 284–87, 288–300, 318
and KRAS, 296
and lifestyle, xx, 107, 210
as metaphor, 108, 140, 163, 164, 325
metastasis, 266
in migrant populations, 210
and mutations, xvii, 219, 246, 276, 288, 290, 295–96
Nazi war against, 137–38, 150, 163, 174, 185, 217, 351
and nutrition, 40, 42, 230–35, 237–40, 289
and obesity, xx-xxi, 233–35, 270–72, 289, 297, 300
and oncogenes, xvii, 245–46, 247, 249, 260, 261–63
One in Eight (film), 102, 213
paradigm of hormone dependency, 204
and PI3K, 276, 288, 289, 290, 296, 297, 299
population studies of, 25–29, 104, 106, 210, 279, 309
prevention of, 223, 230, 247, 267, 269–70, 298, 300
and PTEN, 276
and radiation, 198, 202, 214, 295, 302
research on, see cancer research
and respiration, xvi, 6, 84–85, 146–47, 150, 155, 199, 222–23, 267
risk factors of, 210
and sex hormones, 285, 297
shaped by chromosomes, 5, 6
signaling networks, 262, 294, 297
and smoking, 218, 223–28, 229, 232, 246, 271, 296, 322
and sugar, 307, 309–11, 318–22
and sun exposure, 296
traveling exhibit about, 102, 106
treatment of, 37–38, 42, 202–3, 205–6, 223, 230–31, 267, 269
and “tumorlike” growths, 5, 285
types and forms of, 22–23; see also specific cancers
viruses in, 86, 218, 245, 297
and Warburg effect, see Warburg effect
Cancer and Diet (Hoffman), 105–6, 107, 233
“cancer bacillus,” 91–92
cancer cells:
in abdominal fluid, 196–97, 201, 222, 261
adaptability of, 269
and catalase, 302–3
and cell death, 258
compared to weeds, 238
fermentation of glucose by, xv-xvi, xviii, 50, 82, 84, 85–86, 260, 262, 267, 274
insulin receptors in, 291, 296
metabolism of, xv, xvii-xviii, xx, 245, 250, 268
overeating by, xxi, 80, 258, 263–64
starving, 268–69, 290
cancer research:
Cantley’s work in, 274–77, 289, 318–19
cyclical interest in, xvi-xix, 240, 250, 253, 254, 261
diet as focus in, 300
genetic approach to, xviii, xx, 15, 245–46, 297
inducing cancer in animals, 39
metabolic approach to, xviii, 15, 52, 206, 223, 238, 240, 245–46, 250
Nazi “war against cancer,” 137–38, 150, 163, 174, 185, 217, 351
new discoveries in, 300
on obesity, 270–72, 297
occupational carcinogenesis, 212
on sea urchins, see sea urchins
siloed fields of, xxi, 297
Thompson’s work in, 258, 260–63, 264, 266, 269, 295
Warburg’s work in, xv-xix, 23–24, 49, 50, 101, 106, 143–51, 160–61, 162, 166, 167, 171, 186–87, 189, 195, 196–97, 198–200, 208, 213–14, 244, 250, 266–67, 295, 299–300, 321; see also Warburg effect
Weinhouse’s findings vs. Warburg’s, 200–202, 206, 221
Cantley, Lewis:
cancer research of, 274–77, 289, 318–19
on insulin-cancer connection, 277, 284, 287, 288–90, 294, 297, 301, 318
sugar studies of, 318–19, 322
at Weill-Cornell, 258, 274, 299
carbohydrates:
derivation of name, 305
and diabetes, 300–301
fat from, 315–18
and insulin resistance, 315, 317–18
and ketogenic diet, 298
low-carbohydrate diet, 42, 298, 300–301
and sugar, 304–5; see also fructose; glucose; sucrose; sugar
and tumor growth, 42, 237
carbon dioxide, 82, 220
carbon monoxide, 93–94
carcinogens, see cancer, causes sought in
Carlsberg Laboratory, Copenhagen, 197
Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring, xvi, 212–14, 217, 218
Cassel, Simon von, 128–29
“Causes of Cancer, The” (Doll and Peto), 228, 229, 231, 232, 233, 239, 270
cells:
and apoptosis, 253–58
“braking systems” of, 276
chemical bonds to, 34, 35–36
as chemical laboratories, 11
“death by neglect,” 257
death of, 253–58
differentiated, 199
entire genome carried in DNA of, 264
epigenetic changes in, 264–65
epithelial, 52, 263, 294
eukaryotic, 255
fermentation by, xv-xvi, xviii, 82, 85, 222
fuel for, xvii, xviii, 40, 42, 44, 80
growth by division, 4
growth factors of, 257–58, 259, 267, 297
insulin resistant, 283
life or death of, 256
metabolism of, xv, xxi, 223, 245, 250
in multicellular organisms, 258
mutations in, xvii, 219, 247, 251, 262, 290, 294, 295, 296
and natural selection, 265
organized death (“programmed cell death”) of, 253, 257
overeating, 262–63, 267, 270
reprogramming, 296
respiration of, 15, 16, 50, 81, 93–95, 101, 145–46, 150, 214, 267, 319
transformed to cancer, xviii; see also cancer cells
undifferentiated, 199
Center for Disease Control, 271
certainty, dangers of, xxii
Chamberlain, Houston Stewart, 58–59
Champ, Colin, 298
Chance, Britton, 260–61
Chancellery of the Führer, 159, 160, 161, 171
Chandel, Navdeep, 255, 256, 257
Charles, Daniel, 235–36
chemicals:
artificial, xvi, 23, 92, 137, 138, 198, 210–14, 218–19, 227, 228–29, 310
and DuPont, 211
synthetic dyes, 36, 39, 62, 144, 211
chemotherapies:
and catalase expression, 303
coining of term, 34
Ehrlich’s development of, 34, 35–38, 51, 167, 203
how they work, 205–6
and “magic bullets,” 36, 205
specificity sought in, 37–38, 144, 203
Vander Heiden’s study of, 269
Chernow, Ron, 129
Chicago Sunday Tribune, 12
Chile, nitrogen in, 236
Chi Van Dang, 247–50, 252, 258, 262, 268–69, 296
cholera, germ as cause of, 154, 213, 226
cholesterol, 315
Christian, Walter, 167
Christofk, Heather, 298
chromosomes:
and cancer, 5, 6, 246
new life formed from, 5
studies of, 4, 6, 35
Civil Service Law, 114–17, 125
Clean Air Act, 212
Clean Water Act, 212
coenzymes, 146–48, 149–50, 151, 171, 231, 267
Cohen, Aharon, 279–80
colorectal cancer, xx, 289, 309, 319
Committee on the Treatment of War Gas Casualties, 205
concentration camps:
absence of cancer in, 174
Auschwitz, 186
Dachau, 141–43, 209
extermination programs in, 159, 169, 176, 204, 205, 208, 323
gardens in, 141–42
Jews sent to, 116, 141, 168, 170
medical experiments conducted in, 143, 186
political prisoners in, 114, 123, 141
Sobibor, 169
consumption (TB), germ as cause of, 153–54, 157, 213
Copernicus, 13
corn: high-fructose corn syrup, 310, 318
Correns, Carl, 62
Crick, Francis, xvii, 244
cyanide, 48, 93, 323
cytochrome c, 255–56
“cytochrome c oxidase” (respiratory ferment), 294
Dachau concentration camp, 141–43, 209
Dahlem, Germany:
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in, ix, 187, 195–96
Warburg’s postwar life in, 208, 245, 303
Dang, Chi Van, 247–50, 252, 258, 262, 268–69, 296
Dang, Mary, 247
Darwin, Charles, 59, 88
Darwinian competition, 296, 327
Davidson, Norman, 133
DDT, 218
Deelman, H. J., 107
Delbrück, Max, 186
Denman, Thomas, Observations on the Cure of Cancer, 232
Der Spiegel, 223, 245
Der Stürmer, 140
Dessau Works for Sugar and Chemical Industry, 323
diabetes:
and cancer, 277–87
and diet, 279, 297–98, 300–301
and insulin, 277–81, 283–84, 287, 316
and overweight, 280
and population studies, 279–80
rise in deaths from, 277
and sugar, 307–9, 321
type 1 diabetes, 280, 281, 282–83
type 2 diabetes, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 287, 293, 316
and Western lifestyle, 279
diet:
animal fats and meat, 310
and cancer, 86, 103–4, 105–7, 138–41, 175, 210, 228, 230–40, 246, 270–72, 289, 298–300, 309
and diabetes, 279, 297–98, 300–301
disease cured by, 149
and growth, 238
and insulin, 297–301
low-calorie, 233
low-carbohydrate, 42, 298, 300
as medicine, 299
nutritional deficits in, 104
overeating, 232–35; see also obesity
and quackery, 298
sugar in, 309
vegetarian, 108, 109, 110, 139–40, 174–75, 209
disease:
causes of, 153–55, 156, 213, 218, 226
foodborne, 296
germ theory of, 30, 152–57, 213, 226
spread by contaminated air, 152
and sugar consumption, 307
see also specific diseases
DL-glyceraldehyde, 268
DNA:
and cancer-causing genes, 245, 295–96
damaged, 5
in every cell, 264–65
genes and gene products of, 360
replication of, 206, 247
structure of, xvii, 244
DNA code, 360
Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 50
Doctor Faustus (Marlowe), 1, 15, 69, 179, 241
Dohrn, Anton, 4
Dohrn, Antonietta, 158
Doll, Richard, 223–29, 322
and Hill, on smoking and cancer, 225–28
and Peto, “The Causes of Cancer,” 228, 229, 231, 232, 233, 239, 270
on sugar and cancer, 309
doppelgänger, 314–15
DuPont laboratories, 211
dwarfs, studies of, 292
Eastman Kodak Company, 149
eating, unrestrained, xviii; see also overnutrition
eggs, development of, 6
Ehrlich, Paul, 33–38, 153–54, 287, 291
and athreptic immunity, 40–41
and chemical dyes, 36, 39, 62, 104, 144, 211
chemotherapy developed by, 34, 35–38, 51, 167, 203
death of, 62
and hormones, 284–87
and immune system, 40, 41
influence on Warburg of, 37, 152
living in two worlds, 41
magic bullets sought by, 36–38, 40, 41, 144, 154, 203, 211, 299
“nucleus of truth” for, 40
syphilis treatment developed by, 41
on transplanted tumors, 39–41, 86
Eichmann, Adolf, 157, 165
Einstein, Albert, 90, 199, 200, 306
and Civil Service Law, 116–17
discoveries of, 49, 191, 222
and Germany’s descent into Nazism, 79, 116–17, 121
on personal possessions, 99, 101
and Planck, 114
and Warburg’s departure from military service, 63–64
and Warburg’s family, 7, 8, 63
and Warburg’s father, 7, 9, 79, 191
on Warburg’s relationships with colleagues, 91
electron transport chains, 294, 295, 296
Elizabeth of Austria, Empress, 51
Elon, Amos, 57
Elsinore castle, and Hamlet, 197–98
Elvehjem, Conrad, 149
Emergency Association of German Science, 73
Emerson, Haven, 307–8, 322
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 188
Emerson, Robert, 187–93, 192, 197, 201, 222, 307
Emperor of All Maladies, The (Mukherjee), xvii, 29, 298–99
Endangered Species Act, 212
endocrinologists, 297
endometrial cancer, 270
energy:
cell’s use of, 50, 86
generation of, xvi
transfer from light to matter, 49, 187, 190–91
Enlightenment, 57, 58
environmental movement, 208–10, 212–14, 218, 228–29, 232
Environmental Protection Agency, 218
enzymes:
and cellular breathing, 145–46
coenzymes, 146–48, 149–50, 151, 231, 267
cytochrome c, 255–56
in fermentation, 167
“housekeeping,” xvii
lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), 249–50
and metabolism, 144, 262, 269
“respiratory ferment,” 45, 93, 145–46, 151, 206
“Warburg’s yellow enzyme,” 146–47
epidemiology, 226–29, 231
epigenetic change, 264–65, 317
epithelial cells, 52, 263, 294
esophageal cancer, 289
estrogen, and cancer, 285, 297
“Eternal Jew, The” (mythical folkloric figure), 134–35
eugenics, 103
eukaryotic cells, 255
evolution, 50, 145
evolution in reverse, 199
fat, body, see obesity
fat “overload hypothesis,” 317–18
fat production, 316–18
fats, structure of, 315
Faust (Goethe), 101
Faust, metaphorical figure of, 15, 134, 299, 328
“ferment,” Warburg’s use of word, 45
fermentation, 82–87
in agriculture, 82
as backup process, 83
carbon dioxide emitted in, 82
by cells, xv-xvi, xviii, 82, 85, 222
energy of, 84, 263
and fructose, 319
of glucose, xv-xvi, 50, 82, 84, 85–86, 167, 251, 260, 267
LDH in, 249
as “life without air,” 83
and MYC, 250
and nicotinamide, 148
and overeating, 239–40, 267
respiration vs., 83, 84–85, 144, 155, 196–97, 199, 200–202, 267
scientific studies in, 143, 249
sugar’s support of, 305
“Fight Against Cancer, The” (traveling exhibit), 102
Fischer, Albert, 238
Fischer, Emil, 9–11, 20, 43
on amino acids, 10, 72
and carbohydrates, 304, 305
death of, 91, 307
and sugars, 304–7, 310
on unlimited possibilities in science, 10–11, 15
Warburg’s studies under, 9–10, 72
foie gras, 316
food:
additives in, 104, 137, 141, 208, 210, 219, 231
availability of, 86–87, 265–66
burning without fire, 94
in combinations, 231–32
consumption of, 44, 240
cooked, 109, 175, 231
labeling of, 215
molecules from, 44–45
natural, 175–76, 209, 231
organically grown, 209
and photosynthesis, 62, 72, 195, 235
preservatives in, 104, 106, 208, 210
production of, 88–89, 142, 195
and respiration, 44
vitamins in, 146–47
“whole,” 210
see also diet
Food and Health (Plimmer and Plimmer), 307
Fouché, F. P., 26
Franck, James, 7–8, 190, 193–94, 326
Franklin, Rosalind, xvii, 244
Franz Ferdinand, Archduke, 54
free radicals, 294, 295
Free University of Berlin, 245
Freon, 211
Freund, Ernst, 51–52, 87, 238–39
Metabolic Therapy of Cancer, 238, 277
Friedrich, Crown Prince, 238
Friedrich III, Kaiser, 51, 52–53
fructose, 306–7, 308, 310–11, 315–16, 318–21
Fuller, Clint, 220–22
Gairdner International Award, Canada, 318
Galen, 44, 277
gallbladder cancer, 270
Gardening and Ploughing without Poison (Seifert), 209
gas:
cyanide gas, 323
in Holocaust gas chambers, 159, 176, 204, 205, 323
mustard gas, 204–6
nitrogen gas, 236
in warfare, 61, 73, 114, 203, 204, 205, 211, 235
Zyklon B, 177, 204, 205, 323
gene expression, 265, 296
“gene products,” use of term, 360
genes:
allowing cells to eat, 259
DNA molecules in, 244
mutations in, 246, 270, 288
oncogenes (cancer-causing genes), xvii, 15, 245–46, 260, 261–63
tumor suppressors, 263, 276
use of term, 360
gene sequencing, 299
genetics, 244, 297
Georgius of Helmstadt, 15
German Armed Forces, High Command, 166
German Blood Certificates, 159–62, 166, 185
German Physical Society, 117
German Society for Cancer Research, 105
Germany:
anti-Semitism in, see Jews
cancer deaths in, 21–23, 102
cancer research in, 137–38, 160, 166, 245
Civil Service Law in, 114–17, 125
diet in, 103–4, 209, 235
economy of, 90, 113
fear of cancer in, 208, 324
“first guilt” and “second guilt” of, 208
food production in, 88–89, 142
homosexuality as crime in, x, 76, 170
industrialization of, 58, 78, 102, 107
inflation in, 78
international reputation of, 125
Kristallnacht in, 133–34
land (Lebensraum) sought by, 88–89, 163
nationalism in, 38, 58, 65
Nazis in, see Nazi Party
nitrogen in, 235–37
Nuremberg Laws, 124–26, 157, 162
Post-World War II years in, 181
post-World War I years in, 71–73, 78–79
reparations payments by, 78, 79
Romanticism in, 58, 102–3, 106, 135, 214
science as preeminent in, 20–21, 33, 92
Soviet Union invaded by, xv, 163–64
synthetic dyes in, 36, 62, 211
“the Wandering Jew” (folklore) in, 134–35
and Treaty of Versailles, 72, 78, 79
uhlan (cavalry) of, 59, 60, 61, 72, 120
Volkssturm in, 172–73
and World War I, 53, 54, 56–57, 59–62, 114, 203, 211
and World War II, 53, 89, 172–73, 174, 185
germs, fear of (germaphobia), 156
germ theory of disease, 30, 152–57, 213, 226
Gilman, Alfred, 205
Giordano, Ralph, 208
Giovannucci, Edward, 289
glucose:
basic recipe of, 305
as blood sugar, 308, 311, 315
cancer cell consumption of, xv, xviii, 42, 85, 199, 251, 262, 272
carbohydrates broken down to, 42, 237
and diabetes, 280–81, 282–85
in DNA and protein synthesis, 285
elevated levels in blood, 52, 272
and epigenetic change, 265, 266
fermentation of, xv-xvi, xviii, 50, 82, 84, 85–86, 251, 260, 262, 267, 274
and fructose molecules, 306–7, 308, 311, 315
and insulin, 284
metabolism of, 296
and Warburg effect, 263, 285, 287
glucose deprivation, 268
Glum, Friedrich, 96, 129
glutamine, 269, 296
glycolysis, xviii, 126
Gobineau, Joseph Arthur de, 58
Goebbels, Joseph, 108, 140, 163
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, Faust, 101
goiters, 104
Goldberger, Joseph, 149
Goldblatt, Harry, 198–99, 252
Goldfeder, Anna, 237
Goodman, Louis, 205
Göring, Hermann, 161, 162–63, 168
Graham, Evarts, 225, 227
Great Depression, 323
Greenland, Sander, 232
guano deposits, 236
Gutmann, Hugo, 67
Haas, Erwin, 119, 120
Haber, Fritz, 7, 121
ammonia developed by, 236–37
death of, 204
and gas warfare program, 114, 203, 204, 205, 211, 235
resignation from Kaiser Wilhelm Society, 114, 203–4
Haffner, Sebastian, 114
“Hallmarks of Cancer, The” (Weinberg), 251
Hammarsten, Einar, 99
Harris, Henry, 331–32
Hatzivassiliou, Georgia, 264
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 88
Heisenberg, Werner, 128
Heiss, Jacob, 216
and customs officials xi, xii
death of, 332
lifestyle of Warburg and, 97–99, 167, 169, 172, 173, 208, 214, 215, 243, 245
move to U.S., 188, 189, 190
as Warburg’s assistant, 75–77, 193, 194, 197, 221, 303
and Warburg’s death, 331–32
hemoglobin, 40, 93
Heroes of Civilization (radio), 127–28
Herzl, Theodor, 168
Hess, Rudolf, 140, 209
Heubel, Emil, 33–34, 35
Hill, Austin Bradford, 225–28
Hill, A. V., 93–94
Himmler, Heinrich, xiv-xv, 161, 162, 164
and Dachau, 141–43
death of, 174
health issues of, 140
interest in diet, 140–42, 176, 209
and Nazi war against cancer, 174
Hindenburg, 145
Hindenburg, Paul von, 113, 116
Hippocrates, 110
Hitler, Adolf, 68, 112, 143
anti-Semitism of, 79, 88, 114–15, 122, 124–25, 156, 157, 176, 324
and Aryanization, 160, 162
birth of, 155, 325
and cancer, xxi, 107, 108, 138, 140, 155, 162, 324–25
diet as focus of, 138–40, 142, 174–75, 209
fear of death, 108
final days of, 174–77
and German nationalism, 65
as Germany’s “first guilt,” 208
and germ theory of disease, 155, 213
health issues of, 176
and his mother’s illness and death, 30–32, 64, 67, 108
homelessness of, 64–65
hypochondria of, 108–11, 138–39, 155–56
instability of, 115, 138, 324
Iron Cross awarded to, 66
and Koch, 154, 155–57
Lebensraum sought by, 88–89, 163, 237
madness of, 324
Mein Kampf, 66, 90, 108, 138, 155, 156, 204
Nobel Prize forbidden to Germans by, 171
and Nuremberg Laws, 124, 125, 162
and Operation Barbarossa, 163–64
and Planck, 113–15
public speaking by, 87
rise to power, 57, 87–88, 111, 113–14, 127, 217
as smoker, 227–28
sugar addiction of, 323–25
vague beliefs of, 87–89
vulgarity of, 119, 121
and Warburg, xiv, 116, 163–64, 183
and World War I, 65–67, 89, 204
and World War II, 172
Hitler, Klara (mother), illness and death of, 30–32, 64, 67, 108
Hoffman, Frederick, xix, 104–7
Cancer and Diet, 105–6, 107, 233
on diabetes, 278
The Mortality from Cancer throughout the World, 24–25, 104
racism of, 25
Holocaust:
denial of, 208
as “Final Solution,” 165–66
and Kristallnacht, 133–34
start of, 164
see also concentration camps
Hopkins, Sir Frederick Gowland, 198
Hopkins Seaside Laboratory, Stanford University, 54
hormones, 284–87, 289
growth hormone, 292
IGF-1, 291–92, 297
paradigm of hormone dependency of cancer, 297
Hrdlička, Aleš, 26, 28
Hueper, Wilhelm C., 210–13
on artificial chemicals, 211–13, 227
influence of, 212–13, 214, 217
Nazi sympathies of, 217, 218
Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases, 212
racism of, 217–18
Huggins, Charles B., 285
Hunter, Jehu, 286
Hutton, Samuel, 27
hydrogen, activation of, 145–46
Hygiene Museum, Dresden, 102
hyperinsulinemia, 284, 292, 294, 300
IDH-2 enzyme, 269
IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor 1), 291–92, 297
immortality, possibility of, 39
immune system:
athreptic immunity, 40–42
and mustard gas attacks, 204–5
and organized death of cells, 252–53, 257
and transplantation failures, 39, 40
immunology, 37, 252, 257, 258
Imperial Physical and Technical Institute of Germany, 47, 49
inflammation, 297, 317
Institute for the History of German Jews, 166
insulin:
and cancer, 284–87, 288–300, 318
and diabetes, 277–81, 283–84, 287, 316
and diet, 297–301
discovery of, 281, 293
and epithelial cells, 294
excess, 292
and fat “overload hypothesis,” 317–18
and glucose, 284
as growth factor, 289, 290, 291–92, 297
hyperinsulinemia, 284, 292, 294, 300
and IGF-1, 291–92, 297
and metabolism, 287
and obesity, 283–84, 289
and Warburg effect, 285, 287, 290, 321
insulin resistance, 283, 315, 317–18, 320, 323
insurance companies, life expectancy data of, 234–35
International Congress of Physiology, Zurich, 132
Japanese Americans, internment of, 188
J.D. (Polish victim of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma), 205
Jews:
anti-Semitism, 57–58, 62, 78–79, 88, 101, 108, 114–17, 118, 122–27, 128, 137, 140, 151, 156–57, 170, 176, 217, 224, 227, 324
assimilation of, 58, 157, 160, 165
attempts to prove “Aryanhood,” 160–61
and Civil Service Law, 114–16, 117, 125
in concentration camps, see concentration camps
conversion to Christianity required of, 57, 114, 292
deportations of, 157, 171, 174
and Enlightenment thinking, 57, 58
and “Final Solution,” 165–66
fleeing Germany, 117, 120, 122, 149, 151, 174, 204
forced out of jobs, 114–16, 119–20, 126, 157, 158, 174, 237
and Holocaust, 164, 165–66
and Kristallnacht, 133–34
legal cleansing of Jewish blood via German Blood Certificates, 159–62, 166, 185
Mischlinge, 125–26, 151, 157–58, 160, 162, 165–67, 170, 185, 208
as “non-Aryans,” x, 58, 124–25
and Nuremberg Laws, 124–26, 157, 162
and Passover, 82
and Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 79
restrictions on, 11, 57, 114, 124–26, 132–33, 157–58, 217
and Romanticism, 58, 106, 135
“Schutzjuden” (protected Jews), 129
Sephardic, 292
sterilizations of, 157, 161, 165
traveling exhibit about, 134
“the Wandering Jew” (folklore), 134–35
and World War I, 56, 58, 62, 64
and Zionism, 56, 131, 168, 315
Johnson, James, 292–93
Johnson, Richard, 319–20
Jokl, Ernst, 331
Joslin, Elliott, 278, 308, 311, 322
Journal of Medical Research, 42
Kaaks, Rudolf, “Nutrition, Hormones, and Breast Cancer,” 289
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology, 130, 186, 244
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biochemistry, 127, 133, 186
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology, 72–75, 96, 203
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Cell Physiology:
bomb damage to, 168, 172
building of, 97, 100
funding of, xiii, xiv, 96–97, 98, 101, 116, 121–22, 123, 127, 157, 185
Nazi customs official visits to, ix-xiii
relocation of, xiv, 168–69, 173
renamed Max Planck Institute for Cell Physiology, 207, 331–32
returned to Warburg by US military, 195–96
Vennesland as Warburg’s successor in, 325–27
Warburg as director of, ix-xiii, 46, 50, 73, 158, 165, 216
Warburg dismissed by Nazis from, xiv, 158, 161, 186
and Warburg’s death, 331–32
as war institute, 172–73
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research, 132
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry, 203
Kaiser Wilhelm Society, 45–46
chemical weapons made by, 61
and Civil Service Law, 113–16, 117
founding of, 46, 51
Jewish scientists in, 118–19, 174, 186–87
and Nuremberg Laws, 127
Planck as president of, xiii, 113, 129
renamed Max Planck Society, 207
Rockefeller Institute grant to, 96, 101
Telschow as chairman of, 162
Warburg’s colleagues and employees in, 88, 91, 132, 133, 170–73, 174, 185–87, 194, 207–8, 325–27
Warburg’s findings discussed in, 150–51
Kalckar, Herman, 197–98
Kaman, Martin, 191
Keilin, David, 93
Kempner, Walter, 119–20, 191–92
Kennedy, John F., 212
Kershaw, Ian, 164
ketogenic diet, 299
kidneys, cancer of, 289, 309
kinase, 276
Klein, George, 196, 197
Klingenberg, Martin, 196
Koch, Robert, 152–57, 176, 213, 223, 226, 265
Koch’s postulates, 154–55
Kollath, Werner, 209–10
Kornberg, Arthur, xvi
KRAS (cancer-linked gene), 296
Krebs (German word for cancer), 110
Krebs, Albert, 109–11
Krebs, Hans, 252
departure to England, 117
on Warburg-Heiss relationship, 77
on Warburg’s attachment to science, 19, 95, 223
on Warburg’s attempt at Aryanization, 159–60, 161, 167
on Warburg’s influence, 75, 223
on Warburg’s personality, 17, 19, 75
on Warburg’s postwar life, 207–8, 215, 327
on Warburg’s reluctance to leave Germany, 122
working with Warburg, 74–75, 90, 95, 303
Krebs cycle, 117
Krehl, Ludolf, 43, 327
Kristallnacht, 133–34
Kubizek, August, 31, 64, 107
Kubowitz, Fritz, 170, 172, 173
Kuhn, Richard, 132
lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), 249–50
lactic acid, 82, 84, 85
Lane, Nick, 256, 295
La Presse, 152
Laron syndrome, 292
Laue, Max von, 114
Lavoisier, Antoine, 44, 99
Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor, 124
Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (Civil Service Law), 114–17, 125
LDH (lactate dehydrogenase), 249–50
lead poisoning, study of, 34–35
League of Nations, 116
Leavitt, George B., 27
Lefèvre, Wolfgang, 244–45
LeRoith, Derek, 290
leukemia, 205, 269
Lewis, Sinclair, Arrowsmith, 11
Leyen, Ernst von, 33
Liebenberg:
postwar Soviet takeover of, 182, 186
Warburg lifestyle in, 172–74
Warburg’s institute relocated to, 168–69, 170, 171
Liebig, Justus von, 317
Liek, Erwin, 103–4, 106–7, 109, 175, 210
life:
beginning of, 14
mechanism of, 95
life expectancy, xix, 21–23, 234–35, 279
light, absorption of, 94–95, 148
Linge, Heinz, 177, 324
Lipmann, Fritz, 92
lipodystrophy, 318
liver:
fat accumulations in, 317
fructose in, 319
Loeb, Anne, 12, 14
Loeb, Jacques, 11–14, 38
ambitions of, 12, 13, 32
death of, 13
experiments on sea creatures, 11, 12, 18, 78, 79
influence of, 14, 15, 43
and instability of German life, 78, 79
research on insects, 55–56
and Rockefeller Institute, 45
and Stanford University, 54–55
The Mechanistic Conception of Life, 14
and Warburg, 13–14, 88
and Warburg’s colleagues, 91
on war propaganda, 55–56
Loeb, Leo, 38–39, 285
Longo, Valter, 268
Lösener, Bernhard, 126
Ludwig, David S., 283
Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, 247
lung cancer, 224–27, 291, 319, 322
lymphoma, 205
“magic bullets”:
Ehrlich’s search for, 36–38, 40, 41, 144, 154, 203, 211, 299
ongoing search for, 247, 299
targeted chemotherapies as, 36, 37–38, 144, 203, 205
use of term, 36, 203, 299
malaria:
and DDT, 218
and methylene blue, 37
malignant neoplasm, 24
Manhattan Project, 233
manometers, 80–82, 95, 117, 192, 196, 245, 261
Manziarly, Constanze, 324
Marggraf, Andreas, 304
Margulis, Lynn, 254
Marine Biological Station, Woods Hole, 193–94
Marksman, The (opera), 36, 299
Marlowe, Christopher, Doctor Faustus, 1, 15, 69, 179, 241
Massachusetts General Hospital, 277
Max Planck Institute for Cell Physiology, 207, 331–32
renamed Otto Warburg House, 332
see also Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Cell Physiology
Max Planck Society, 207, 331–32
Archives of, 332
see also Kaiser Wilhelm Society
McCarrison, Sir Robert, 28, 279, 309
Mechanistic Conception of Life, The (Loeb), 14
Mein Kampf (Hitler), 66, 90, 108, 138, 155, 156, 204
Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 252
Mengele, Joseph, 186
Mentzel, Robert, 158, 166, 217
Metabolic Therapy of Cancer (Freund), 238, 277
metabolism:
and apoptosis, 256
of cancer cells, xv, xvii-xviii, xxi, 245, 250, 268
of entire body, 238
influences on cells, 256, 265
and insulin, 287
outdated research of, xvii, 261
and PI (fat molecule), 274
revival of research in, 262–64, 269–71
role of enzymes in, 144, 262
Thompson’s work in, 256, 258–59, 260, 261
Warburg’s studies of, xvii-xix, 15, 117, 206, 272, 321
metastasis, 266
metformin, 293
methylene blue, 37
Meyer, Beate, 166
Meyerhof, Otto, 92, 122
escape to France, 133
on fermentation, 84
job vulnerability of, 78–79, 127, 132
on respiration of sea urchins, 47
and Warburg’s mental state, 18
microbes:
and germ theory of disease, 30, 152–55, 226
nutrients for growth of, 40
as possible cause of cancer, 91
Mischlinge:
Hitler’s review of applications for, 162
and postwar Germany, 208
Warburg’s status as, 125–26, 127, 151, 157–58, 160, 165–67, 170, 185
and World War II, 185
mitochondria:
apoptosis driven by, 253–57
energy production by, xv, 264
and gene expression, 296
in old biochemistry textbooks, 254–58
origins of, 254, 295
as Warburg’s “grana,” 253–54
modernity, cancer linked to, xx, 30, 102–3, 104, 210–14
molecular biology:
and metabolism revival, 260–64
new era of, xvii, 244, 247, 248, 249, 254, 259
Morell, Theodor, 139
Moreschi, Carlo, 41–42
Mortality from Cancer throughout the World, The (Hoffman), 24–25, 104
mTOR proteins, 262
muesli, 176
Mukherjee, Siddhartha:
on chemotherapy, 203
and ketogenic diet, 299
The Emperor of All Maladies, xvii, 29, 298–99
Müller, Franz H., 227
Müller, Karl Alexander von, 87
mustard gas, 204–6
Mutaflor pills, 139
mutation:
arising by chance, 247
and cancer, xvii, 219, 246, 276, 288, 290, 295–96
of cells, xvii, 219, 247, 251, 262, 290, 294, 295, 296
and chemotherapy, 299
genetic, xvii, xx, 264, 269, 270, 292, 320
and insulin, 294, 296
in oncogenes, 246, 247
in pathways, 276
and radiation, 295
MYC (oncogene), 249–50, 296
Nachmansohn, David, 8, 95, 119, 216–17, 251–52
NAD; NADP, 148
Naples Zoological Station, 4, 158
sea urchin research in, 5, 6, 13, 14, 15, 43
tubularia studies in, 11
and World War I, 61
Napoleon Bonaparte, 304
National Cancer Institute, 77, 193, 212, 213, 286
National Institutes of Health, 217
Native Americans, absence of cancer among, 26, 28
Natural History of Cancer, The (Williams), 278
Nature, 265
nature:
“back to nature” movement, 214
as highest ideal, 88, 89, 102, 109, 175, 177
laws of, 89
toxic chemicals in, 228–29
unity of, 84
Nazi Party:
and Aktion T4 (systematic killing program), 159
anti-Semitism of, x, 116, 122, 123, 124, 126–27, 128, 137, 170, 227
anti-smoking campaigns of, 227
on “asocial” behavior, 170, 171–72
and beet sugar industry, 323
concentration camps of, see concentration camps
“declaration of Aryan descent” forms required by, ix-xiii, 118
disabled persons to be eliminated by, 159
fall from power, 90
gas chambers of, 205, 323
genealogical registry of, 130
homosexuality punished by, x
and Kristallnacht, 133–34
medical experiments on prisoners of, 143, 186
pollutants to be eradicated by, xxi, 138, 209
postwar return to German life, 208
postwar trials of, 187, 208
propaganda spread by, 128
racism of, 227
rise to power, 113, 118
SS death squads, 164
substance abuse in, 324
and “the Eternal Jew” (metaphor), 135
vulgarity of, 119, 123
and war against cancer, 137–38, 150, 163, 174, 185, 217, 351
Nazi War on Cancer, The (Proctor), 163, 217, 351
Neely, Matthew, 105
Negelein, Erwin, 74, 173
Nernst, Walther, 7, 21, 47
Neuberg, Carl, 127, 186–87
New England Journal of Medicine, 271
New Reich Chancellery, xiv, 161
Newton, Isaac, 306
New York Times:
on cancer therapies, 52, 150
on diabetes, 281
on Kaiser Wilhelm Society, 127
on Koch, 154
on Loeb, 13
on pellagra victims, 149
on synthetic chemicals, 219
on Warburg, 189, 195, 201–2
New York Times Magazine, 316
nicotinamide, 148, 149–50, 159
nicotinic acid (niacin), 149–50
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, 88
Ninkasi (goddess of beer), 82
Nishimura, Shimpe, 188
nitrogen, 235–37
Nonnevitz, Rügen, Warburg’s vacation home in, 98–99
Norman (Great Dane), 243, 331
nose, cancer of, 322
Nuremberg Laws, 124–26, 157, 162
Nuremberg trials, 187
nutrients, roles of, 264, 265
nutrition, 40, 42, 230–35, 237–40, 289;
see also diet; food
“Nutrition, Hormones, and Breast Cancer” (Kaaks), 289
obesity:
and cancer, xx-xxi, 233–35, 270–72, 297
and carbohydrates, 300–301
and insulin, 283–84, 289, 300
insurance company data on, 234–35
and nutrition studies, 234, 237
and overeating, 233–35, 237
and sugar, 321
Observations on the Cure of Cancer (Denman), 232
Occam’s razor, 320
Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases (Hueper), 212
Ohler, Norman, Blitzed, 324
oncogenes, 245–46, 247, 249, 260, 261–63
AKT, 261–63, 290
cancer caused by, xvii, 245–46, 260
identification of, 245
and LDH, 249, 250
as mutations, 246, 247
MYC, 249–50, 296
and PI, 287
SRC, 247, 274
and Warburg effect, 262
oncology, 247
One in Eight (film), 102, 213
“On the Origin of Cancer Cells” (Warburg), 286
Operation Barbarossa (German invasion of Soviet Union), xv, 163–64
Operation Otto, 164
Ostendorf, Peter, 76, 243–44, 303, 331
Otto Warburg House, 332
ovarian cancer, xx, 309
overnutrition, xx-xxi, 232–35, 237, 239
oxygen:
burning glucose with, 85–86, 87, 274
and photosynthesis, 220
reaction between iron and, 144
reaction of food with, 93
reaction of hydrogen with, 145
reactive oxygen species, 294–95
and respiration, 199, 200–201
and respiratory ferment, 145
pancreas:
fat accumulation in, 317
insulin secretions from, 280–81, 283, 317
pancreatic cancer, xx, 289, 292, 319
paraffin breast implants, 211
Pasteur, Louis, 176, 230
on elimination of infection, 40
on fermentation, 83, 84, 85–86, 267
and germ theory of disease, 30, 156, 213, 226
influence on Warburg, 23–24, 33, 37, 85, 152, 155
Pasteur effect, 83
Paul, Jean, Siebenkäs, 315
Pavlov, Ivan, 56
Peary, Robert, 27–28
Pederson, Peter, 245, 258
pellagra, 149–50
Perkins, John, 323
Perkins, William, Henry, 36
pesticides, 137, 177, 211, 214, 218
PET (positron-emission tomography) scans, xviii
Peto, Richard, 210, 228–29
and Doll, “The Causes of Cancer,” 228, 229, 231, 232, 233, 239, 270
phenylhydrazine, 306–7, 310
phosphate (phosphorus-oxygen bond), 275
phosphatidylinositol (PI), 274–77, 287
photosynthesis:
disputes about findings in, 17, 49–50, 187–88, 190–91, 192–93, 220–22, 326
and food production, 62, 72, 195, 235
precise measurements of, 21, 190–91, 193
as respiration in reverse, 50
transfer of energy from light to matter in, 49, 187, 190–91
Warburg’s work in, 15, 21, 49–50, 62, 72, 195, 208, 244, 286, 325
PI3K, 276, 288, 289, 290, 296, 297, 299
PIP3, 275
plague, causes of, 155
Planck, Max, 7, 20, 49, 130, 133, 326
and Civil Service Law, 114–16
and Hitler, 113–15
as Kaiser Wilhelm Society president, xiii, 113, 129
Plimmer, Robert and Violet, Food and Health, 307
Pollak, Michael, 290, 297–98, 320
polypeptides, 72
population growth, 235, 236–37
Prime Cause and Prevention of Cancer, The (Warburg) “Lindau Lecture,” 230
Princip, Gavrilo, 54
Proctor, Robert, 138, 218
The Nazi War on Cancer, 163, 217, 351
prostate cancer, xxi, 271, 289, 291, 297, 309
proteins:
AKT, 262
BCL-2 family of, 253, 256
“degenerate ferments,” 93
metabolic, xvii, 244
mTOR, 262
study of, 10
transcription factors of, 249, 296
Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 79
Prudential Insurance Company, 24
Prussian Academy of Science, 116
PTEN, 276
Pure, White and Deadly (Yudkin), 309
Rabinowitch, Eugene, 189
racism:
anti-Semitism, see Jews
and eugenics, 103
philosophical justification of, 88, 102, 106
racial hygiene, 209
racial mixing, 58, 108, 124, 218
scientific, 58, 65
Racker, Efraim, 273–74
radiation, 198, 202, 214, 295, 302
radioimmunassay, 282
Raff, Martin, 257
Rascher, Sigmund, 142–43
Rathmell, Jeff, 257–59
reactive oxygen species, 294–95
Reaven, Gerald, 315–16
Reich Citizenship Law, 124
Reich Committee for the Fight against Cancer, 166
Reich Education Ministry, xiv, 158, 170, 217
Reich Ministry of the Interior, 160
research:
causation vs. correlation in, 225
manometer use in, 80–81, 95, 117, 196, 261
model systems in, 48, 94
new discoveries being made in, 299
observational studies, 231
PET scans, xviii
radioimmunassay in, 282
randomized controlled trials, 225–26
signaling pathways in, 249
theories based on experimental findings, 85
thin-layer chromatography, 275
tissue slice technique in, 81
see also cancer research
respiration:
and cancer, xvi, 6, 84–85, 146–47, 150, 155, 199, 222–23, 267
and carbon monoxide, 93–94
as cellular breathing, xvi, 6, 15, 16, 21, 50, 81, 93–95, 101, 145–47, 150, 214, 319
energy of, 84
fermentation vs., 83, 84–85, 143, 144, 155, 196–97, 199, 200–202, 267
and food, 44
and nicotinamide, 148, 149
role of membrane in, 45
role of protein in, 93
roles of metals in, 47–48, 50, 93
respiratory ferment:
and absorption spectrum, 94
and “between ferment,” 147
in cellular breathing, 93, 145
as “cytochrome c oxidase,” 294
and iron, 47–48, 93, 146, 177
role of, 45
Warburg’s discovery of, 94–95, 99, 143, 282
Warburg’s Nobel Prize for, 99, 101
and Wieland’s research, 144–45
rickets, 104, 146
Rigg, Bryan Mark, 160
Rockefeller Foundation, 116
and Warburg’s arrogance, 101, 185
Warburg’s institute funded by, xiv, 96, 98, 101, 121–22, 123, 127, 157, 185
and Warburg’s isolation, 157, 185
Rockefeller Institute, 45, 86
Röhl, John, 53
Romanticism:
and anti-Semitism, 58, 106, 135
on corruption in modernity, 102–3
and nationalism, 58
nature as highest ideal in, 102, 214
Warburg’s disparagement of, 144, 198
Rügen, Warburg’s vacation home in, 98, 169, 173, 181
Rust, Bernhard, 217
Sabatini, David, 269
San Francisco, cancer death rate in, 104
Sauerbruch, Ferdinand, 102, 158
Schirach, Baldur von, 324
schlempe, 323
Schoeller, Paula, 159
Schoeller, Walter, 147, 158–59, 171
Schrödinger, Anny, 150
Schroeder, Christa, 177
Schubart, Christian Friedrich Daniel, 135
Schweitzer, Albert, 27, 29
Science, 189, 201, 202, 286, 299
science:
and Civil Service Law, 114–17
crop yields increased via, 88–89
foundational, 21
German preeminence in, 20–21, 33, 92
unlimited possibilities in, 10–11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20
sea urchins:
as basis of cancer science, 15, 50
chromosomes of, 5, 6
development of, 5, 6, 12, 41
Loeb’s studies of, 12
research questions about, 3, 6
respiration of, 47–48, 80
Warburg’s studies of, 6, 13, 14, 15, 30, 41, 43, 47–48, 50, 80, 95
Seidl, Daniella, 209
Seifert, Alwin, Gardening and Ploughing without Poison, 209
Senn, Nicholas, 27–28, 29
sex hormones, 285, 297
Seyfried, Thomas, xvii, xix
Siebenkäs (Paul), 315
Siegel, Rebecca, 271
Siemens Company, 74
Silent Spring (Carson), xvi, 212–14, 217, 218
Simon, Celeste, 267
single-celled organisms, 265–66
Smil, Václav, 236–37
smoking, and cancer, 218, 223–28, 229, 232, 246, 271, 297, 322
Snow, John, 226
snuff, inhaling, 322
Soviet Union:
German invasion of (Operation Barbarossa), xv, 163–64
German scientists recruited by, 181–82, 183, 184
postwar German sector ruled by, 181–83, 186
Red Army in Germany, 173
Spanish Inquisition, 292
SRC (oncogene), 247, 274
Stalin, Joseph, 163, 164, 173, 181, 183
Stambolic, Vuk, 290–91, 293
Stanhope, Kimber, 316
Stasi, 332
Stefansson, Vilhjalmur, 27
Steinhoff, Hans, 156–57
stock market collapse, U.S., 113
stomach cancer, 296
Streicher, Julius, 140
sucrose, 304, 305, 306–7, 308, 310–11, 317
sugar, 304–11
addiction to, 322–25
and artificial sweeteners, 310
from beets, 304–5, 307, 310, 323
and cancer, 307, 309–11, 318–22
and carbohydrates, 305
and diabetes, 307–9, 321
and fermentation, 305
Hitler’s addiction to, 323–25
and obesity, 321
refined, 307, 308, 310–11, 318, 320
and slave trade, 323
structure of, 306
use of term, 304
see also fructose; glucose; sucrose
sugarcane, 310, 317
sun exposure, 297
Sylt, Germany, Warburg country home in, 244
synthetic dye industry, 36, 39
syphilis, treatment of, 41
Szent-Gÿorgyi, Albert, 98
Tanchou, Stanislas, 25–26
Tannenbaum, Albert, 233–35, 239, 270
Taubes, Gary, 320, 321–22
Taylor, Maxwell D., 196
Teflon, 211
Telschow, Ernst, 158, 162, 185–86
Tesch (customs official), ix-xiii
testicular cancer, 309
testosterone, and cancer, 285
Theorell, Hugo, 147, 148
Thompson, Craig, xviii, 257–59
and AKT gene, 261–63
cancer research of, 258, 260–63, 264, 266, 269, 295
on cell death (apoptosis), 252–53, 254, 256, 257–58, 272, 290
and epigenetic change, 264
and growth factor, 257–58, 259
immunology research of, 252–53, 257
and metabolism, 256, 258–59, 260, 261
and mitochondria, 254, 257, 263–64
and Warburg revival, 252, 258, 260–63, 269
Thunberg, Torsten, 131
thyroid cancer, xx
Times, The (London), 131
Tisdale, W. E., 122–23
tobacco, addiction to, 322
Train, Russell, 218
transcription factors, 249, 296
Traube, Wilhelm, 171
Treaty of Versailles, 72, 78, 79
Treitel, Corinna, 209
triglycerides, 300, 315
tuberculosis (TB), germ as cause of, 153–54, 157, 213
tubularia, studies of, 11
tumors:
and diet, 237, 298
growth of, 6, 42, 237, 285
and insulin, 293
sequencing the genomes of, 276
spontaneous rise of, 86
transplantation of, 38–39, 42, 86
tumor suppressors, 263, 276
Twain, Mark, 13
UCSF, 248–49
Ullrich, Volker, 67
University of Chicago, 252
University of Heidelberg, 13, 15, 16, 33, 43, 45, 47, 91
University of Illinois, Urbana, 187–93, 192, 197
University of Pennsylvania, 259, 260, 267
University of Würzburg, 3
uricase (enzyme), 320
US Military Government, FIAT (Field Information Agency, Technical), 184
uterine cancer, xx, 289, 291, 309
Vander Heiden, Matthew, 254–57, 261, 265, 269
Varmus, Harold, 245–46, 247, 248–49, 274
vegetarian diet, 108, 109, 110, 139–40, 174–75, 209
Vennesland, Birgit, 17, 325–27
Verschuer, Otmar von, 186
vitamin B2 (riboflavin), 146, 231
vitamin B3 (niacin), 149–50
vitamins:
and coenzymes, 151, 267
discovery of, 146–47
protective effects of, 228–31, 237, 267
Warburg’s gift to Soviet Union, 183
Wagner, Richard, 59, 108
Warburg, Dr. Betty (cousin), 169
Warburg, Elisabeth (mother), 7, 62, 63, 77–78
Warburg, Emil (father), 57, 186, 190
and anti-Semitism, 79
criticism of, 9
death of, 99
dedication to work, 8
and Einstein, 7, 9, 79, 191
high standards of, 8–9, 43
influence on Otto, 8–9, 20, 50, 144, 326
and manometer, 81
and Otto’s research, 49–50, 62, 72
professional influence of, 47, 49
Warburg, Eric (cousin), 17, 76–77, 122, 182, 207
Warburg, Felix (cousin), 79
Warburg, Gerta (aunt), 169
Warburg, Käthe (sister), 215
Warburg, Lotte (sister):
death of, 215
diary of, 8, 125, 150–51, 214
and family, 8, 130
leaving Germany, 120, 123–24, 129
on Otto and women, 16, 18, 96
on Otto’s fear of death, 214
Otto’s letters to, 16, 120–21, 128
on Otto’s lifestyle, 98, 129, 214
on Otto’s personal traits, 77, 101
on Otto’s reluctance to leave Germany, 123–24, 125, 128, 130
and Otto’s work, 8, 18, 50, 116, 150–51
in Paris, 129
and Planck, 115–16, 130
Warburg, Max (cousin), 79, 120
Warburg, Otto, xxiii, 24, 136, 312, 329
aging of, 223, 267–68, 303, 314, 321
ambition of, 15, 24, 32, 37, 46, 74, 144, 150
army service of, 59, 60, 61, 62–64, 72, 98, 120, 160, 166
arrogance of, x-xiv, xvi, xxii, 6–7, 13, 64, 80, 88, 99, 101, 119, 120, 144, 181, 185, 222, 251
cancer research of, xv-xix, 23–24, 49, 50, 101, 106, 143–51, 160–61, 162, 166, 167, 171, 186–87, 189, 195, 196–97, 198–200, 208, 213–14, 244, 250, 266–67, 295, 299–300, 321
cellular breathing experiment of, 94–95
childhood of, 8–9
coenzymes discovered by, 146–48, 149–50, 171, 231
death of, 327–28, 331–32
dismissal from his institute, xiv, 158
and doppelgänger, 314–15
in exile, 169
family of, x, 7, 8, 79, 129, 130
fear of death, 214–15
on fermentation, see fermentation
German Blood Certificate requested for, 159–62, 166
and “grana” (mitochondria), 253–54
and Heiss, 75–77; see also Heiss, Jacob
and his father, see Warburg, Emil
and his mother, 7, 62, 63, 77–78
and Hitler, xiv, 116, 163–64, 183
homes of, 7, 8, 97–98, 214, 244
homosexuality accusation against, 170
and horses, 6, 98, 99, 183, 207, 246
influence of, x, xvi-xviii, 23–24, 81–82, 106, 107, 127–28, 148–49, 166, 202, 213–14
influences on, 8–11, 13–15, 21, 33, 37, 41, 43, 63–64, 72, 83, 85–86, 99, 144, 152, 155, 213, 326
as institute director, see Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Cell Physiology; Kaiser Wilhelm Society
Iron Cross awarded to, 61, 66
isolation of, 92–93, 116, 151, 157, 174, 182
Jewishness of, 59, 114, 116–18, 121, 124, 125–28, 130, 132, 134, 151, 157–62, 166–67, 170
at Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, see Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Cell Physiology; Kaiser Wilhelm Society
letters of denunciation against, 169–70, 191
lifestyle of, xiv, 97–99, 117, 167, 169, 172–74, 208, 214, 215, 221, 243–44, 245
“Lindau Lecture” by, 222–23, 230
metabolic approach of, 206, 251, 259, 272, 321
move to U.S., 188–93
at National Cancer Institute, 193
Nazi harassment of, 157, 166
Nazi officials provoked by, ix-xiii, 117–19, 127, 133, 159
Nazi restrictions on, 171
Nobel Prize awarded to, xiv, 7, 49, 74, 99, 100, 101
“On the Origin of Cancer Cells,” 286
outdated ideas of, xvii, 223, 244–45, 247, 251–52, 258
papers of, 80, 98, 173, 183, 186, 200, 244, 260, 299, 332
paranoia of, 19, 91, 170, 191–92, 215–17, 250–52
and Pasteur effect, 83
personal traits of, x-xiv, 6, 17–19, 45, 50, 74, 75, 77, 80, 91, 101, 121, 132, 158, 170–71, 181, 184, 185, 187, 190, 211, 222, 251, 273–74, 303, 326–27
photosynthesis work of, see photosynthesis
physical appearance of, xii, 16
political connections of, xiv-xv, 158–59, 171
political usefulness to Nazi Germany, 128–29, 150, 157, 166
postwar job search of, 185, 187
post–World War II life of, 182–87, 207–8, 215, 327
premature obituary for, 131–32, 314–15
The Prime Cause and Prevention of Cancer, 230
professional resentment toward, 250–52
professional training of, 9–11, 14, 16, 33, 43
public speaking by, 18–19, 96, 197, 222–23
rediscovery of, xix, xx-xxi, 252, 258, 260–64, 269–71
relationships with women, 16, 17–18, 96
reluctance to leave Germany, 120–24, 128–30, 184, 194, 250
reputation of, xvi, 15, 80, 96, 99, 127, 166, 185, 197, 201–2, 251–52
respiratory ferment discovered by, 45, 93, 94–95, 99, 101, 143–46, 151, 282, 294
return to Germany, 195–97
sailing, 208, 243–44
“schizoid Warburg character” of, 131–32
scientific breakthroughs of, 148–49, 150–51
sea urchin research of, 6, 13, 14, 15, 30, 41, 47–48, 50, 80, 95
simple explanations preferred by, 321
as unable to admit error, 50, 121, 200, 201–2, 222, 321, 325–26
at University of Illinois, 187–93, 192
videotape of, 314
at Woods Hole, 193–94
work as highest priority of, xii, 7, 8, 18, 19, 20–21, 73–75
Warburg, Paul (cousin), 73, 79
Warburg, Otto (cousin; botanist), 131, 314
Warburg effect:
as aerobic glycolysis, xviii
and AKT enzyme, 290
cause of, 269–71
coining of term, 274
defined, xviii
as described by other researchers, 262–63, 265
on fermentation of cancer cells, 84, 251, 274, 287, 290, 319
and fructose, 319
and glucose, 263, 285, 287
and IGF-1, 291–92
insulin’s role in, 285, 287, 290, 321
and MYC, 296
and obesity, 270–71, 272
and PI3K molecule, 289, 290, 296
result of, 270
revival of interest in, see Warburg revival
background of, 7, 8
bankers in, x, 79
as “non-Aryan,” x, 116, 129
Warburg manometer, 81–82, 95, 117, 192, 196, 245, 261
Warburg revival, xviii, xix, xx-xxi, 252, 258, 260–64, 269–71, 285, 298
“Warburg’s yellow enzyme,” 146–47
Watson, James, xvii, 244
Weaver, Warren, 132
Weber, Thomas, 66
Weill Cornell Medicine, 258, 274, 299
Weinberg, Robert, “The Hallmarks of Cancer,” 251
Weinhouse, Sidney, 200–202, 206, 221
Weismann, August, 253
Wellen, Kathryn, 264–65
White, Charles Powell, 29–30
Wieland, Heinrich, 131, 144–45
Wilderness Act, 212
Wilhelm, Prince (Sweden), 100
Wilhelm I, Kaiser, 52, 154, 168
Wilhelm II, Kaiser, xiv, 51, 53, 54, 56, 62, 66, 71, 76
Williams, W. Roger, 233
The Natural History of Cancer, 278
Willstätter, Richard, 120
Windaus, Adolf, 166
Winternitz, Milton, 204–5
Wood, Grant, American Gothic, 161
Wood, Harlan, 220–22
Woods, Mark, 286
World Health Organization, 210
World War I, 59–62
beginning of, 54, 236
German Jews in, 56–58, 59, 61–62, 64, 65
German uhlans (cavalry regiments) in, 59, 60, 61, 72, 120
Hitler in, 65–67, 204
poison gas used in, 114, 203, 204–5, 211, 235
propaganda in, 55–56
setting the stage for World War II, 53, 89
sugar consumption in, 308
and Treaty of Versailles, 72, 78, 79
Warburg’s military service in, 59, 61, 62–64
war propaganda, 55–56
World War II, 156, 172–73, 174, 185, 224
Buffalo Soldiers in, 286
World War I setting the stage for, 53, 89
World Zionist Organization, 131
Wynder, Ernst, 227
Xiaodong Wang, 255
Yalow, Rosalyn, 281–83, 315
yeast, carcinoma tissue compared to, 266–67
Yudkin, John, 310
Pure, White and Deadly, 309
Zhukov, Georgy, 183
Ziegler, Frederick, 306
Zionism, 56, 131, 168, 315
Zweig, Stefan, 121
Zyklon B, 177, 204, 205, 323
zymohexase (aldolase), 167–68