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The SAT Essay: Reading

One of the three scores you’ll receive on the SAT Essay is the Reading score. Graded on a scale of 1 to 4 by two different readers for a total score of 2 to 8, the Reading score is based on:

• Your understanding of the source text
  
• Your comprehension of the source text’s central ideas, important details, and their interrelationship
• The accuracy of your interpretation of the source text
• Your use of textual evidence to demonstrate your understanding of the source text

Your ability to achieve a high Reading score depends on how well you accomplish Step 1 of the Kaplan Method for the SAT Essay:

Step 1: Read the source text, taking notes on how the author uses:

• Evidence to support claims
• Reasoning to develop ideas and to connect claims and evidence
• Stylistic or persuasive elements to add power to the ideas expressed

For an in-depth review of the Kaplan Method for the SAT Essay, please read chapter 26.

Central Ideas

The central idea of a text is the key point the author wants to make. The central idea is also often referred to as the text’s theme or thesis. Here are some questions to help you pinpoint a text’s central idea:

• What is the author’s central idea or claim?
  
• Why did the author write this passage?
• What is the tone of the passage?
• What is this passage primarily about?
  

Expert Tip

Do not confuse a text’s topic and its central idea. The topic is what the author is writing about, such as ecology, politics, or literary criticism. The central idea is the author’s opinion about the topic. The topic can usually be summarized in one sentence; the central idea often requires several sentences to describe the author’s point of view and why he or she takes that position.

Important Details

While a source text will inevitably be full of details, the important details are those that support or explain the author’s central idea. Authors often use certain structural clues or keywords to highlight important details. The following chart lists common categories of keywords and examples.

List	to begin with, first, secondly, next, then, finally, most important, also, for instance, in fact, for example, another
Chronology	on (date), not long after, now, as, before, after, when
Compare-and-Contrast	however, but, as well as, on the other hand, not only . . . but also, either . . . or, while, although, unless, similarly, yet, neither . . . nor
Cause-and-Effect	because, since, therefore, consequently, as a result, this led to, so that, nevertheless, accordingly, if . . . then, thus

If you’re unsure if a detail is important when reading a source text, it probably isn’t. Always ask: “Does this detail support or enhance the author’s central idea? How?”

Let's look at the following test-like source text excerpt. Notice what kinds of notes an SAT expert takes in the margins of the passage.

After the annotated passage, there is a series of questions and answers an SAT expert would ask to determine the text's central idea and important details.

Adapted from Hayakawa, S.I. Language in Thought and Action (Fifth Edition). New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1991.

The following passage is excerpted from a book that examines language and its necessity in ensuring survival in society.
1	Names that are “loaded” tend to influence behavior toward those to whom they are applied. Currently, the shop doorways and freeway underpasses of American cities are sheltering tens of thousands of people who have no work and no homes. These people used to be referred to as “bums”—a word that suggests not only a lack of employment but a lack of desire to work, people who are lazy, satisfied with little, and who have no desire to enter the mainstream of the American middle class or subscribe to its values. Thus, to think of these people as “bums” is to think that they are only getting what they deserve. With the search for new names for such people—“street people,” “homeless,” “displaced persons”—we may find new ways of helping these individuals.	central idea: names lead to behavior ex. of “bums” connotation if rename, better help?
2	. . . One other curious fact needs to be recorded about the words we apply to such hotly debated issues as race, religion, political heresy, and economic dissent. Every reader is acquainted with people who, according to their own flattering descriptions of themselves, “believe in being frank” and like to “tell it like it is.” By “telling it like it is,” such people usually mean calling anything or anyone by the term which has the strongest and most disagreeable affective connotations. Why people should pin medals on themselves for “candor” for performing this nasty feat has often puzzled me. Sometimes it is necessary to violate verbal taboos as an aid to clearer thinking, but, more often, to insist upon “telling it like it is” is to provide our minds with a greased runway down which we may slide back into unexamined and reactive patterns of evaluation and behavior.	“candor” does not = being mean but many think it does

What is the author’s central idea or claim? Names or labels, especially those with negative connotations, can lead to negative behavior or beliefs.

Why did the author write this passage? To demonstrate how language, even on the level of word or name choice, can affect society and influence people’s attitudes toward others.

What is the tone of this passage? Appalled or indignant.

What is this passage mostly about? How negative names can affect our actions and the excuses people use to continue to be politically incorrect.

What is the most important detail in the first paragraph? The example of the connotations of the word “bums.”

How does this detail serve the author’s central idea? The example supports the idea that the connotation of a word used to label a group of people can color how most of society views that group and how that view may be skewed.

What is the most important detail in the second paragraph? The author’s assertion that when most people “tell it like it is,” they call “anything or anyone by the term which has the strongest and most disagreeable affective connotations,” thereby allowing society to “slide back into unexamined and reactive patterns of evaluation and behavior.”

How does this detail serve the author’s central idea? It discusses how the more generalized theory behind why people use derogatory labels causes negative societal behavior.

The SAT Essay: ANalysis

One of the three scores you’ll receive on the SAT Essay is the Analysis score. Graded on a scale of 1 to 4 by two different readers for a total score of 2 to 8, the Analysis score is based on:

• Your analysis of the source text and understanding of the analytical task 
• Your evaluation of the author’s use of evidence, reasoning, and/or stylistic and persuasive elements, and/or features of your own choosing 
• Your support for the claims or points you make in your response 
• Your focus on features of the text that are most relevant to addressing the task

The SAT Essay prompt dictates that you analyze one or more features the author uses to strengthen the logic and persuasiveness of his or her argument. The Kaplan Template for the SAT Essay detailed in chapter 26 suggests that you pick three features to discuss in your response. Because the source text is different for every administration of the SAT, the three features you pick to analyze will depend on the source text.

Commonly Used Features and Styles

Feature	Defintion	Example
Allusion	A literary, historical, religious or mythological reference	Eli's weakness for sugary drinks is his Achilles' heel.
Appeals to authority, emotion, and/or logic	Rhetorical arguments in which the speaker claims to be an authority or expert in a field, attempts to play upon the emotions, or appeals to the use of reason	As the eminent scientist Dr. Carl Sagan suggested, though the world is dependent on science and technology, few understand either. Sound reasoning, then, requires that we expose children to both from their earliest cognitive years.
Claim	The assertion of something as fact	It is very clear that the pursuit of riches is the driving force in society today; morality has given way to greed.
Compare/contrast	A discussion in which two or more things are compared, contrasted, or both	For years, people have debated the benefits of running for exercise. On one hand, running puts stress on your joints. On the other hand, running can strengthen tissues and tendons if you include moderation, rest, and recovery as part of your approach.
Diction	The author’s word choice, which often reveals an author’s attitude and point of view	It was quite a surprise when the timid Mr. Patel jumped to his feet, pounded the table, and roared his opposition.
Hyperbole	Overstatement characterized by exaggerated language, usually to make a point or draw attention	I told my sister that because she made me wait for an eternity to get a table at her favorite restaurant, I was now dying of hunger.
Irony	A contrast between what is stated and what is really meant, or between what is expected and what actually happens	As Petros walked into the classroom and glanced at what his teacher had written on the board, he grimaced and muttered, "A pop quiz in my first class—what a great way to start the day."
Juxtaposition	Placing two things or ideas together to contrast them	As Charles Dickens wrote in A Tale of Two Cities, ”It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity . . . ”
Rebuttal/refutation	An argument technique wherein opposing arguments are anticipated and countered	To formulate a convincing rebuttal to the claim that technology is detrimental to positive social interaction, I compiled information and statistics that show how technology enhances social communication and expression.
Rhetorical question	A question that is asked simply for the sake of stylistic effect and is not expected to be answered	Who would not want to have a great satisfying job that allows you to do what you love every day? And what is more satisfying than fulfilling one’s dreams?
Symbolism	Use of a person, place, thing, event, or pattern that figuratively represents or “stands for” something else; often the thing or idea represented is more abstract or general than the symbol, which is concrete	In William Blake’s poem “Ah Sunflower,” the sunflower refers to humankind and the sun represents life: "Ah Sunflower, weary of time, Who countest the steps of the sun."

You can choose to analyze any of these features in your SAT Essay response; however, make sure to select features that are easily found within the source text and that the author uses to further his or her argument. If you cannot answer the questions posed in the Kaplan Template for the SAT Essay, pick another feature.

Let’s look at the following test-like source text excerpt. After the annotated passage, the left column contains the features used in the excerpt. The column on the right describes how those features are used.

Adapted from Jonathan Swift’s A Modest Proposal, written in 1729.

In the following passage, the narrator is proposing an idea “For Preventing the Children of Poor People From Being a [Burden] to Their Parents.”
1	I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least objection.
2	I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or a ragout.*	appeal to authority
3	I do therefore humbly offer it to public consideration that of the hundred and twenty thousand children already computed†, twenty thousand may be reserved for breed, whereof only one-fourth part be males; which is more than we allow to sheep, black cattle, or swine; and my reason is that these children are seldom the fruits of marriage, a circumstance not much regarded by our savages; therefore one male will be sufficient to serve four females. That the remaining hundred thousand may, at a year old, be offered in sale to the persons of quality and fortune through the kingdom; always advising the mother to let them suck plentifully in the last month, so as to render them plump and fat for a good table. A child will make two dishes at an entertainment for friends; and when the family dines alone, the fore or hind quarter will make a reasonable dish, and seasoned with a little pepper or salt will be very good boiled on the fourth day, especially in winter.	audience = public compare boys to livestock children as food!!
4	I have reckoned upon a medium that a child just born will weigh twelve pounds, and in a solar year, if tolerably nursed, will increase to twenty-eight pounds.	stats/logic/math
5	I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title to the children. * a spicy meat stew † that is, the number of children annually born to Irish parents who cannot support them

Feature	How It’s Used
Appeal to authority	The author cites his “very knowing American” acquaintance in London who claims that “a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food.”
Diction	The author’s repetitive use of the word “humbly” in the first and third paragraphs implies that his proposal is a modest one (thereby reinforcing the title of the essay).
Irony	The author presents a completely unacceptable solution to hunger and asks the audience to take seriously a preposterous suggestion.

The SAT ESSAY: Writing

Just as the SAT Writing & Language Test assesses your knowledge of expression of ideas and conformity to the conventions of standard written English grammar, usage, and punctuation by having you revise and edit texts, so too does the SAT Essay Test by having you craft an original response. Therefore, the stronger your mastery of the writing and grammar concepts outlined in Unit 7: Expression of Ideas and Unit 8: Standard English Conventions, the better able you will be to earn a high Writing score on the SAT Essay.

One of the three scores you’ll receive on the SAT Essay is the Writing score. Graded on a scale of 1 to 4 by two different readers for a total score of 2 to 8, the Writing score is based on:

• Your use of a central claim 
• Your use of effective organization and progression of ideas 
• Your use of varied sentence structures 
• Your employment of precise word choice 
• Your ability to maintain a consistent and appropriate style and tone 
• Your command of the conventions of standard written English

Grammar Tips for the SAT Essay

1. Avoid Sentence Fragments and Run-On Sentences. Technically, a sentence fragment has no independent clause. A run-on sentence has two or more independent clauses that are improperly connected. 
2. Use Commas Correctly. When using the comma, follow these guidelines: 
   • Use commas to separate items in a series. If more than two items are listed in a series, they should be separated by commas. 
   • Do not place commas before the first element of a series or after the last element. 
   • Use commas to separate two or more adjectives before a noun; do not use a comma after the last adjective in the series. 
   • Use commas to set off parenthetical clauses and phrases. A parenthetical expression is one that is not necessary to the central idea of the sentence. 
   • Use commas after most introductory phrases. 
   • Use commas to separate independent clauses (clauses that could stand alone as complete sentences) connected by coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, not, and yet.
3. Use Semicolons Correctly. Follow these guidelines for correct semicolon usage:
   • A semicolon may be used instead of a coordinating conjunction such as and, or, or but to link two closely related independent clauses. 
   • A semicolon may also be used between independent clauses connected by words like therefore, nevertheless, and moreover.
4. Use Colons Correctly. When you see a colon, it means “something’s coming.” Follow these rules for correct colon usage:
   • In formal writing, the colon is used only as a means of signaling that what follows is a list, definition, explanation, or concise summary of what has gone before. The colon usually follows an independent clause, and it will frequently be accompanied by a reinforcing expression like the following, as follows, or namely, or by an explicit demonstrative like this. 
   • Be careful not to put a colon between a verb and its direct object. 
   • Context will occasionally make clear that a second independent clause is closely linked to its predecessor, even without an explicit expression. Here, too, a colon is appropriate, although a period will always be correct too.
5. Use Apostrophes Correctly. Follow these guidelines for correct apostrophe usage:
   • Use the apostrophe with contracted forms of verbs to indicate that one or more letters have been eliminated in writing. Generally, though, you should try to avoid contractions when writing your SAT Essay response. 
   • Use the apostrophe to indicate the possessive form of a noun. 
   • The apostrophe is used to indicate possession only with nouns; in the case of pronouns, there are separate possessives for each person and number, with the exception of the neutral one, which forms its possessive by adding an apostrophe and an s.
6. Pay Attention to Subject-Verb Agreement. Singular subjects and plural subjects take different forms of the verb in the present tense. Usually, the difference lies in the presence or absence of a final s, but sometimes the difference is more radical. You can usually trust your ear to give you the correct verb form. However, certain situations may cause difficulty, such as:
   • When the subject and verb are separated by a number of words
   • When the subject is an indefinite pronoun
   • When the subject consists of more than one noun
7. Use Modifiers Correctly. In English, the position of a word within a sentence often establishes the word’s relationship to other words in the sentence. This is especially true with modifying phrases. Modifiers, like pronouns, are generally connected to the nearest word that agrees with the modifier in person and number. If a modifier is placed too far from the word it modifies (the referent), the meaning may be lost or obscured. Avoid ambiguity by placing modifiers as close as possible to the words they are intended to modify.
8. Use Pronouns Correctly. A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun in a sentence. Every time you write a pronoun—he, him, his, she, her, it, its, they, their, that, or which—be sure there can be  absolutely no doubt what its antecedent is. The antecedent is the particular noun a pronoun refers to or stands for. Careless use of pronouns can obscure your intended meaning.
9. Pay Attention to Parallelism. Matching constructions must be expressed in parallel form. It is often rhetorically effective to use a particular construction several times in succession in order to provide emphasis. The technique is called parallel construction, and it is effective only when used sparingly. If your sentences are varied, a parallel construction will stand out. If your sentences are already repetitive, a parallel structure will further obscure your meaning.

Style Tips For The SAT Essay

1. Write succinctly.
   • Do not use several words when one word will do. 
   • If you have something to say, just say it.
2. Write assertively.
   • Avoid overuse of qualifiers. 
   • You don’t need to overly clarify your statements. 
   • Put verbs in the active voice whenever possible.
3. Write clearly.
   • Try not to begin sentences with there is, there are, it would be, it could be, it can be, or it is. 
   • Avoid vague references, indirect language, and general wordiness. Choose specific, descriptive words. 
   • Avoid clichés, which are overused expressions. Always substitute more specific language for a cliché. 
   • Limit your use of jargon. 
   • Avoid using slang and colloquialisms.

Let’s look at examples of how to correct common style issues.

The left column contains the issue. The column in the middle features a sample sentence. The column on the right demonstrates how to improve the sample sentence.

Issue	Incorrect	Correct
Needless qualification	This rather serious breach of etiquette may possibly shake the very foundations of the diplomatic community.	This serious breach of etiquette may shake the foundations of the diplomatic community.
Filling up space	Which idea of the author’s is more in line with what I believe? This is a very interesting question. . . .	The author’s beliefs are similar to mine.
Needless self-reference	I am of the opinion that air pollution is a more serious problem than the government has led us to believe.	Air pollution is a more serious problem than the government has led us to believe.
Weak openings	There are several reasons why Andre and his brother will not share an apartment.	Andre and his brother will not share an apartment for several reasons.
Vagueness	Chantal is highly educated.	Chantal has a master’s degree in business administration.