Chapter 1: A Policy of Bad Habits
1. Interview, Gikongoro, 15 June 2003.
2. Hatzfeld 2005: 5.
3. Prunier 1997: 63.
4. Guardian, 8 November 1994.
5. Jennings 2001: 12.
6. Legum 1962: 254.
7. French 1996.
8. Martin 1989: 111.
9. ‘France and Africa: dangerous liaisons’, The Economist, 24 July 1994, p. 21.
10. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 30.
11. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 30.
12. Prunier 1997: 103.
13. Kalfèche 1988: 54.
Chapter 2: Invasion and Intervention
1. Prunier 1997: 82n.
2. Peterson 2000: 280.
3. BBC Panorama 1995.
4. Cole 1997: 140.
5. McCallum (online publication).
6. Cole 1997: 143.
7. Smyth 1994: I: 6.
8. Jennings 2001: 83.
9. Mitterrand 2001. See also Palosuo 2001; Sancton 2000.
10. Africa Confidential, vol. 32, no. 17, 30 August 1991, p. 5.
11. Interview, Frédéric Charillon, Centre in Social Studies of the Ministry of Defence, Paris, 14 April 2003.
12. Coret and Verschave 2005: 480–4.
13. Jennings 2001: 75.
14. Lanxade 2001: 164.
15. Interview, Gérard Prunier, Paris, 15 April 2003.
16. Lanxade 2001: 164.
17. Quoted in Libération, 18 May 1994.
18. Prunier 1997: 104.
19. BBC Panorama 1995.
20. BBC Panorama 1995.
21. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 32.
22. de Brie 1991.
23. Ferney 1993: 173.
24. Prunier 1997: 110.
25. Reported in Le Monde, 1 February 1993.
26. Lemarchand 1995: 8.
27. BBC Panorama 1995.
28. McNulty 2000: 111; Barril 1995: 15–16.
29. McNulty 2000: 111.
30. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 131.
31. Prunier 1997: 148.
32. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 172.
33. McNulty 2000: 122.
34. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 174.
35. Martres’ testimony to Assemblée nationale 1998.
36. Coret and Verschave 2005: 107.
37. Austin 1999: 34.
38. Braeckman and Human Rights Watch 1994: 60–3.
39. Braeckman and Human Rights Watch 1994: 60–3.
40. Prunier 1997: 184.
41. Sibomana 1997: 38.
42. Smyth 1994.
43. Human Rights Watch 1999: 654.
44. Favier and Martin-Roland 1999: 478.
45. Human Rights Watch 1999: 119. Quoted testimony of Éric Gillet, reported by L’événement du Jeudi, 25 June–2 July 1992; Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 158–68.
46. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 139.
47. Jennings 2001: 85–6.
48. Interviewed by Georges Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
49. Interview, Kigali, 20 June 2003.
50. Prunier 1997: 148.
Chapter 3: Civil War and Peace Talks
1. This may have been one of the common pits the International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) discovered in January/February 1993 in the Kigombe-Ruhengeri commune.
2. Coret and Verschave 2005: 20–8.
3. Human Rights Watch Arms Project 1994: 23.
4. Indangamuntu 1994 (online publication).
5. Gouteux 2002: 31–3.
6. Mucyo Commission report, 2008, I. 4 Acts of violence on roadblocks.
7. Mucyo Commission Report, 2008, I. 4.2 Disappearance of arrested people.
8. Interview, Clement, Butare, 23 June 2003.
9. Prunier 1997: 149n.
10. Africa Confidential, 6 March 1991, vol. 32, no. 5, pointers.
11. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 188.
12. Prunier 1997: 159.
13. Prunier 1997: 127.
14. Péan 2005.
15. Callamard 1999: 164.
16. Callamard 1999: 164.
17. Verschave 1994.
18. Human Rights Watch 1999: 118.
19. Prunier 1997: 163.
20. Human Rights Watch 1999: 96.
21. Human Rights Watch 1999: 64.
22. Prunier 1997: 165n.
23. Prunier 1997: 174.
24. Human Rights Watch 1999: 119.
25. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 47.
26. Callamard 1999: 160.
27. Interview, Kigali, 20 June 2000.
28. BBC Panorama 1995.
29. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 160.
30. Human Rights Watch Arms Project 1994: 23.
31. Melvern 2000: 48.
32. Jennings 2001: 87.
33. Prunier 1997: 164n.
34. BBC Panorama 1995.
35. BBC Panorama 1995.
36. Interviewed by Georges Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
37. Dupaquier 1992.
38. Interview, Vénuste Kayimahe, Kigali, 23 June 2003.
Chapter 4: Militia, Massacres and Arusha
1. Prunier 1997: 86.
2. Jennings 2001: 75.
3. Africa Confidential, vol. 33, no. 20, 9 October 1992, p. 7.
4. BBC Panorama 1995.
5. BBC Panorama 1995.
6. BBC Panorama 1995.
7. Kakwenzire and Kamukama 1999: 79.
8. Sibomana 1997: 50.
9. Interviewed by Georges Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
10. Huband 1994a: 14.
11. BBC Panorama 1995.
12. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 144–6.
13. Jennings 2001: 90.
14. Prunier 1997: 110.
15. Sibomana 1997: 43.
16. Prunier 1997: 137.
17. Human Rights Watch Arms Project 1994: 11.
18. Report by Mr. B. W. Ndiaye, special rapporteur on his mission to Rwanda from 8 to 17 April 1993, United Nations, E/CN.4/1994/7/Add.1, 11 August 1993.
19. AFP (Paris) 22 April 2005.
20. Callamard 1999: 170.
21. Human Rights Watch 1999: 121–2.
22. On 26 January 1991 Le Monde reported a racist hate campaign in Rwanda following the Bagogwe massacre three days earlier.
23. Prunier 1997: 154n.
24. Sibomana 1997: 53.
25. Adelman n.d.: 9.
26. Prunier 1997: 177.
27. Le Canard enchâiné, 17 February 1993, p. 3.
28. Prunier 1997: 179.
29. Des Forges 1995: 5.
30. RPF press release, Washington, 8 February 1994.
31. McGreal 1993: 20.
32. Prunier 1997: 190.
33. Human Rights Watch 1999: 124.
34. Callamard 1999: 174, quoting Bayart 1994.
35. Dallaire 2003: 42.
36. Dallaire 2003: 71.
37. Dallaire 2003: 76.
38. BBC Panorama 1995.
39. Human Rights Watch 1999: 655.
40. Gouteux 2002: 169.
41. Gouteux 2002: 283.
42. Gattegno 2005.
43. Deacon 1990: 315.
44. Madsen 1999: 113.
45. Madsen 1999: 113.
46. Jennings 2001: 27.
47. Human Rights Watch 1999: 666.
48. Le Figaro, 31 March 1998; Gouteux 2002: 176.
49. Human Rights Watch 1999: 665.
50. Prunier 1997: 176.
51. Human Rights Watch 1999: 143.
52. Human Rights Watch 1999: 127.
53. Human Rights Watch 1999: 121.
54. Jouan 1996: 144.
55. Human Rights Watch 1999: 146.
56. Human Rights Watch 1999: 154.
57. Human Rights Watch 1999: 157.
58. Africa Confidential, vol. 35, no. 4, 18 February 1994.
59. BBC Storyville 2005.
60. Hatzfeld 2005: 79.
61. Hatzfeld 2005: 209–10.
62. Adelman and Suhrke 1996: 34. This information came from interviews in Geneva in March 1995 and in Kigali and Dar es Salaam in August 1995.
63. Prunier 1997: 205.
64. Prunier 1997: 211.
Chapter 5: Retreat
1. From 27 March 1998 to 17 November 2006, when it was finally published, Judge Jean-Louis Bruguière headed a judicial inquiry into the fatal plane crash of 6 April 1994.
2. Prunier 1997: 219.
3. Human Rights Watch 1999: 655.
4. Maria Malargardis ‘Rwanda: trois fantômes et un mystère. Libération, 10 January 2013.
5. Maria Malargardis ‘Rwanda: trois fantômes et un mystère. Libération, 10 January 2013.
6. See Lanxade 2001.
7. Statement by International Panel of Eminent Personalities (online publication).
8. Ambrosetti 2001: 65.
9. Interview, Kigali, 16 January 2004.
10. Dallaire 2003: 276.
11. Dallaire 2003: 282.
12. Dallaire 2003: 286.
13. Callamard 1999: 175.
14. Callamard 1999: 286.
15. Callamard 1999: 289.
16. On 13 May 2005 a notorious bandit called Firmin Mahé was involved in a fire-fight with French troops in the Ivory Coast in which he was slightly injured. He was captured but died on the way to hospital. At an internal inquiry Poncet was alleged to have given an order to his troops to transport Mahé to hospital but to ‘take your time. You understand me.’ Mahé was suffocated to death in the back of the vehicle with a plastic bag. Poncet, who had been decorated by President Chirac in July 2005, was suspended from duty on the order of Minister of Defence Madame Michele Alliot-Marie in October and later transferred to a desk job while military and civil enquiries took place into the incident. In December 2012 the Paris assize court sentenced the three soldiers who carried out the actual murder to suspended prison sentences of between one and four years. The relatives of Mahé who were in court shouted out ‘shame on France’ when the sentences were announced. The court took into account the ‘exceptional circumstances’ that ‘reduced their liability,’ for the horrific killing.
17. Coret and Verschave 2005:213. Froduald Karamira was a top Hutu Power figure who played a lead role in planning and implementing the 1994 genocide; he used Hutu hate radio to support the Interahamwe carrying out widespread massacres in 1994. He was sentenced to death and executed in Kigali on 24 April 1997. Justin Mugenzi, minister of Trade and Industry in the interim government and one of the most vociferous advocates of the extremist Hutu power ideology was arrested in Cameroon in 1999. He was part of the ‘Government II’ trial that opened in 2003 with three other ministers of the interim government. Mugenzi was given a 30 year sentence in September 2011 but controversially freed in February 2013 by the appeal court. Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza, policy director in the ministry of foreign affairs during the genocide and founding member of Hutu hate radio RTLM, was found guilty at the ICTR along with Ferdinand Nahimana, former director of RTLM, and Hassan Ngeze, former owner and editor-in-chief of the extremist Kangura newspaper, of genocide, conspiracy to commit genocide, direct and public incitement to commit genocide and crimes against humanity, including extermination and persecution. Barayagwiza died in prison in Benin on 25 April 2010. Jerome Bicamumpaka, minister for foreign affairs in the interim government, later fled to Cameroon where he was arrested in 1999 and was tried as part of the ‘Government II case at the ICTR. On 30 September 2011 he was acquitted by the court. Pauline Nyiramasuhuko Minister for Family and Women’s Affairs, was arrested in Nairobi, Kenya in September 1997 and sentenced to life imprisonment in June 2011 at the ICTR for, among other crimes, genocide and extermination in assisting the planning and organization of the genocide of Tutsis in Butare. She became the first woman to be indicted for the crime of rape as a crime against humanity – urging Interahamwe to rape young Tutsi girls before killing them. Her son, Arsène Shalom Ntahobali, who was tried alongside her, was also sentenced to life imprisonment. In July 2013 her daughter-in-law Beatrice Munyenyezi was sentenced to ten years in prison by a US court for her role in directing the killing at a road block in Butare and immigration fraud.
18. Coret and Verschave 2005: 216.
19. Human Rights Watch 1999: 655. Jean Kambanda was later arrested in 1997 after fleeing to Nairobi. At his trial before the ICTR he pleaded guilty to genocide and was sentenced to life imprisonment. While in office as interim government prime minister he had made radio broadcasts declaring ‘genocide is justified in the fight against the enemy.’
20. Jennings 2001: 108–9.
21. Casimir Bizimungu was arrested in Kenya in 1999 and transferred to the ICTR. His case, part of the Government II trial, on charges of genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide, began in 2003. In September 2011 he was acquitted after the trial judges found there was not enough evidence to secure a conviction.
22. Bijard 1994b: 36.
23. Interview, Kigali, 22 June 2003.
24. Jennings 2001: 106–7.
25. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 269.
26. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 269.
27. Inkotanyi, literally ‘tough fighters’, was used to refer to the RPF. It had monarchical overtones and hence was used by Hutu militants as a derogatory term, a way of referring to the past colonial period when the Tutsi had been in control.
28. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 263.
29. L’orphelinat Sainte-Agathe (1994) (online publication).
30. See Survie 1994. Survie was founded in 1984, and has campaigned hard for an end to ‘Françafrique’ and for the establishment of fair, transparent and democratic Franco-African relations. It has been especially active in its research into, and condemnation of the French role in the Rwandan genocide, and actively monitors the continued close cooperation between African dictators and the Élysée, for example with the state visits of two such men to President Chirac in September 2006, Faure Gnassingbé of Togo and Idriss Déby of Chad.
31. African Rights 2001: 35.
32. African Rights 2001: 29.
33. African Rights 2001: 30.
34. African Rights 2001: 30.
35. African Rights 2001: 35.
36. African Rights 2001: 85.
37. Human Rights Watch 1999: 612–13.
38. Human Rights Watch 1999: 660.
39. Interview, Brussels, November 2011.
40. ‘La Vérité sacrifiée à l’autel de la manipulation politico-judiciaire’ Georges Rutaganda, Arusha, 2005
41. Alain Frilet 1994: 2–3.
42. Human Rights Watch 1999: 660.
43. Gourevitch 1999: 143.
44. Joshua Ostroff, ‘Romeo Dallaire: Senator Slams ‘Hotel Rwanda’ Film As Revisionist ‘Junk,’ Huffington Post, 29 December 2011.
45. Summary, City of Westminster Magistrates Court between the Government of Rwanda v. Bajinya, Charles Munyaneza, Emmanuel Nteziryayo, Celestin Ugirashebuja, 6 June 2008.
46. Gouteux 2002: 63.
Chapter 6: Arming the Genocide
1. Umuganda was obligatory communal work done by all members of society regardless of position for one day each week. Habyarimana initiated the programme in February 1974 to reinforce MRND ideology and to achieve a civic sensibility, with community-based works undertaken including digging drainage ditches, planting trees and road repair. Umuganda fell into disrepute by the late 1980s after it became seen as merely a way for the rich to use free labour to work their lands or plant cash crops such as coffee. Since the genocide Umuganda has recovered its sense of community use, though today it is only expected for three hours on the last Saturday of each month.
2. Jones 1999: 148.
3. Quoted by Hirondelle News Agency, Arusha, 10 March 1998.
4. Melvern 2000: 75.
5. Coret and Verschave 2005: 241.
6. Prunier 1997: 337–8.
7. UN Blue Book, S/1994/531, Document 58, p. 274.
8. Human Rights Watch 1999: 658.
9. Reported by Patrick de Saint-Exupéry in Le Figaro, 12 January 1998.
10. Human Rights Watch 1999: 638.
11. Sophie Shihab, ‘Poursuivant sa visite en Asie centrale, François Mitterrand a rendu hommage à la politique régionale du Turkménistan,’ Le Monde, 20 April 1994: 9.
12. Golias magazine, January/February 2006: no. 106, 63, Le Monde, 20 April 1994.
13. Hatzfeld 2005: 145–6.
14 Human Rights Watch 1999: 658.
15 Human Rights Watch 1999: 279n.
16 Prunier 1997: 278–9.
17 BBC Panorama 1995.
18 Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 299.
19 McNulty 2000: 117.
20 Interview with Romeo Dallaire (online publication)
21 Dallaire 2003: 395.
22 Mari 1994.
23 Interview Mehdi Ba, Paris, April 2006.
24 Callamard 1999: 182.
25 Human Rights Watch 1999: 664.
26 Human Rights Watch 1999: 664.
27 Human Rights Watch 1999: 664.
28 Human Rights Watch 1999: 664.
29 Human Rights Watch 1999: 664–5.
30 Human Rights Watch 1999: 665n.
31 McNulty 2000: 116.
32 Gouteux 2002: 151.
33 Paul Barril: The mysterious merchant of death’, New Times, 9 February 2013.
34 UN Blue Book, S/PRST/1994/21, Document 55, p. 272.
35 Security Council resolution S/RES/918 (1994), 17 May 1994, UN Blue Book 62, pp. 282–4.
36 BBC Panorama 1995.
37 Human Rights Watch 1999: 661.
38 Le Figaro, 3 April 1998.
39 Jennings 2001: 112.
40 Human Rights Watch 1999: 662.
41 Jennings 2001: 113.
42 Human Rights Watch 1999: 663.
43 Jennings 2001: 113.
44 Smith 1994, quoted in McNulty 2000: 118.
45 Binet 2003: 48–9.
46 Smith 1994: 118.
47 Prunier 1997: 278n.
48 Golias magazine, no. 106, January/February 2006: 65.
49 L’Humanité, 29 June 1994.
50 Barril 1995: 12–19, 86–7, 100.
51 ‘Rwanda: des pièces accablantes pour la France’, Le Parisien, 24 January 2013.
52 Human Rights Watch 1999: 666–7.
53 ‘Rwanda: des pièces accablantes pour la France’, Le Parisien, 24 January 2013.
54 La Libre Belgigue, 11 September 1995.
55 Human Rights Watch 1999: 667.
56 Human Rights Watch 1999: 667.
57 Human Rights Watch 1999: 668.
58 Africa Confidential, vol. 36, no. 14, 15 July 1994.
59 Hatzfeld 2005: 74.
60 Sehene (online publication)
Chapter 7: Operation Turquoise
1 Nundy 1994a: 11.
2 Prunier 1999: 285.
3 Prunier 1999: 285.
4 Prunier 1999: 285.
5 Human Rights Watch 1999: 669.
6 Assemblée nationale 1998: II, 375.
7 Prunier 1999: 304n.
8 McNulty 1997: 16.
9 Human Rights Watch 1999: 674.
10 African Rights 1995a: 1142.
11 African Rights 1995a: 1146.
12 Le Monde, 23 June 1994.
13 Dallaire 2003: 369.
14 Dallaire 2003: 371
15 Dallaire 2003: 418.
16 Dallaire 2003: 422.
17 Dallaire 2003: 426.
18 Prunier 1999: 287.
19 UN Security Council 1999.
20 S/1994/728, Document 68, United Nations Blue Book Series, pp. 304–6.
21 S/1994/734, Document 70, United Nations Blue Book Series, p. 307.
22 Adelman and Suhrke 1996: 57.
23 Prunier 1999: 291.
24 Dallaire 2003: 437.
25 Dallaire 2003: 438.
26 Interviewed by Georges Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
27 Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 306.
28 Prunier 1999: 291.
29 Peterson 2000: 284.
30 McGreal 1994a: 24.
31 de Saint-Exupéry 2004: 25.
32 Bijard 1994a: 36.
33 Interview by Georges Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
34 RTLM, ICTR tape 011, K0143673, broadcast 28 April 1994.
35 RTLM, ICTR tape 046, K0159033, broadcast 19 June 1994
36 RTLM, ICTR tape 035, K0113819, broadcast 20 June 1994.
37 McGreal 1994b: 26.
38 Interviewed by Georges Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
39 Kim Willsher, ‘Court to look at French role in 1994 genocide’, The Guardian, 27 December 1994: 23.
40 Interview by Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.
43 Dallaire 2003: 449.
44 Dallaire 2003: 451.
45 Human Rights Watch 1999: 676.
46 Brendan Boyle, Reuters, 5 July 1994
47 John Bierman, Financial Post (weekly edition), 8 July 1994: 7.
Chapter 8: Bisesero and Withdrawal
1. Many of the testimonies in this chapter came from interviews given by survivors to the author at Bisesero in January 2004. Alfred Musema was director of Gisovu tea factory and the ICTR later charged him with genocide and crimes against humanity. He was found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment.
2. African Rights 1998: 9.
3. Dr Clement Kayishema, prefect of the Kibuye prefecture, and Obed Ruzindana were accused and convicted of genocide when they were brought before the ICTR in Arusha. Dr Gérard Ntakirutimana was also convicted of genocide at the ICTR after helping to lead attacks against the Tutsis at Bisesero. Kayishema was sentenced to life imprisonment, while Ruzindana and Ntakirutimana received sentences of 25 years each.
4. Interview, Anastase, Bisesero, January 2004.
5. Interviewed by Georges Kapler, Rwanda 2004.
6. de Saint-Exupéry 2004: 72.
7. African Rights 1998: 62.
8. See Marin Gillier’s testimony in Assemblée nationale 1998: 402—6. Patrick de Saint-Exupéry account is in de Saint-Exupéry 2004: 45–88.
9. de Saint-Exupéry 2004: 84.
10. Human Rights Watch 1999: 680.
11. Ibid.
12. Thierry Prugnaud interviewed by Laure de Vulpian on French Culture radio, 22 April 2005, reprinted in Billets d’Afrique, no. 136, May 2005.
13. Ibid.
14. Human Rights Watch 1999: 681.
15. Bonner 1994; Human Rights Watch 1999: 681.
16. Interview, Arusha, 9 June 2003.
17. Interview, Mehdi Ba, April 2006.
18. Human Rights Watch 1999: 681.
19. ‘The French in Rwanda’, The Economist, vol. 332, no. 7870, 2 July 1994: 39.
20. S/1994/798, document 73, United Nations Blue Book Book Series: 310.
21. Prunier 1997: 297.
22. Human Rights Watch 1999: 683.
23. Human Rights Watch 1999: 683.
24. Dallaire 2003: 459.
25. Ibid.
26. Prunier 1997: 337n.
27. Interviewed by Georges Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
28. Interview, Alphonse, Butare, June 2003.
29. Georges Rutaganda was committed for trial at the ICTR at Arusha on charges of genocide and crimes against humanity. He was found guilty of the charges on 6 January 1999 and sentenced to life imprisonment.
30. Interview, Alphonse, Butare, June 2003.
31. Le Canard Enchâiné, 8 April 1998.
32. Mucyo Commission Report, 2008, Part II, III.II Acts committed by the French soldiers at Gikongoro.
33. Interviewed by Georges Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
34. Prunier 1999: 295.
35. Dallaire 2003: 455.
36. Human Rights Watch 1999: 686.
37. Human Rights Watch 1999: 684.
38. Human Rights Watch 1999: 685.
39. Prunier 1999: 295.
40. Interviewed by Georges Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
41. Dallaire 2003: 457.
42. Human Rights Watch 1999: 685.
43. Bizimungu had been promoted to Major General and made army head replacing General Deogratias Nsabimana who had been killed in the plane crash of 6 April. He was arrested in Angola in 2002 and sentenced to 30 years imprisonment by the ICTR in May 2011 for genocide.
44. Dallaire 2003: 474.
45. Human Rights Watch 1999: 686.
46. Prunier 1999: 299.
47. Human Rights Watch 1999: 686.
48. Human Rights Watch Arms Project 1995: 5.
49. Kiley 1998; Human Rights Watch 1999: 688.
50. Richter 1994.
51. Gourevitch 1999: 157.
52. Interviewed by Georges Kapler, 2004.
53. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 328.
54. Interviewed by Georges Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
55. ‘Radio Mille Collines’, Le Monde, 31 July 1994.
56. Interview, Stephen Rapp, Arusha 2003.
57. Human Rights Watch 1999: 688.
58. Interview, Kigali, 19 June 2003.
59. Interview, Gikongoro region, June 2003.
60. Interviewed by Georges Kapler, Rwanda, 2004.
61. Kagabo 2004.
62. McGreal 1994c: 10.
63. Dallaire 2003: 482.
64. Dallaire 2003: 483.
65. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 329.
66. Janvier, interviewed by Kapler, 2004.
67. Mucyo commission report, 2008 Part III 1.2 Restructuring, re-arming and re-training of FAR and Interahamwe.
68. Prunier 1999: 301.
69. Prunier 1999: 303.
70. McNulty 1997: 19; Lanxade 1995: 7–16.
71. UN Security Council 1999.
72. IRIN–CEA update 708, 6 July 1999.
73. Thierry Prungnaud interviewed by Laure de Vulpian on France Culture radio, 22 April 2005, reprinted in Billets d’Afrique, no. 136, May 2005.
74. Prunier 1997: 311.
Chapter 9: Burying Genocide
1. Adelman and Suhrke 1996: 43.
2. African Rights 1995a: 1154.
3. Billets d’Afrique, no. 15, October 1994.
4. Prunier 1997: 321.
5. Interview, Albert, Gitarama, 22 June 2003.
6. ‘Rwanda: week of genocide commemoration begins, Kagame in plea to international community’, IRIN news, 5 April 2004.
7. Hatzfeld 2005: 28.
8. Huband 1994b: 21.
9. Carvel 1994: 13.
10. Prunier 1997: 337.
11. Carvel 1994.
12. ‘Abandoned Rwanda’, The Economist, 26 November 1994, vol. 1333, no. 7891: 19.
13. For detail of funding failure to the new Kigali regime see: Waller, David (1996) Which Way Now? (revised edition), Oxford, Oxfam publications; ‘Rwanda: Kigali under Europressure’, Africa Confidential 4 November 1994, vol. 35, no. 22: 4-6; Austin, Kathi, ‘Rwanda’s next nightmare’, The Washington Post, 20 November 1994, p.c.02; Rapport de l’observatoire permanent de la coopération française (1995) Paris: Desclée de Brouwer: 170–172; Chossudovsky, Michel, ‘IMF-World Bank policies and the Rwandan holocaust’, Third World Network Features, 26 January 1995 (online publication); Chossudovsky, Michel and Garland, Pierre, The use of Rwanda’s external debt (1990–1994), The responsibility of donors and creditors for the 1994 Rwandan genocide, 30 March 2004 (online publication).
14. Prunier 1997: 340–1.
15. Prunier 1997: 339.
16. Nundy 1994b.
17. Prunier 1997: 339.
18. Rapport de l’observatoire permanent de la coopération française 1995: 164–5.
19. Prunier 1997: 317.
20. See the work of Jean-Pierre Chrétien, especially 1992 and 1993.
21. Chrétien 1993: 164.
22. Prunier 1997: 339.
23. Prunier 1997: 339.
24. Traynor 2005: 15.
25. de Saint-Exupéry 2004: 14.
26. Human Rights Watch Arms Project 1995: 1.
27. Block 1994.
28. Francois Karera was prefect of Kigali-Rural Prefecture where some of the worst massacres took place. He was arrested in 2001 and in December 2007 found guilty by the ICTR of genocide and sentenced to life imprisonment, to be served in Benin.
29. UNHCR/FRS/A/04:para.5, quoted in Adelman and Suhrke 1996: II, 56.
30. Joseph Nzirorera, former national-secretary of MRND and minister of public works, and Mathieu Ngirumpatse, former MRND president and justice minister, helped create the Interahamwe. The ‘government I case’ which included four co-accused, Nzirorera, Ngirumpatse, Edouard Karemera and André Rwamakuba (Minister for Education in the Interim Government) began in November 2003. Nzirorera died in July 2010 before judgement was reached. Ngirumpatse and Karemera were given life sentences in December 2011. André Rwamakuba was acquitted and released in September 2006.
31. Jennings 2001: 62.
32. Human Rights Watch Arms Project 1995.
33. Human Rights Watch Arms Project 1995: 5.
34. Ibid.
35. McGreal 1994d.
36. Organization of African Unity 2000.
37. Interview, Arusha, 8 June 2003.
38. Gouteux 2002: 386.
39. Hirondelle News Agency, 18 May 2004.
40. Human Rights Watch 1999: 656.
41. ‘Trois officiers français témoignent en faveur d’un colonel Rwandais,’ Le Monde 18 January 2007; ‘D’importants témoins attendus pour la défense des anciens responsables militaires Rwandais,’ Agence Hirondelle, Arusha, 5 October 2005.
42. ‘Mali lobbies Rwanda on UN peacekeeping mission’, Rwanda Express, 13 March 2013.
43. Décision de la Commission des recours des réfugiés accessed at http://www.asser.nl/upload/documents/DomCLIC/Docs/NLP/France/Habyarimana_CRR_15–2-2007.pdf
44. Décision du Conseil d’État, Section du contentieux, 10ème et 9ème sous-sections réunies, Séance du 23 septembre 2009 Lecture du 16 octobre 2009, accessed 2013 at http://www.asser.nl/upload/documents/DomCLIC/Docs/NLP/France/Agathe_Habyarimana_Conseil_d_Etat_16–10-2009.pdf
45. African Rights 1995b: 7.
46. African Rights 1995b: 15.
47. BBC Panorama 1995.
48. African Rights 1995b: 25.
49. Catherine Simon, ‘Un étrange miraculé’, Le Monde, 24 February 2010.
50. African Rights 1996: 23.
51. African Rights 1996: 35.
52. Human Rights Watch 1999: 346.
53. Interview Alain Gauthier, Paris January 2013
54. S/RES/978 (1995), Document 120, UN Blue Book, p.471.
55. Robertson 2002.
56. Hatzfeld 2005: 80.
57. MSF 1998 (online publication).
58. Patrick de Saint-Exupéry, ‘France-Rwanda: des silences d’Etat,’ Le Figaro, 14 January 1998.
59. Atienga 1998 (online publication).
60. ‘How Judge Bruguière built his flawed case’, New Times, 13 November 2008.
61. CNN (1998) (online publication).
62. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 341. ‘Hima’ people are a subgroup of Tutsis who traditionally come from southern Burundi and Uganda.
63. Atienga 1998 (online publication)
64. Special report on Rwanda, Billets d’Afrique, 21 December 1998, no. 66A, January 1999.
65. Panafrican News Agency, quoted by Nabakwe 1998.
Chapter 10: Smokescreens and the Search for Truth
1. Patrick de Saint-Exupéry, RFI interview, 19 January 2008.
2. Alex Duval Smith, ‘French Judge says Rwandan leader should face court over genocide.’ The Guardian, 22 November 2006.
3. ibid.
4. Abdul Ruzibiza, RFI interview, 20 November 2011.
5. Emmanuel Ruzigana, Open Letter addressed to Mr Judge Jean-Loius Bruguiere, 30 November 2006, accessed 2013 at http://en.calameo.com/read/0000063654c767629523b
6. ‘WikiLeaks Documents: Bruguiere Consulted With US Government to Indict Paul Kagame and His Associates For Terrorism;’ Afroamerica network 1 December 2010; ‘WikiLeaks: In France the Rwandan investigation was followed in high places,’ Le Monde, 12 September 2010.
7. Bruce Crumley, ‘France’s Counter-Terrorism Ace Finds Himself Under Scrutiny’, Time World, 20 July 2011.
8. Bruce Crumley, ‘Could Seven Dead Monks Upset President Nicolas Sarkozy’s Bold Plans To Remake France’s Legal System?’ Time World, 16 July 2009.
9. ‘Report of an independent commission to establish the role of France in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide,’ (Mucyo Report), Kigali, August 2008
10. Chris McGreal, ‘Top Rwandan aide chooses French terror trial,’ The Guardian, 10 November 2008.
11. ‘Kagame meets with French president,’ The New Times, 10 December 2007.
12. Interview with President Paul Kagame, London 4 December 2008.
13. ‘Report of the investigation into the causes and circumstances of and responsibility for the attack of 06/04/1994 against the falcon 50 Rwandan Presidential Aeroplane, registration Number 9XR-NN,’ (Mutsinzi report), Kigali, January 2010.
14. Anjan Sundaram, ‘On visit to Rwanda, Sarkozy admits ‘Grave Errors’ in 1994 genocide,’ New York Times, 25 February 2010.
15. Franck Petit ‘A quoi joue Paul Kagamé’, SlateAfrique.com, 11 January 2012.
16. Richard Moncrieff, ‘French Relations with Sub-Saharan Africa Under President Sarkozy,’ South African Institute of Contemporary Affairs, January 2012.
17. ‘Frenemies forever: France and Rwanda struggle to get over their mutual loathing’, The Economist, 17 September 2011.
18. Interview with protected source, December 2012.
19. Pauline Moullot, ‘Rwanda: France’s Long Silence,’ Worldpolicy.org, 14 December 2011.
20. Andrew Wallis, ‘Rwanda: a step towards truth,’ opendemocracy.net, 21 January 2012.
21. See CPCR website for present details on cases in France http://www.collectifpartiescivilesrwanda.fr/english-version/
22. Andrew Wallis, ‘International Courts: Justice vs. Politics,’ opendemocracy.net, 27 February 2013.
23. Ostine Arinaitwe, ‘France denies delaying trial for genocide suspects,’ The Independent (Uganda), 7 February 2013.
24. ‘France; a haven for Genocide fugitives?’ The New Times, 12 November 2012.
Conclusion
1. Prunier 1997: 352.
2. Assemblée nationale 1998: II, Annexes, 133, quoted in Coret and Verschave 2005: 106.
3. Gregory 2000: 440.
4. Chrétien 1992: 18.
5. Lemarchand 1995: 11.
6. Callamard 1999: 175.
7. Callamard 1999: 175.
8. Assemblée nationale 1998: I, 344.
9. BBC Panorama 1995.
10. Henley 2002.
11. Prunier 1997: 165.
12. Munyaneza 2005.
13. AFP (Kigali) 10 April 2006.
14. Hatzfeld 2005: 8.
15. Webster 2001: 297.