PREFACE
1. Alasdair MacIntyre, “Is Patriotism a Virtue?,” in Theorizing Citizenship, ed. Ronald Beiner (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995).
2. Maurizio Viroli, For Love of Country: An Essay on Patriotism and Nationalism (Oxford, Eng.: Clarendon Press, 1995).
3. Walter Berns, Making Patriots (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
INTRODUCTION
1. J. Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur, Letters from an American Farmer and Sketches of Eighteenth-Century America, ed. Albert E. Stone (New York: Penguin, 1983), 69.
2. See Martin Diamond, The Founding of the Democratic Republic (Itasca, Ill.: F. E. Peacock, 1981); Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1981); Seymour Martin Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword (New York: Norton, 1996).
3. Cited in Yuichiro Kakutani, “What Is National Conservatism? At an Inaugural Conference, a New Brand of Conservatives Are Beginning to Define Themselves,” Townhall, July 16, 2019.
4. Aaron Sibarium, “National Conservatism: A Guide for the Perplexed,” American Interest, August 15, 2019.
5. Yael Tamir, Liberal Nationalism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993).
6. Cited in Daniel Luban, “The Man Behind National Conservatism,” New Republic, July 26, 2019.
7. For a brilliant analysis of the modernity of the nation-state, see Pierre Manent, The Metamorphoses of the City, trans. Marc LePain (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2013).
8. Niccolò Machiavelli to Francesco Vettori, April 16, 1527, in Machiavelli and His Friends: Their Personal Correspondence, trans. James B. Atkinson and David Sices (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996), 416.
9. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, ed. Conor Cruise O’Brien (London: Penguin, 1986), 172.
10. Robert Strassler, ed. The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to “The Peloponnesian War” (New York: Free Press, 1996), book 2, sec. 43.
11. Hannah Arendt, The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age, ed. Ron H. Feldman (New York: Grove Press, 1978), 246–247.
12. James Boswell, The Life of Samuel Johnson, ed. R. W. Chapman (Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1957), 615.
CHAPTER 1. PATRIOTISM AND LOYALTY
1. Eric Felten, Loyalty: The Vexing Virtue (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011).
2. The most important—and now virtually forgotten—work remains Josiah Royce, The Philosophy of Loyalty, ed. John K. Roth (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1982); see also Sanford Levinson, Joel Parker, and Paul Woodruff, eds., Loyalty (New York: NYU Press, 2013).
3. Aristotle, Politics, trans. Carnes Lord (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), book 3, 1276b–1277a.
4. In re Anastaplo, 366 U.S. 82 (1961); Anastaplo was never allowed to practice law. For a collection of some of his best essays, see George Anastaplo, Human Being and Citizen: Essays on Virtue, Freedom, and the Common Good (Chicago: Swallow Press, 1975).
5. Jonathan Haidt, The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion (New York: Pantheon, 2012), 138–141.
6. Albert O. Hirschman, Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970).
7. Ibid., 79.
8. For an account of this fascinating life, see Jeremy Adelman, Worldly Philosopher: The Odyssey of Albert O. Hirschman (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2013).
9. Harry G. Frankfurt, The Importance of What We Care About (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 83.
10. Søren Kierkegaard, Fear and Trembling, trans. Sylvia Walsh (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
11. For an interesting discussion of the Manning case, see Lida Maxwell, Insurgent Truth: Chelsea Manning and the Politics of Outsider Truth-Telling (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019).
12. The terms are borrowed from Leo Strauss, “Progress or Return?,” in Studies in Classical Political Rationalism, ed. Thomas L. Pangle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 227–270.
13. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: Library of America, 2004), 322.
14. H. L. Mencken, cited in The Yale Book of Quotations, ed. Fred R. Shapiro (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), 513.
15. The best study of the politics of Puritanism remains Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965).
16. John Winthrop, “A Model of Christian Charity,” in American Political Thought, ed. Isaac Kramnick and Theodore J. Lowi (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009), 11–16; for the most recent attempt to interpret the meaning of Winthrop’s sermon, see Daniel T. Rodgers, As a City on a Hill: The Story of America’s Most Famous Lay Sermon (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2018).
17. The classic study of the American Puritan culture remains Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1956); see also Sacvan Bercovitch, The Puritan Origins of the American Self (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975); and Andrew Delbanco, The Puritan Ordeal (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989). For a recent discussion, see Samuel Goldman, Christian Zionism in America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018).
18. Leonard Bacon, “O God, Beneath Thy Guiding Hand,” hymn, available at Hymnary.org, https://hymnary.org/text/o_god_beneath_thy_guiding_hand.
19. For a useful anthology of studies of the different meanings of exceptionalism, see the inaugural issue of American Political Thought 1 (2012).
20. Winthrop, “Model of Christian Charity,” 16.
21. For an extraordinary statement of this progressive faith, see Stephen Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Penguin, 2011).
22. For the best accounts of the progressive movement, see James T. Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870–1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Eldon J. Eisenach, The Lost Promise of Progressivism (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1994); Stephen Skowronek, Stephen Engel, and Bruce Ackerman, eds. The Progressives’ Century: Political Reform, Constitutional Government, and the Modern American State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016).
23. Richard Rorty, Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth-Century America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); for a related view, see Paul Berman, “Philosophers and the American Left,” Tablet, November 25, 2018.
24. Rorty, Achieving Our Country, 15–16.
25. I owe these examples to my student Molly Shapiro.
26. Daniel J. Boorstin, The Genius of American Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953).
27. American Political Science Committee on Political Parties, “Toward a More Responsible Two-Party System,” American Political Science Review 44, suppl. (1950).
28. The classic statement is Werner Sombart, Why Is There No Socialism in the United States?, trans. Patricia M. Hocking and C. T. Husbands (White Plains, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1976).
29. Louis Hartz, The Liberal Tradition in America (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1955); for other works in this genre, see Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Vital Center: Politics of Freedom (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1949); Lionel Trilling, The Liberal Imagination: Essays on Literature and Politics (New York: Viking, 1950); and Daniel J. Boorstin, The Genius of American Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953).
30. Hartz, Liberal Tradition in America, 302–309.
31. This story is well told by Mark Lilla, The Once and Future Liberal: After Identity Politics (New York: HarperCollins, 2017).
32. For the Afro-pessimist case, see Ta-Nehisi Coates, We Were in Power Eight Years (New York: Random House, 2017); for the views on a fascist America, see Timothy Snyder, On Tyranny: Twenty Lessons from the Twentieth Century (New York: Random House, 2017); Jason Stanley, How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them (New York: Random House, 2018).
33. See, for example, the debate sparked at Yale by a residential college head who dared to tell students that they might wear the Halloween costumes of their choice: Joey Ye, “Silliman Associate Master’s Halloween Email Draws Ire,” Yale Daily News, November 2, 2005; Monica Wang and Victor Wang, “Students Confront Christakis About Halloween Email,” Yale Daily News, November 6, 2015; and for a valuable summary of the debate, Anthony Kronman, The Attack on Excellence (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2019), 4–5. Not to be outdone, a group of Harvard students recently demanded the ouster of one of their deans—a distinguished law professor—who dared to take disgraced movie producer Harvey Weinstein as a client: see Ronald S. Sullivan, “Why Harvard Was Wrong to Make Me Step Down,” New York Times, June 24, 2019.
34. For a revealing example, see Rich Lowry, The Case for Nationalism: How It Made Us Powerful, United, and Free (New York: Broadside, 2019), 183–200.
35. Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981).
36. Kathleen Freeman, ed., Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1957), 32.
37. Abraham Lincoln, “The First Inaugural Address,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 332.
CHAPTER 2. PATRIOTISM AND ITS CRITICS
1. Cited in Eric Felten, Loyalty: The Vexing Virtue (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 243.
2. Simon Keller, “The Case Against Patriotism,” in The Ethics of Patriotism: A Debate, ed. John Kleinig, Simon Keller, and Igor Primoratz (Oxford, Eng.: John Wiley, 2015), 48–72.
3. Leo Tolstoy, “On Patriotism,” in Tolstoy’s Writings on Civil Disobedience and Non-Violence (New York: Bergman Publishers, 1967), 103.
4. E. M. Forster, Two Cheers for Democracy (New York: Harcourt and Brace, 1951), 68–69.
5. Oscar Wilde, “The Critic as Artist,” in The Soul of Man Under Socialism and Selected Critical Prose, ed. Linda Dowling (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin, 2000), 276.
6. Graham Greene, “Foreword” to Kim Philby, My Silent War: The Autobiography of a Spy (New York: Random House, 2002), xvii.
7. Ibid., xvii–xviii.
8. George Kateb, “Is Patriotism a Mistake?,” Social Research 67 (2000): 901–924.
9. Ibid., 902.
10. Ibid., 907.
11. Ibid., 913.
12. Ibid., 914.
13. Martha Nussbaum, “Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism,” in For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism, ed. Joshua Cohen (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 6–7. Recently Nussbaum has attempted to walk back some of her ideas; see Martha C. Nussbaum, The Cosmopolitan Tradition: A Noble but Flawed Ideal (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 2019). My goal here is not to track the twists and turns of Nussbaum’s changing views, but to present the case for cosmopolitanism in its strongest light.
14. Nussbaum, “Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism,” 7.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid., 9.
17. Ibid., 15.
18. Ibid.
19. For a masterful analysis of this problem, see Raymond Aron, “On Treason,” Confluence 3 (1954): 280–294. I want to thank Joshua Cherniss for drawing this article to my attention.
20. For the attempt to link Alexander to the later Marxist theory of the “universal state,” see Alexandre Kojève, “Tyranny and Wisdom,” in Leo Strauss, On Tyranny, ed. Victor Gourevitch and Michael Roth (New York: Free Press, 1991), 135–176; for an elegant summary of Kojève’s thesis, see Eve Adler, Vergil’s Empire: Political Thought in the Aeneid (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003), 199–210.
21. Nussbaum, “Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism,” 13.
22. Kwame Anthony Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York: Norton, 2006).
23. Ibid., xv.
24. Ibid., 158–162.
25. Ibid., 166.
26. New York Times Magazine, August 14, 2019. Since the publication of this issue there has been considerable pushback from the historical profession; see the letter of December 29, 2019, signed by Victoria Bynum, James McPherson, James Oates, Sean Wilentz, and Gordon Wood; see also the interview with Gordon Wood on the World Socialist Web Site, https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2019/11/28/wood-n28.html.
27. Appiah, Cosmopolitanism, 166.
28. Alasdair MacIntyre, “Is Patriotism a Virtue?,” in Theorizing Citizenship, ed. Ronald Beiner (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995), 209.
29. Ibid., 211.
30. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), 136–142. This procedure has been deeply controversial. See Michael Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 24–28; Alan Bloom, “Justice: John Rawls vs. the Tradition of Political Philosophy,” American Political Science Review 69 (1975): 648–662.
31. MacIntyre, “Is Patriotism a Virtue?,”212.
32. Ibid., 220.
33. Ibid., 228.
34. Martin Diamond, “Ethics and Politics: The American Way,” in The Moral Foundations of the American Republic, ed. Robert H. Horwitz (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1977), 42.
35. G. W. F. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, trans. H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1991), para. 268.
36. For an excellent treatment of Hegelian patriotism, see Lydia L. Moland, Hegel on Political Identity: Patriotism, Nationality, and Cosmopolitanism (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 2011), 46–75; Rupert Gordon, “Modernity, Freedom, and the State: Hegel’s Concept of Patriotism,” Review of Politics 62 (2000): 295–325.
37. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, para. 268R.
38. Michael Walzer, “What Does It Mean to Be an ‘American’?,” Social Research 71 (2004): 633.
39. Horace Kallen, “Democracy Versus the Melting-Pot,” in Culture and Democracy in the United States, ed. Stephen J. Whitfield (London: Routledge, 2017), 59–117; for an excellent discussion see Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2001), 388–394.
40. Walzer, “What Does It Mean to Be an ‘American’?,” 637.
41. Ibid., 644.
42. Ibid., 651–652.
43. Ibid., 652–653.
44. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist, ed. J. R. Poole (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2005), no. 2: 6.
45. For a valuable conceptual history of patriotism, see Mary G. Dietz, “Patriotism: A Brief History of the Term,” in Patriotism, ed. Igor Primoratz (Amherst, N.Y.: Humanity Books, 2002), 201–215.
46. Cited in Joseph Chamberlain, “Patriotism,” in Modern Eloquence, vol. 7: Occasional Addresses, ed. Thomas Brackett Reed (Philadelphia: John D. Morris, 1900), 164.
47. The most complete treatment remains Caroline Robbins, The Eighteenth-Century Commonwealthman: Studies in the Transmission, Development, and Circumstances of English Liberal Thought from the Restoration of Charles II Until the War with the Thirteen Colonies (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959). For the influence of English republicanism on American political thought, see Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), 22–54; and Gordon Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 (New York: Norton, 1969), 3–45.
48. The best study remains Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).
49. Jack Lynch, ed., Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary (New York: Levenger Press, 2002), 504.
50. George Lichtheim, “Winston Churchill—Sketch for a Portrait,” in Collected Essays (New York: Viking, 1974), 14.
51. Anthony Ashley Cooper, Third Earl of Shaftesbury, Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times, ed. Lawrence E. Klein (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 399–400.
52. The court-country split is explored in J. G. A. Pocock, “Machiavelli, Harrington and English Political Ideologies of the Eighteenth Century,” in Politics, Language, and Time: Essays on Political Thought and History (New York: Atheneum, 1973), 104–147.
53. The Oxford English Dictionary, entry for patriotism.
54. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, ed. Conor Cruise O’Brien (London: Penguin, 1986), 186. That Burke clearly read Bolingbroke is argued persuasively by Harvey C. Mansfield, Statesmanship and Party Government: A Study of Burke and Bolingbroke (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965).
55. For some useful comparisons of Machiavelli and Bolingbroke, see Herbert Butterfield, The Statecraft of Machiavelli (New York: Macmillan, 1962), 101–122.
56. Bolingbroke, “The Idea of a Patriot King,” in Political Writings, ed. David Armitage (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 257.
57. Ibid., 257–258.
58. Ibid., 263.
59. Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 14.
60. For a compelling analysis, see Luke Mayville, John Adams and the Fear of American Oligarchy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2016); see also ibid., 567–592.
61. For a full-throated defense of Locke’s importance for the American founding, see Thomas L. Pangle, The Spirit of Modern Republicanism: The Moral Vision of the American Founders and the Philosophy of John Locke (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988). The critique of Locke’s influence on America used to come mainly from the Marxist left, although recently a number of attacks from the nationalist right have accused Locke of creating a regime of anarchic license and hedonism; see especially Christopher Ferrara, Liberty: The God That Failed: Policing the Sacred and Constructing the Myths of the Liberal State from Locke to Obama (Tacoma, Wash.: Angelico Press, 2012); Patrick Deneen, Why Liberalism Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018); and Yoram Hazony, The Virtue of Nationalism (New York: Basic Books, 2018). For a good overview of some of the recent anti-Lockeanism, see Joseph Loconte, “Anathematizing Liberalism,” National Interest 160 (2019): 57–70.
62. Thomas Jefferson to Henry Lee, May 8, 1825, in Jefferson: Political Writings, ed. Joyce Appleby and Terence Ball (Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 148.
63. Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man, in Thomas Paine: Selected Writings, ed. Ian Shapiro and Jane E. Calvert (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014), 271.
64. My understanding of the Anti-Federalist disposition owes much to Herbert J. Storing, What the Anti-Federalists Were For: The Political Thought of the Opponents of the Constitution, ed. Murray Dry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); for the republic as a tutelary enterprise, see Eva T. H. Brann, Paradoxes of Education in a Republic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).
65. This discussion is indebted to Raymond Geuss, Philosophy and Real Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2008), 42–50.
66. Jack Rakove, “The Madisonian Moment,” University of Chicago Law Review 65 (1988): 473–505.
67. Federalist, no. 1: 1.
CHAPTER 3. PATRIOTISM, ANCIENT AND MODERN
1. Herodotus, The History, trans. David Grene (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), book 7, sec. 186.
2. For a valuable retelling, see Ernle Bradford, Thermopylae: The Battle for the West (New York: Da Capo, 1980); and Paul Cartledge, Thermopylae: The Battle That Changed the World (New York: Vintage, 2007).
3. Herodotus, History, book 7, sec. 220.
4. Ibid., book 7, sec. 226.
5. Ibid., book 7, sec. 228.
6. Ibid., book 7, sec. 104.
7. Plutarch, “Lycurgus,” in Lives, vol. 1, trans. Bernadotte Perrin, Loeb Classic Library (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998).
8. Plutarch, “Alexander,” in Lives, vol. 7, trans. Bernadotte Perrin, Loeb Classic Library (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2019), sec. 1: 1.
9. Plutarch, “Lycurgus,” sec. 4: 1.
10. Ibid., sec. 4: 3.
11. Ibid., sec. 8: 3; sec. 10: 2.
12. Ibid., sec. 14: 2; sec. 15: 2.
13. This practice is the model for Plato’s proposals for public nudity in the Republic, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1991), 456a–457a; for a useful commentary, see Michael S. Kochin, Gender and Rhetoric in Plato’s Political Thought (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 62–72.
14. Plutarch, “Lycurgus,” sec. 16: 1–2; sec. 18: 1.
15. Ibid., sec. 14: 1.
16. Ibid., sec. 27: 3.
17. Polybius, The Rise of the Roman Empire, trans. Ian Scott-Kilvert (London: Penguin, 1969), book 6, sec. 48.
18. Gordon Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969), 114–118; Douglass Adair, “Fame and the Founding Fathers,” in Fame and the Founding Fathers, ed. Trevor Colbourn (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1998), 17–18.
19. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile; or, On Education, trans. Allan Bloom (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 40.
20. Ibid.
21. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Social Contract in The Social Contract and Other Political Writings, trans. Victor Gourevitch (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1997), book 1, ch. 8, sec. 3.
22. Ibid., book 1, ch. 8, sec. 9.
23. Judith N. Shklar, Men and Citizens: A Study of Rousseau’s Social Theory (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 157. For an excellent account of Rousseau’s lawgiver, see Céline Spector, Rousseau (Cambridge, Eng.: Polity Press, 2019), 76–80.
24. Rousseau, Social Contract, book 4, ch. 8, sec. 22.
25. Ibid., book 4, ch. 8, sec. 27.
26. Ibid., book 4, ch. 8, sec. 28.
27. Emile Durkheim, Montesquieu and Rousseau: Forerunners of Sociology, trans. Georges Davy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1960); Raymond Aron, Main Currents of Sociological Thought, vol. 1, ed. Daniel J. Mahoney and Brian C. Anderson (Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1998), 13–72. See also Pierre Manent, The City of Man, trans. Marc A. Le Pain (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), 11–49.
28. Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, trans. Anne Cohler, Basia Miller, and Harold Stone (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1989), book 2, ch. 1.
29. Ibid., author’s foreword; book 3, ch. 3; book 4, ch. 5; and book 5, chs. 1–7.
30. Ibid., book 3, ch. 3.
31. Louis Althusser, Montesquieu: Politics and History, trans. Ben Brewster (London: NLB, 1972), 61.
32. Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, book 3, ch. 3.
33. Ibid., book 4, ch. 7.
34. Ibid., book 5, ch. 2.
35. Ibid., book 4, ch. 6.
36. Ibid., book 5, ch. 2.
37. Ibid., book 5, ch. 6; book 20, ch. 1.
38. Ibid., book 20, ch. 2.
39. Ibid., book 19, ch. 27; book 20, ch. 7; book 20, ch. 6.
40. For two excellent accounts of Smith’s moral philosophy and its relation to his economics, see Charles L. Griswold, Adam Smith and the Virtues of Enlightenment (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1999), and Ryan Hanley, Adam Smith and the Character of Virtue (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
41. For Smith’s “psychological” conception of moral virtue, see Joseph Cropsey, Polity and Economy (South Bend, Ind.: Saint Augustine Press, 2001), 1–64.
42. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, ed. D. D. Raphael and A. L. Macfie (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1984), 227.
43. Ibid., 228.
44. Ibid., 228–229.
45. Ibid., 229.
46. Ibid., 231.
47. Ibid., 231–232.
48. Ibid., 234.
49. Ibid., 233.
50. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist, ed. J. R. Poole (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2005), no. 6: 22–25, no. 38: 199–200, no. 63: 340–341.
51. Walter Isaacson, Benjamin Franklin: An American Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003), 459.
52. For some useful comments on the Roman Publius, see Mark Shiffman, “Why Publius?,” in Republics and Republicanism in the History of Political Philosophy: Promise and Peril, ed. Will R. Jordan (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 2017), 31–48.
53. For the role of Montesquieu in early American thought, see Paul M. Spurlin, Montesquieu in America, 1760–1801 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1940); Anne M. Cohler, Montesquieu’s Comparative Politics and the Spirit of American Constitutionalism (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1988), 148–169; and James W. Muller, “The American Framers’ Debt to Montesquieu,” in The Revival of Constitutionalism, ed. James W. Muller (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1988).
54. Federalist, no. 9: 41.
55. Ibid., no. 9: 42.
56. Ibid., no. 10: 48.
57. Martin Diamond, “Ethics and Politics: The American Way,” in The Moral Foundations of the American Republic, ed. Robert H. Horowitz (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1977), 49–56; see also James Q. Wilson, “Interests and Deliberation in the American Republic; or, Why James Madison Would Never Have Received the James Madison Award,” PS: Political Science and Politics 23 (1990): 558–562.
58. Both methods are articulated in Federalist, no. 10: 49.
59. The classic study of this transformation remains Albert O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism Before Its Triumph (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977); for an earlier account see J. A. W. Gunn, Politics and the Public Interest in the Seventeenth Century (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969).
60. Federalist, no. 10: 49–50.
61. For Madison as a precursor of modern democratic theory, see Robert Dahl, A Preface to Democratic Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956).
62. Federalist, no. 10: 53.
63. Ibid., no. 10: 54.
64. For the Federalists’ ideas on representation, see Bernard Manin, The Principles of Representative Government (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 102–131; see also Gordon Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 (New York: Norton, 1969), 596–600.
65. Federalist, no. 47: 262; no. 63: 340.
66. Ibid., no. 39: 207; emphasis added.
67. Ibid., no. 63: 341.
68. Ibid., no. 48: 268. The doctrine of separation of powers has been usefully discussed by Jeffrey K. Tulis and Nicole Mellow in their Legacies of Losing in American Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018), 54–66.
69. Federalist, no. 48: 269.
70. Federalist, no. 10: 51, emphasis added; see also, no. 6: 24–25; no. 55: 301.
71. Federalist, no. 35: 185.
72. Ibid.
73. Sanford Levinson, Constitutional Faith (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2011).
74. The classic statement of this position can be found in J. G. A. Pocock, The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law: English Historical Thought in the Seventeenth Century (New York: Norton, 1957).
75. Federalist, no. 14: 73; Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, September 6, 1789, in The Portable Thomas Jefferson, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Viking, 1973), 449.
76. Aristotle, Politics, trans. Carnes Lord (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), book. 2, 1269a.
77. Abraham Lincoln, “Fragment on the Constitution and the Union,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 321–322.
78. For a useful account, see James W. Ceaser, “The Constitution as Political Theory: Between Rationalism and Reverence,” available at the American Enterprise Institute website, https://www.aei.org/research-products/report/constitution-political-theory-rationalism-reverence; see also Walter Berns, Making Patriots (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 21–22.
79. David Hume, “Of the First Principles of Government,” in Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary, ed. Eugene Miller (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1985), 32–36.
80. For the claim that the constitutional framers were heavily indebted to the Scots, see Garry Wills, Explaining America: The Federalist (New York: Doubleday, 1978); Douglass Adair, “The Tenth Federalist Revisited,” in Fame and the Founding Fathers, ed. Trevor Colbourn (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1998), 106–131; and Frank D. Balog, “The Scottish Enlightenment and the Liberal Political Tradition,” in Confronting the Constitution, ed. Allan Bloom (Washington, D.C.: AEI Press, 1990), 191–208. For a recent effort to revive the theory of moral sense philosophy, see James Q. Wilson, The Moral Sense (New York: Free Press, 1993).
81. Federalist, no. 49: 274.
82. Abraham Lincoln, “Address to the Young Men’s Lyceum,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 10–11.
83. Robert Bellah, “Civil Religion in America,” in American Civil Religion, ed. Russell Richey and Donald Jones (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 28; for a recent update of Bellah’s thesis, see Philip Gorski, American Covenant: A History of Civil Religion from the Puritans to the Present (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2017).
84. Bellah, “Civil Religion in America,” 28.
85. William B. Allen, ed., George Washington: A Collection (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund Press, 1988), 548.
CHAPTER 4. NATIONALISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM
1. For a sample of this vast literature, see John Rawls, The Law of Peoples (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999); Peter Singer, One World: The Ethics of Globalization (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002); Martha Nussbaum, Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, and Species Membership (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006).
2. Elie Kedourie, Nationalism (Oxford, Eng.: Blackwell, 1993), 1.
3. My account here follows but develops on Isaiah Berlin, “Nationalism: Past Neglect and Present Power,” in Against the Current, ed. Henry Hardy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2013), 420–448; see also Fania Oz-Salzberger, “Isaiah Berlin on Nationalism, the Modern Jewish Condition, and Zionism,” in The Cambridge Companion to Isaiah Berlin, ed. Joshua L. Cherniss and Steven B. Smith (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 169–191.
4. For some useful comments, see Charles Taylor, “The Importance of Herder,” in Isaiah Berlin: A Celebration, ed. Edna Ullmann-Margalit and Avishai Margalit (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 40–63.
5. Isaiah Berlin, Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder, ed. Henry Hardy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 168–242.
6. For the possibility of a liberal nationalism, see Yael Tamir, Liberal Nationalism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), and more recently, Tamir, Why Nationalism? (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2019).
7. Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Addresses to the German Nation, trans. Isaac Nakhimovsky, Bela Kapossy, and Keith Tribe (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2013). For some useful comments, see Maurizio Viroli, For Love of Country: An Essay on Patriotism and Nationalism (Oxford, Eng.: Clarendon Press, 1995), 126–135.
8. Fichte, Addresses to the German Nation, 9.
9. G. W. F. Hegel, The German Constitution in Hegel’s Political Writings, trans. T. M. Knox, intro. Z. A. Pelczynski (Oxford, Eng.: Clarendon Press, 1969), 241.
10. Heinrich Heine, Germany: A Winter Tale, trans. Annette Bridges (New York: Mondial, 2007), v.
11. Karl Marx, Critique of Hegel’s “Philosophy of Right,” trans. Joseph O’Malley (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 132.
12. G. W. F. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. Terry Pinkard (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 13.
13. Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, trans. George Schwab (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1976).
14. Ibid., 29.
15. Ibid., 30.
16. Ibid., 31–32.
17. Jill Lepore, “Don’t Let Nationalists Speak for the Nation,” New York Times, May 26, 2019.
18. William Wordsworth, “My Heart Leaps Up,” in The Major Works, ed. Stephen Gill (Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 2008), 246.
19. George Orwell, “The Lion and the Unicorn: Socialism and the English Genius,” in The Collected Essays, vol. 2: My Country Right or Left, 1940–1943, ed. Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus (London: Secker and Warburg, 1968), 56.
20. George Orwell, “Notes on Nationalism,” in The Collected Essays, vol. 3: As I Please, 1943–1945, ed. Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus (London: Secker and Warburg, 1968), 362.
21. Ibid., 363.
22. Ibid., 59.
23. Ibid.
24. Yoram Hazony, The Virtue of Nationalism (New York: Basic Books, 2018). Hazony’s book has become the manifesto of the new “national conservative movement.” For a useful overview of the movement, see Daniel Luban, “The Man Behind National Conservatism,” New Republic, July 26, 2019.
25. Hazony, Virtue of Nationalism, 223.
26. For one of the first works to bring this problem to public attention, see Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1958), 267–302.
27. Cicero, On Duties, ed. M. T. Griffin and E. M. Atkins (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1991), book 3, p. 28.
28. Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges, The Ancient City: A Study of the Religion, Laws, and Institutions of Greece and Rome (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), 383, 384.
29. The classic statement of this view remains Carl L. Becker, The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth-Century Philosophers (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1932).
30. For an excellent discussion, see Yoshie Kawade, “From Love of Humanity to Peace Through Commerce: The Cosmopolitan Ideal in Eighteenth-Century France,” University of Tokyo Journal of Law and Politics 11 (2014): 30–40.
31. Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, trans. H. J. Paton (New York: Harper, 1964), 61.
32. Immanuel Kant, “An Answer to the Question: ‘What Is Enlightenment?’,” in Political Writings, ed. Hans Reiss, trans. H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 54.
33. See Immanuel Kant, “Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch,” in Political Writings, ed. Hans Reiss, trans. H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 93–130.
34. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist, ed. J. R. Poole (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2005), no. 6: 24.
35. Kant, “Perpetual Peace,” 114.
36. Michael W. Doyle, “Liberalism and International Relations,” in Kant and Political Philosophy: The Contemporary Legacy, ed. Ronald Beiner and William James Booth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 173–203.
37. Bernard Williams, “Realism and Moralism,” in In the Beginning Was the Deed: Realism and Moralism in Political Argument, ed. Geoffrey Hawthorn (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005), 1–17.
38. Kant, “Perpetual Peace,” 125.
39. See Michael Ignatieff, “The Seductiveness of Moral Disgust,” in The Warrior’s Honor: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscience (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 72–108.
40. See Kant, “Perpetual Peace,” 113.
41. Frederick Engels, “Socialism: Utopian and Scientific,” in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Works, vol. 3 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1973), 147, 151.
42. Joel Dinerstein, The Origins of Cool in Postwar America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017), 22.
43. Ibid., 24.
44. Richard J. Anobile, Casablanca (New York: Universe Books, 1974), 72.
45. Ibid., 253.
46. The term was coined by Baldesar Castiglione in The Book of the Courtier, trans. George Bull (London: Penguin, 1976), 67–70.
47. Nick Southgate, “Coolhunting with Aristotle,” International Journal of Market Research 45 (2003).
48. Ibid.
49. For the best and most plausible account of this citizenship, see Turkuler Isiksel, Europe’s Functional Constitution: A Theory of Constitutionalism Beyond the State (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).
50. Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage, 1966), para. 242, p. 176.
51. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Talcott Parsons (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1958), 182.
52. Paul Johnson, Heroes: From Alexander the Great and Julius to Churchill and De Gaulle (New York: Harper Perennial, 2007), 230.
53. Thomas Meaney, “The Generalist: On Charles de Gaulle,” Nation, September 12, 2012.
54. Pierre Manent, “De Gaulle as Hero,” in Liberty and Its Discontents, trans. Daniel J. Mahoney and Paul Seaton (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), 183.
55. Robert Pinsky, “Eros Against Esperanto,” in For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism, ed. Joshua Cohen (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 85–90.
56. Richard Rorty, Achieving Our Country (Cambridge, Eng.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 90.
57. Mark Lilla, The Once and Future Liberal: After Identity Politics (New York: HarperCollins, 2017).
58. The term meritocracy was coined by Michael Young in The Rise of the Meritocracy (London: Thames and Hudson, 1958); for an update of the concept, see Daniel Markovits, The Meritocracy Trap: How America’s Foundational Myth Feeds Inequality, Dismantles the Middle Class, and Devours the Elite (New York: Penguin, 2019).
59. Raymond Aron, The Opium of the Intellectuals, foreword by Daniel J. Mahoney and Brian C. Anderson (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2009).
CHAPTER 5. ENLIGHTENED PATRIOTISM
1. Joseph Cropsey, “The United States as Regime and the Sources of the American Way of Life,” Political Philosophy and the Issues of Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 1.
2. Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), 135–139; see also Raymond Aron, “Thucydides and the Historical Narrative,” in Politics and History, trans. Miriam Bernheim Conant (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2009), 21–24.
3. See J. G. A. Pocock, “Burke and the Ancient Constitution,” in Politics, Language, and Time: Essays on Political Thought and History (New York: Atheneum, 1973), 202–232.
4. For examples, see Raymond Aron, Democracy and Totalitarianism, trans. Valence Ionescu (New York: Praeger, 1969); Juan J. Linz, Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2000); Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965).
5. Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (New York: Viking, 1971), 221.
6. The modern conception of freedom is best explained in Benjamin Constant, “The Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns,” in Political Writings, ed. Biancamaria Fontana (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 309–328; for a contemporary adaptation of Constant’s views, see Isaiah Berlin, “Two Concepts of Liberty,” in Liberty, ed. Henry Hardy (Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 2002), 166–217.
7. See Michael Walzer, “Liberalism and the Art of Separation,” Political Theory 12 (1984): 315–330.
8. For a creative use of this metaphor, see Jon Elster, Ulysses and the Sirens: Studies in Rationality and Irrationality (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 36–111.
9. Abraham Lincoln, “Eulogy on Henry Clay,” “Speech on the Kansas-Nebraska Act,” “Letter to Henry L. Pierce,” and “Speech at Independence Hall,” all in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 48, 76, 243, 324.
10. Abraham Lincoln, “On Slavery and Democracy,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 150.
11. Abraham Lincoln, “Speech on the Kansas-Nebraska Act,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 76.
12. I have discussed this speech at length elsewhere; see Steven B. Smith, “Lincoln’s Enlightenment,” in Principle and Prudence in Western Political Thought, ed. Christopher Lynch and Jonathan Marks (Albany: SUNY Press, 2016), 275–295.
13. Lincoln, “Address to the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 275.
14. Lincoln, “Speech on the Dred Scott Decision,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 115.
15. Lincoln, “Speech on the Kansas-Nebraska Act,” 66.
16. Lincoln, “Speech to the 166th Ohio Regiment,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 423.
17. Lincoln, “To the Workingmen of Manchester England,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 397.
18. Lincoln, “Speech in the U.S. House of Representatives on the War with Mexico,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 36.
19. Lincoln to Joshua F. Speed, in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 96.
20. Ibid.
21. Lincoln, “Speech at Chicago,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 148.
22. Lincoln, “Speech to Germans at Cincinnati,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 323.
23. Judith N. Shklar, “Obligation, Loyalty, Exile,” in Political Thought and Political Thinkers, ed. Stanley Hoffman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 41.
24. Ibid., 41.
25. Jürgen Habermas, “Citizenship and National Identity: Some Reflections on the Future of Europe,” Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy, trans. William Rohg (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998), 491–516. For a valuable summary, see Maurizio Viroli, For Love of Country: An Essay on Patriotism and Nationalism (Oxford, Eng.: Clarendon Press, 1995), 169–177.
26. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: Library of America, 2004), 331.
27. Blaise Pascal, Pensées, trans. Roger Ariew (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2005), no. 227.
28. I am reminded of the line from the Coen brothers’ film The Big Lebowski: “Say what you will about National Socialism, Dude, at least it was an ethos.” The Big Lebowski, directed and written by Ethan Coen and Joel Coen (Working Title Films, 1998).
29. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 271.
30. “Cory Booker: Senator from New Jersey,” New York Times, January 13, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/01/13/opinion/cory-booker-nytimes-interview.html.
31. Eric Felten, Loyalty: The Vexing Virtue (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2011), 247.
32. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, ed. Conor Cruise O’Brien (London: Penguin, 1986), 135.
33. Ibid., 315.
34. Joseph de Maistre, Considerations on France, trans. Richard A. Lebrun (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 53.
35. For some useful reflections, see David Bromwich, “The Meaning of Patriotism in 1789,” Moral Imagination (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2014), 77–79; Eileen Hunt Botting, Family Feuds: Wollstonecraft, Burke, and Rousseau on the Transformation of the Family (Albany: SUNY Press, 2006), 7, 69–70, 204.
36. Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (New York: Viking, 1963).
37. Gershom Scholem to Hannah Arendt, June 23, 1963, in Arendt, The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age, ed. Ron H. Feldman (New York: Grove Press, 1978), 241–242.
38. Hannah Arendt to Gershom Scholem, July 24, 1963, in The Jew as Pariah, 246–247.
39. Leo Rosten, The Joys of Yiddish (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin, 1968), 255.
40. Jean-Paul Sartre, “Existentialism Is a Humanism,” Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sartre, ed. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Meridian Books, 1989), 295–296.
41. Mario Puzo and Francis Ford Coppola, The Godfather, Part II, transcribed by Drew Welsh and J. Geoff Malta for TheGodfatherTrilogy.com.
42. For a brilliant analysis of this scene and of the Godfather saga as a whole, see Paul Cantor, Pop Culture and the American Dream: Con Men, Gangsters, Drug Lords, and Zombies (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2019), esp. 69–70; for the connection between the Godfather and Antigone, see Steven B. Smith, Political Philosophy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 12–13.
43. Philip Roth, “Defender of the Faith,” in Goodbye, Columbus and Five Short Stories (New York: Random House, 1987).
44. Ibid., 199–200.
45. Philip Roth, “Writing About Jews,” in Why Write? Collected Nonfiction, 1960–2013 (New York: Library of America, 2017), 56.
46. See Adam Gopnik, “Philip Roth, Patriot,” New Yorker, November 2017.
47. Abraham Lincoln to Eliza P. Gurney in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 424–425.
48. Carl Schurz, cited in The Yale Book of Quotations, ed. Fred R. Shapiro (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), 674.
49. See George Kateb, “Socratic Integrity,” in Patriotism and Other Mistakes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), 215–244; see also Smith, Political Philosophy, 20–36.
50. Plato, Crito, in Four Texts on Socrates, trans. Thomas G. and Grace Starry West (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984), 51b.
51. Jefferson’s language draws heavily on Locke’s discussion of the right of revolt in the Second Treatise of Government; for an excellent account, see Nathan Tarcov, “Locke’s Second Treatise and ‘The Best Fence Against Rebellion’,” Review of Politics 43 (1981): 198–217.
52. Henry David Thoreau, “Civil Disobedience,” in Collected Works and Poems, ed. Elizabeth Hall Witherell (New York: Library of America, 2001), 204.
53. Martin Luther King Jr., “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” available in full at the University of Pennsylvania’s African Studies Center website, https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html.
54. Max Weber, “Politics as a Vocation,” in For Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, trans. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), 77–156. So much has been written about this essay that it would be impossible to do it justice here, but for a profound meditation on Weber’s meaning, see Raymond Aron, “Max Weber and Modern Social Science,” in History, Truth, Liberty: Selected Writings of Raymond Aron, ed. Franciszek Draus (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 335–373.
55. Immanuel Kant, “Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch,” in Political Writings, ed. Hans Reiss, trans. H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 123.
56. Weber, “Politics as a Vocation,” 121.
57. Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, 117, 195.
58. Weber, “Politics as a Vocation,” 127.
CHAPTER 6. RECLAIMING PATRIOTISM
1. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
2. Cited in Isaiah Berlin, “Political Ideas in the Twentieth Century,” in Liberty, ed. Henry Hardy (Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 2002), 85.
3. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: Library of America, 2004), 60.
4. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, trans. Robert C. Bartlett and Susan D. Collins (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 1129b.
5. Allan Bloom, “Western Civ,” in Giants and Dwarfs: Essays, 1960–1990 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), 13.
6. Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. John Cumming (New York: Seabury, 1969), 120–167.
7. Patrick J. Deneen, Why Liberalism Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 64–90. This approach was originally considered by Alasdair MacIntyre in his After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 238–245.
8. Abraham Lincoln, “Lecture on Discoveries and Inventions,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 231–238; see also Steven B. Smith, “Lincoln’s Enlightenment,” in Principle and Prudence in Western Political Thought, ed. Christopher Lynch and Jonathan Marks (Albany: SUNY Press, 2016), 275–295.
9. Quoted in Harold Bloom, “Whitman’s America,” Wall Street Journal, July 29, 2005.
10. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 585.
11. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).
12. On the case for national service, see William F. Buckley, Gratitude: Reflections on What We Owe to Our Country (New York: Random House, 1990).
13. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 342.
14. Alan Mittleman, Hope in a Democratic Age: Philosophy, Religion, and Political Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 12.
15. Stephen King, “Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption,” in Different Seasons (New York: Viking Press, 1982), 100.
16. Abraham Lincoln, December 1, 1862, “Message to Congress,” in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012).
17. Seymour Martin Lipset, The First New Nation: The United States in Historical and Comparative Perspective (New York: Norton, 1979).