Bibliography

ABI Research. “More Than 30 Billion Devices Will Wirelessly Connect to the Internet of Everything in 2020.” May 9, 2013. https://www.abiresearch.com/press/more-than-30-billion-devices-will-wirelessly-conne/.

Albuquerque, Ana Luiza. “Eleição no Rio tem tática ‘antiboato’ e suspeita de uso de robôs [Election in Rio has ‘anti-bull’ tactics and suspected use of robots].” Folha de São Paulo (blog), October 18, 2016. http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/poder/eleicoes-2016/2016/10/1823713-eleicao-no-rio-tem-tatica-antiboato-e-suspeita-de-uso-de-robos.shtml.

Allcott, Hunt, and Matthew Gentzkow. “Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 31, no. 2 (Spring 2017): 211–36. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211.

American Association of Public Opinion Researchers. “AAPOR Statements on ‘Push’ Polls.” June 2007, updated October 2015. https://www.aapor.org/Standards-Ethics/Resources/AAPOR-Statements-on-Push-Polls.aspx.

Andrejevic, Mark. Infoglut: How Too Much Information Is Changing the Way We Think and Know. New York: Routledge, 2013.

Aragão, A. “Eu, robô [I robot].” Folha de São Paulo (blog), September 30, 2014. https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/fsp/especial/188299-eu-robo.shtml.

Arnaudo, Dan. “Brazil: Political Bot Intervention during Pivotal Events.” In Computational Propaganda: Political Parties, Politicians, and Political Manipulation on Social Media, edited by Samuel C. Woolley and Philip N. Howard, 128–52. New York: Oxford University Press, 2019.

Asmolov, Gregory. “Dynamics of Power and the Balance of Power in Russia.” In State Power 2.0: Authoritarian Entrenchment and Political Engagement Worldwide, edited by Muzammil M. Hussain and Philip N. Howard, 139–52. London: Ashgate, 2013.

Bakshy, Eytan, Solomon Messing, and Lada A. Adamic. “Exposure to Ideologically Diverse News and Opinion on Facebook.” Science 348, no. 6239 (2015): 1130–32. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa1160.

Banks, Alex, and Tania Yuki. “O cenário das redes sociais e métricas que realmente importam [The social and metric networks scenario that really matters].” ComScore, Inc., September 16, 2014. http://www.comscore.com/por/Insights/Presentations-and-Whitepapers/2014/The-State-of-Social-Media-in-Brazil-and-the-Metrics-that-Really-Matter.

Benkler, Yochai, Robert Faris, and Hal Roberts. Network Propaganda: Manipulation, Disinformation, and Radicalization in American Politics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Bennett, W. Lance, and Shanto Iyengar. “A New Era of Minimal Effects? The Changing Foundations of Political Communication.” Journal of Communication 58, no. 4 (2008): 707–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.00410.x.

Berelson, Bernard, and Gary A. Steiner. Human Behavior: An Inventory of Scientific Findings. Oxford: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1964.

Bolsover, Gillian, and Philip Howard. “Computational Propaganda and Political Big Data: Moving toward a More Critical Research Agenda.” Big Data 5, no. 4 (2017): 273–76. https://doi.org/10.1089/big.2017.29024.cpr.

Bond, Robert, and Solomon Messing. “Quantifying Social Media’s Political Space: Estimating Ideology from Publicly Revealed Preferences on Facebook.” American Political Science Review 109, no. 1 (2015): 62–78. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055414000525.

Bond, Robert M., et al. “A 61-Million-Person Experiment in Social Influence and Political Mobilization.” Nature 489, no. 7415 (September 13, 2012): 295–98. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11421.

Brader, Ted. “Striking a Responsive Chord: How Political Ads Motivate and Persuade Voters by Appealing to Emotions.” American Journal of Political Science 49, no. 2 (2005): 388–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0092-5853.2005.00130.x.

Bradshaw, Samantha, and Philip N. Howard. “Challenging Truth and Trust: A Global Inventory of Organized Social Media Manipulation.” Working Paper No. 2018.1. Project on Computational Propaganda, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University, July 2018. https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/cybertroops2018/.

———. “The Global Disinformation Order: A Global Inventory of Organized Social Media Manipulation.” Working Paper No. 2019.2. Project on Computational Propaganda, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University, September 2019. https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/cybertroops2019/.

———. “The Global Organization of Social Media Disinformation Campaigns.” Journal of International Affairs 71, no. 1.5 (September 17, 2018): 23–32. https://jia.sipa.columbia.edu/global-organization-social-media-disinformation-campaigns.

———. “Troops, Trolls and Troublemakers: A Global Inventory of Organized Social Media Manipulation.” Working Paper No. 2017.12. Project on Computational Propaganda, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University, July 2017. https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/89/2017/07/Troops-Trolls-and-Troublemakers.pdf.

Bradshaw, Samantha, Lisa-Maria Neudert, and Philip N. Howard. “Government Responses to Malicious Use of Social Media.” Working Paper No. 2019.2. Project on Computational Propaganda, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University, November 2019. https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/government-responses/.

Brand, Michael. “Can Facebook Influence an Election Result?” The Conversation, September 27, 2016. http://theconversation.com/can-facebook-influence-an-election-result-65541.

Brasil Liker. 2019. https://brasilliker.com.br/.

Bright, Jonathan, et al. “Does Campaigning on Social Media Make a Difference? Evidence from Candidate Use of Twitter during the 2015 and 2017 UK Elections.” Communication Research 47, no. 1 (2019): 122. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650219872394.

Broad, William J. “Your 5G Phone Won’t Hurt You. But Russia Wants You to Think Otherwise.” New York Times, May 12, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/12/science/5g-phone-safety-health-russia.html.

Brooks, Deborah Jordan, and John G. Geer. “Beyond Negativity: The Effects of Incivility on the Electorate.” American Journal of Political Science 51, no. 1 (2007): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00233.x.

Bucher, Taina. If … Then: Algorithmic Power and Politics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Brunton, Finn. Spam: A Shadow History of the Internet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013.

Chaffee, Steven H., and Yuko Miyo. “Selective Exposure and the Reinforcement Hypothesis: An Intergenerational Panel Study of the 1980 Presidential Campaign.” Communication Research 10, no. 1 (1983): 3–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365083010001001.

Chen, Adrian. “Cambridge Analytica and Our Lives inside the Surveillance Machine.” New Yorker, March 21, 2018. https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/cambridge-analytica-and-our-lives-inside-the-surveillance-machine.

Confessore, Nicholas, Gabriel J. X. Dance, Richard Harris, and Mark Hansen. “The Follower Factory.” New York Times, January 27, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/01/27/technology/social-media-bots.html.

Corbyn, Zoe. “Facebook Experiment Boosts US Voter Turnout.” Nature News, September 12, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.11401.

Cotton, John. “Cognitive Dissonance in Selective Exposure.” In Selective Exposure to Communication, edited by Dolf Zillmann, 11–34. New York: Routledge, 2013.

Cotton, John L., and Rex A. Hieser. “Selective Exposure to Information and Cognitive Dissonance.” Journal of Research in Personality 14, no. 4 (1980): 518–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(80)90009-4.

Couto, Marlen. “Estratégico na disputa eleitoral, WhatsApp deve ter efeito inesperado [Strategic in the electoral contest, WhatsApp must have an unexpected effect].” O Globo, August 15, 2016. https://oglobo.globo.com/brasil/estrategico-na-disputa-eleitoral-whatsapp-deve-ter-efeito-inesperado-19923064.

Crouch, James. “Impact of Brexit on Consumer Behaviour.” Opinium Research, 2016. https://www.opinium.co.uk/impact-of-brexit-on-consumer-behaviour/.

Cummings, Dominic. “On the Referendum #21: Branching Histories of the 2016 Referendum and ‘The Frogs before the Storm.’” Dominic Cummings’s Blog (blog), January 9, 2017. https://dominiccummings.com/2017/01/09/on-the-referendum-21-branching-histories-of-the-2016-referendum-and-the-frogs-before-the-storm-2/.

———. “On the Referendum #22: Some Basic Numbers for the Vote Leave Campaign.” Dominic Cummings’ Blog (blog), January 30, 2017. https://dominiccummings.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/20170130-referendum-22-numbers.pdf.

Daedalus. Field interview, Poland, by Robert Gorwa, September 1, 2016. Project on Computational Propaganda, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University.

Davis, Jenny L., and Nathan Jurgenson. “Context Collapse: Theorizing Context Collusions and Collisions.” Information, Communication and Society 17, no. 4 (April 21, 2014): 476–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2014.888458.

Desjardins, Jeff. “How Much Data Is Generated Each Day?” World Economic Forum, April 17, 2019. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/04/how-much-data-is-generated-each-day-cf4bddf29f/.

Desidério, Mariana. “7 boatos da política brasileira que podem ter enganado você [7 rumors of Brazilian politics that may have deceived you].” Exame, September 13, 2016. http://exame.abril.com.br/brasil/7-boatos-da-politica-brasileiraque-podem-ter-enganado-voce/.

Diakopoulos, Nicholas. Automating the News: How Algorithms Are Rewriting the Media. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019.

“Doc Didn’t Say Coconut Water Cures Cancer.” Hindustan Times, May 18, 2019. https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/doc-didn-t-say-coconut-water-cures-cancer/story-WilJiWr9VES56tFxtOLMNM.html.

Dubois, Elizabeth and Grant Blank. “The Echo Chamber is Overstated: The Moderating Effect of Political Interest and Diverse Media.” Information, Communication & Society 21, no. 5 (2018): 729–745. https://doi.org//10.1080/1369118X.2018.1428656.

Dwoskin, Elizabeth, and Craig Timberg. “How Merchants Use Facebook to Flood Amazon with Fake Reviews.” Washington Post, April 23, 2018. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/how-merchants-secretly-use-facebook-to-flood-amazon-with-fake-reviews/2018/04/23/5dad1e30-4392-11e8-8569-26fda6b404c7_story.html.

The Electoral Commission. “Report of an Investigation in Respect of: Vote Leave Limited, Mr. Darren Grimes, BeLeave, Veterans for Britain.” July 17, 2018. https://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/who-we-are-and-what-we-do/our-enforcement-work/investigations/investigation-vote-leave-ltd-mr-darren-grimes-beleave-and-veterans-britain.

Epstein, Robert, and Ronald E. Robertson. “The Search Engine Manipulation Effect (SEME) and Its Possible Impact on the Outcomes of Elections.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 33 (2015): E4512–21. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1419828112.

Erickson, Kris, and Philip N. Howard. “A Case of Mistaken Identity? News Accounts of Hacker, Consumer, and Organizational Responsibility for Compromised Digital Records.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 12, no. 4 (2007): 1229–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00371.x.

Facebook. Ads supplied by Facebook to the DCMS Committee (2018). https://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons-committees/culture-media-and-sport/Fake_news_evidence/Ads-supplied-by-Facebook-to-the-DCMS-Committee.pdf.

———. “Community Standards Enforcement Report.” May 2019. https://transparency.facebook.com/community-standards-enforcement.

“The Fake News Machine: Inside a Town Gearing Up for 2020.” CNN Money, 2017. https://money.cnn.com/interactive/media/the-macedonia-story/.

Fazio, Lisa. “Unbelievable News? Read It Again and You Might Think It’s True.” The Conversation, December 5, 2016. http://theconversation.com/unbelievable-news-read-it-again-and-you-might-think-its-true-69602.

Fazio, Lisa K., Nadia M. Brashier, B. Keith Payne, and Elizabeth J. Marsh. “Knowledge Does Not Protect against Illusory Truth.” Journal of Experimental Psychology. General 144, no. 5 (October 2015): 993–1002. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000098.

Filho, V. H., and R. Galhardo. “Governo cita uso de robôs nas redes sociais em campanha eleitoral [Government citation use of robots in social networks in electoral campaign].” Estadão de São Paulo, March 17, 2015. http://politica.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,governo-cita-uso-de-robos-nasredes-sociais-em-campanha-eleitoral,1652771.

Fischer, Sara. “Russian Efforts to Sow Discord ahead of 2020 Elections Appear Focused on Fear-Mongering around Healthcare Issues.” Business Insider, May 30, 2019. https://www.businessinsider.com/russian-misinformation-efforts-focus-on-healthcare-fear-mongering-2019-5.

Fishkin, James, and Larry Diamond. “This Experiment Has Some Great News for Our Democracy.” New York Times, October 2, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/02/opinion/america-one-room-experiment.html.

Fiske, Susan T., Donald R. Kinder, and W. Michael Larter. “The Novice and the Expert: Knowledge-Based Strategies in Political Cognition.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19, no. 4 (1983): 381–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(83)90029-X.

Fiske, Susan T., Richard R. Lau, and Richard A. Smith. “On the Varieties and Utilities of Political Expertise.” Social Cognition 8, no. 1 (1990): 31–48. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.1990.8.1.31.

Fiveash, Kelly. “Zuckerberg Claims Just 1% of Facebook Posts Carry Fake News.” Ars Technica, November 14, 2016. https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2016/11/zuckerberg-claims-1-percent-facebook-posts-fake-news-trump-election/.

Flaxman, Seth, Sharad Goel, and Justin M. Rao. “Filter Bubbles, Echo Chambers, and Online News Consumption.” Public Opinion Quarterly 80, no. S1 (2016): 298–320. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfw006.

Fletcher, Richard and Rasmus Kleis Nielsen. “Are People Incidentally Exposed to News on Social Media? A Comparative Analysis.” New Media & Society 20, no. 7 (2017): 2450–2468/ https://doi.org/10/1177/1461444817724170.

Fourney, Adam, et al. “Geographic and Temporal Trends in Fake News Consumption during the 2016 US Presidential Election.” Proceedings of the 2017 ACM on Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (November 6, 2017): 2071–74. http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/3132847.3133147.

“Free Tibet Exposes #ChinaSpam on Twitter.” Free Tibet, July 17, 2014. https://freetibet.org/news-media/na/free-tibet-exposes-chinaspam-twitter.

Fridkin, Kim L., and Patrick J. Kenney. “Variability in Citizens’ Reactions to Different Types of Negative Campaigns.” American Journal of Political Science 55, no. 2 (2011): 307–25.

Gallacher, John D., Vlad Barash, Philip N. Howard, and John Kelly. “Junk News on Military Affairs and National Security: Social Media Disinformation Campaigns against US Military Personnel and Veterans.” Data Memo No. 2017.9. Project on Computational Propaganda, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University, October 2017. https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/working-papers/vetops/.

“Gartner Says the Internet of Things Installed Base Will Grow to 26 Billion Units by 2020.” Gartner, 2013. http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2636073.

Gayo-Avello, Daniel. “A Meta-Analysis of State-of-the-Art Electoral Prediction from Twitter Data.” Social Science Computer Review 2013, 0894439313493979. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439313493979.

Gilbert, David. “Thailand’s Government Is Using Child ‘Cyber Scouts’ to Monitor Dissent.” Vice News, September 20, 2016. https://news.vice.com/article/thailands-royal-family-is-using-child-cyber-scouts-to-monitor-dissent.

Gladwell, Malcolm. “Small Change.” New Yorker, September 27, 2010. http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/10/04/101004fa_fact_gladwell.

Gorwa, Robert. “Poland: Unpacking the Ecosystem of Social Media Manipulation.” In Computational Propaganda: Political Parties, Politicians, and Political Manipulation on Social Media, edited by Samuel C. Woolley and Philip N. Howard, 86–103. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Gragnani, Juliana. “Inside the World of Brazil’s Social Media Cyborgs.” BBC News, December 13, 2017. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-42322064.

Grassegger, Hannes, and Mikael Krogerus. “The Data That Turned the World Upside Down.” Motherboard. https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/how-our-likes-helped-trump-win.

Greenwald, Glenn. “Hacking Online Polls and Other Ways British Spies Seek to Control the Internet.” The Intercept, July 14, 2014. https://theintercept.com/2014/07/14/manipulating-online-polls-ways-british-spies-seek-control-internet/.

Greenwood, Shannon, Andrew Perrin, and Maeve Duggan. “Social Media Update 2016.” Pew Research Center, November 11, 2016. http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/11/11/social-media-update-2016/.

Guilbeault, Douglas, and Robert Gorwa. “Tinder Nightmares: The Promise and Peril of Political Bots.” Wired UK, July 7, 2017. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/tinder-political-bots-jeremy-corbyn-labour.

Haas, Peter M. Saving the Mediterranean: The Politics of International Environmental Cooperation. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990.

Henisz, Witold J., Bennet A. Zelner, and Mauro F. Guillén. “The Worldwide Diffusion of Market-Oriented Infrastructure Reform, 1977–1999.” American Sociological Review 70, no. 6 (2005): 871–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240507000601.

House of Commons. Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee. Disinformation and “Fake News”: Interim Report. UK Parliament, HC 363, July 29, 2018. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmcumeds/363/363.pdf.

Howard, Philip N. The Digital Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Information Technology and Political Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.

———. “Digitizing the Social Contract: Producing American Political Culture in the Age of New Media.” Communication Review 6, no. 3 (July 1, 2003): 213–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714420390226270.

———. “How Political Campaigns Weaponize Social Media Bots.” IEEE Spectrum, October 18, 2018. https://spectrum.ieee.org/computing/software/how-political-campaigns-weaponize-social-media-bots.

———. New Media Campaigns and the Managed Citizen. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

———. “Our Data, Ourselves: How to Stop Tech Firms from Monopolizing Our Personal Information.” Foreign Policy, July 16, 2018. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/16/our-data-ourselves-democracy-technology-algorithms/.

———. Pax Technica: How the Internet of Things May Set Us Free or Lock Us Up. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015.

Howard, Philip N., and Orsolya Gulyas. “Data Breaches in Europe: Reported Breaches of Compromised Personal Records in Europe, 2005–2014.” SSRN Scholarly Paper. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, October 1, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2554352.

Howard, Philip N., and Muzammil M. Hussain. Democracy’s Fourth Wave? Digital Media and the Arab Spring. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Howard, Philip N., Sheetal D. Agarwal, and Muzammil M. Hussain. “The Dictators’ Digital Dilemma: When Do States Disconnect Their Digital Networks?” Brookings Institution, 2011. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/10_dictators_digital_network.pdf.

Howard, Philip N., John N. Carr, and Tema J. Milstein. “Digital Technology and the Market for Political Surveillance.” Surveillance and Society 3, no. 1 (2002). https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v3i1.3320.

Howard, Philip N., Samuel Woolley, and Ryan Calo. “Algorithms, Bots, and Political Communication in the US 2016 Election: The Challenge of Automated Political Communication for Election Law and Administration.” Journal of Information Technology and Politics 15, no. 2 (2018): 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2018.1448735.

Howard, Philip N., Bence Kollanyi, Samantha Bradshaw, and Lisa Maria Neudert. “Social Media, News and Political Information during the US Election: Was Polarizing Content Concentrated in Swing States?” Data Memo No. 2017.8. Computation Propaganda Project, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University, September 2017. https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/working-papers/social-media-news-and-political-information-during-the-us-election-was-polarizing-content-concentrated-in-swing-states/.

Howard, Philip N., Lisa-Maria Neudert, Samantha Bradshaw, and Bence Kollanyi. “Sourcing and Automation of Political News and Information over Social Media in the United States, 2016–2018.” Political Communication, (2019): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1663322.

Howard, Philip N., et al. “The IRA and Political Polarization in the United States.” Working Paper No. 2018.2. Project on Computational Propaganda, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University, December 2018. https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/ira-political-polarization/.

Hussain, Muzammil M., and Philip N. Howard. State Power 2.0: Digital Networks and Authoritarian Rule. London: Ashgate, 2013.

“The Internet of Things.” CISCO IBGS. 2014. https://www.cisco.com/c/dam/en_us/solutions/trends/iot/docs/iot-aag.pdf.

Isaac, Mike, and Daisuke Wakabayashi. “Russian Influence Reached 126 Million through Facebook Alone.” New York Times, October 30, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/30/technology/facebook-google-russia.html.

Iyengar, Shanto, and Kyu S. Hahn. “Red Media, Blue Media: Evidence of Ideological Selectivity in Media Use.” Journal of Communication 59, no. 1 (2009): 19–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x.

Jack, Caroline. “Lexicon of Lies: Terms for Problematic Information.” Data & Society Research Institute, August 9, 2017. https://datasociety.net/pubs/oh/DataAndSociety_LexiconofLies.pdf.

Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. Cyberwar: How Russian Hackers and Trolls Helped Elect a President—What We Don’t, Can’t, and Do Know. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Jensen, Tom. “Trump Remains Unpopular; Voters Prefer Obama on SCOTUS Pick.” Public Policy Polling, December 9, 2016. https://www.publicpolicypolling.com/polls/trump-remains-unpopular-voters-prefer-obama-on-scotus-pick/.

Jowett, Garth, and Victoria O’Donnell. Propaganda and Persuasion. London: Sage, 1986.

Kaiman, Jonathan. “Free Tibet Exposes Fake Twitter Accounts by China Propagandists.” Guardian, July 22, 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/22/free-tibet-fake-twitter-accounts-china-propagandists.

Kollanyi, Bence, Philip N. Howard, and Samuel C. Woolley. “Bots and Automation over Twitter during the Third U.S. Presidential Debate.” Data Memo No. 2016.3. Project on Computational Propaganda, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University, October 2016. https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/working-papers/bots-and-automation-over-twitter-during-the-third-u-s-presidential-debate/.

Kramer, Adam D. I., Jamie E. Guillory, and Jeffrey T. Hancock. “Experimental Evidence of Massive-Scale Emotional Contagion through Social Networks.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 24 (June 17, 2014): 8788–90. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1320040111.

Kreiss, Daniel. Taking Our Country Back: The Crafting of Networked Politics from Howard Dean to Barack Obama. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Kremlin [attrib.]. [Assignments for Savushkin 55]. 2016.

Kurowska, Xymena, and Anatoly Reshetnikov. “Neutrollization: Industrialized Trolling as a Pro-Kremlin Strategy of Desecuritization.” Security Dialogue 49, no. 5 (2018): 345–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010618785102.

Lappano, Rosamaria, et al. “The Lauric Acid-Activated Signaling Prompts Apoptosis in Cancer Cells.” Cell Death Discovery 3 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/cddiscovery.2017.63.

Lazarsfeld, Paul Felix, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet. The People’s Choice: How the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign. New York: Columbia University Press, 1948.

Lytvynenko, Jane. “Here Are Some Job Ads for the Russian Troll Factory.” BuzzFeed, February 22, 2018. https://www.buzzfeed.com/janelytvynenko/job-ads-for-russian-troll-factory.

Malloy, Liam C., and Shanna Pearson-Merkowitz. “Going Positive: The Effects of Negative and Positive Advertising on Candidate Success and Voter Turnout.” Research and Politics 3, no. 1 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168015625078.

Maria. Field interview, Brazil, by Daniel Arnaudo, September 1, 2016. Project on Computational Propaganda, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University.

Mann, Gideon, and Cathy O’Neil. “Hiring Algorithms Are Not Neutral.” Harvard Business Review, December 9, 2016. https://hbr.org/2016/12/hiring-algorithms-are-not-neutral.

Marwick, Alice, and Rebecca Lewis. “Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online.” Data & Society Research Institute, May 15, 2017. https://datasociety.net/pubs/oh/DataAndSociety_MediaManipulationAndDisinformationOnline.pdf.

Mazzetti, Mark, Ronen Bergman, David D. Kirkpatrick, and Maggie Haberman. “Rick Gates Sought Online Manipulation Plans from Israeli Intelligence Firm for Trump Campaign.” New York Times, October 8, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/08/us/politics/rick-gates-psy-group-trump.html.

McLaughlin, Timothy. “How Facebook’s Rise Fueled Chaos and Confusion in Myanmar.” Wired, July 6, 2018. https://www.wired.com/story/how-facebooks-rise-fueled-chaos-and-confusion-in-myanmar/.

Messing, Solomon, and Sean J. Westwood. “Selective Exposure in the Age of Social Media: Endorsements Trump Partisan Source Affiliation When Selecting News Online.” Communication Research 41, no. 8 (2014): 1042–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650212466406.

Miller, Claire Cain. “Can an Algorithm Hire Better Than a Human?” New York Times, June 25, 2015. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/26/upshot/can-an-algorithm-hire-better-than-a-human.html.

Mod, Craig. “The Facebook-Loving Farmers of Myanmar.” Atlantic, January 21, 2016. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/01/the-facebook-loving-farmers-of-myanmar/424812/.

Monaco, Nicholas. “Taiwan: Digital Democracy Meets Automated Autocracy.” In Computational Propaganda: Political Parties, Politicians, and Political Manipulation on Social Media, edited by Samuel C. Woolley and Philip N. Howard, 104–127. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Morla, Rebeca. “Correa’s Social-Media Troll Center Exposed in Quito.” PanAm Post, March 25, 2015. https://panampost.com/rebeca-morla/2015/03/25/correas-social-media-troll-center-exposed-in-quito/.

———. “Ecuador’s Correa Recruits Legion of Social-Media Trolls.” PanAm Post, January 26, 2015. https://panampost.com/rebeca-morla/2015/01/26/ecuadors-correa-recruits-legion-of-social-media-trolls/.

Morozov, Evgeny. To Save Everything, Click Here: Technology, Solutionism, and the Urge to Fix Problems That Don’t Exist. New York: PublicAffairs, 2013.

Mozur, Paul. “A Genocide Incited on Facebook, with Posts from Myanmar’s Military.” New York Times, October 15, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/15/technology/myanmar-facebook-genocide.html.

Murthy, Dhiraj, et al. “Bots and Political Influence: A Sociotechnical Investigation of Social Network Capital.” International Journal of Communication 10 (2016): 4952–71.

Nalon, Tai. “Opinion: Did WhatsApp Help Bolsonaro Win the Brazilian Presidency?” Washington Post, November 1, 2018. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/theworldpost/wp/2018/11/01/whatsapp-2/.

Narayanan, Vidya, et al. “Polarization, Partisanship and Junk News Consumption over Social Media in the US.” Data Memo No. 2018.1. Project on Computational Propaganda, Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford University, February 2018. https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/polarization-partisanship-and-junk-news/.

Neudert, Lisa-Maria, Philip N. Howard, and Bence Kollanyi. “Sourcing and Automation of Political News and Information during Three European Elections.” Social Media + Society 5, no. 3: 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119863147.

Newman, Nic, David A. L. Levy, and Rasmus Kleis Nielsen. “Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2017.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2015. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2619576.

“Number of Connected Devices Worldwide, 2015–2025.” Statista. 2019. https://www.statista.com/statistics/471264/iot-number-of-connected-devices-worldwide/.

OECD. “Building Blocks for Smart Networks.” January 17, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1787/5k4dkhvnzv35-en.

Ortellado, Pablo, and Esther Soltano. “Nova direita nas ruas? Uma análise do descompasso entre manifestantes e convocantes dos protestos antigoverno de 2015 [New right on the streets? An analysis of the mismatch between protesters and the protesters of the anti-government protests of 2015].” História, Memória e Política 11 (2016): 69–188. http://revistaperseu.fpabramo.org.br/index.php/revista-perseu/article/view/97.

Ossoff, Elizabeth P., and Carol Ann Dalto. “Media Use and Political Commitment: The 1992 U.S. Presidential Election.” Current Psychology 15, no. 2 (June 1, 1996): 128–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686945.

Pariser, Eli. The Filter Bubble: How the New Personalized Web Is Changing What We Read and How We Think. London: Penguin Books, 2011.

Perlroth, Nicole, Amie Tsang, and Adam Satariano. “Marriott Hacking Exposes Data of Up to 500 Million Guests.” New York Times, December 1, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/30/business/marriott-data-breach.html.

Pham, Nga. “Vietnam Admits Deploying Bloggers to Support Government.” BBC News, January 12, 2013. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-20982985.

Phillips, Whitney. This Is Why We Can’t Have Nice Things: Mapping the Relationship between Online Trolling and Mainstream Culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2015.

Porup, J. M. “How Mexican Twitter Bots Shut Down Dissent.” Motherboard, August 24, 2015. https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/z4maww/how-mexican-twitter-bots-shut-down-dissent.

Qtiesh, Anas. “Spam Bots Flooding Twitter to Drown Info about #Syria Protests.” Global Voices Advocacy (blog), April 18, 2011. https://advox.globalvoices.org/2011/04/18/spam-bots-flooding-twitter-to-drown-info-about-syria-protests/.

Quattrociocchi, Walter, Antonio Scala, and Cass R. Sunstein. “Echo Chambers on Facebook.” SSRN Scholarly Paper. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, June 13, 2016. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2795110.

Rankin, Jennifer. “Catalan Independence: EU Experts Detect Rise in Pro-Kremlin False Claims.” Guardian, November 13, 2017. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/13/catalan-independence-eu-experts-detect-rise-in-pro-kremlin-false-claims.

Rasmussen, Tom. “There Was a Tinder Election Bot Fanning the Fire of the Youth Vote.” I-D (blog), June 15, 2017. https://i-d.vice.com/en_uk/article/3kd87w/general-election-tinder-bot-youth-vote.

Reporters Without Borders. “Vietnam’s ‘Cyber-Troop’ Announcement Fuels Concern about Troll Armies.” RSF, January 12, 2018. https://rsf.org/en/news/vietnams-cyber-troop-announcement-fuels-concern-about-troll-armies.

Rueda, Manuel. “2012’s Biggest Social Media Blunders in LatAm Politics.” ABC News, December 26, 2012. https://abcnews.go.com/ABC_Univision/ABC_Univision/2012s-biggest-social-media-blunders-latin-american-politics/story?id=18063022.

Sanovich, Sergey. “Russia: The Origins of Digital Misinformation.” In Computational Propaganda: Political Parties, Politicians, and Political Manipulation on Social Media, edited by Samuel C. Woolley and Philip N. Howard, 21–40. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Schmidt, Selma. “Estudo mostra que menções a Crivella nas redes sociais caiu em três meses [Study shows that mention of Crivella in social networks fell in three months].” O Globo, September 4, 2017. https://oglobo.globo.com/rio/estudo-mostra-que-mencoes-crivella-nas-redes-sociais-caiu-em-tres-meses-21180048.

Schreckinger, Ben. “Inside Trump’s ‘Cyborg’ Twitter Army.” Politico, March 9, 2016. https://www.politico.com/story/2016/09/donald-trump-twitter-army-228923.

Scott-Railton, John, and Morgan Marquis-Boire. “A Call to Harm: New Malware Attacks Target the Syrian Opposition.” Citizen Lab, June 21, 2013. https://citizenlab.ca/2013/06/a-call-to-harm/.

Shane, Scott, and Alan Blinder. “Secret Experiment in Alabama Senate Race Imitated Russian Tactics.” New York Times, March 4, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/19/us/alabama-senate-roy-jones-russia.html.

Shane, Scott, and Vindu Goel. “Fake Russian Facebook Accounts Bought $100,000 in Political Ads.” New York Times, September 6, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/06/technology/facebook-russian-political-ads.html.

Shearer, Elisa. “Social Media Outpaces Print Newspapers in the U.S. as a News Source.” Pew Research Center (blog), December 10, 2018. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/12/10/social-media-outpaces-print-newspapers-in-the-u-s-as-a-news-source/.

Sherman, Jake. “Poll: 1-in-4 Voters Believe Trump’s Vote-Fraud Claims.” Politico, February 1, 2017. https://www.politico.com/story/2017/02/poll-donald-trump-voter-fraud-234458.

Shipman, Tim. All Out War: The Full Story of How Brexit Sank Britain’s Political Class. New York: HarperCollins, 2017.

Silverman, Craig. “This Analysis Shows How Viral Fake Election News Stories Outperformed Real News on Facebook.” BuzzFeed News, November 16, 2016. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/viral-fake-election-news-outperformed-real-news-on-facebook.

Shirky, Clay. “The Political Power of Social Media.” Foreign Affairs, December 20, 2010. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2010-12-20/political-power-social-media.

Solon, Olivia. “How Syria’s White Helmets Became Victims of an Online Propaganda Machine.” Guardian, December 18, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/18/syria-white-helmets-conspiracy-theories.

“Space: The Next Startup Frontier.” Economist, June 7, 2014. https://www.economist.com/leaders/2014/06/07/space-the-next-startup-frontier.

Spenkuch, Jörg L., and David Toniatti. “Political Advertising and Election Outcomes.” SSRN Scholarly Paper. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, April 1, 2016. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2613987.

Stevenson, Alexandra. “Facebook Admits It Was Used to Incite Violence in Myanmar.” New York Times, November 6, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/06/technology/myanmar-facebook.html.

Stimson, Rebecca. “Letter Dated 19 July 2018 from Facebook to the DCMS Committee.” July 19, 2018. https://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons-committees/culture-media-and-sport/Fake_news_evidence/Letter-from-Rebecca-Stimson-Facebook-to-Chair-re-question-29-19-July-2018.pdf.

Taylor, Emily, Stacie Walsh, and Samantha Bradshaw. “Industry Responses to the Malicious Use of Social Media.” NATO StratCom COE, November 2018. https://www.stratcomcoe.org/industry-responses-malicious-use-social-media.

Terry, Collins. “Twitter’s Huge Bot Problem Is out of the Bag.” CNET, February 1, 2018. https://www.cnet.com/news/twitter-bot-fake-followers-problem-out-of-the-bag/.

Timberg, Craig, and Elizabeth Dwoskin. “Twitter Is Sweeping Out Fake Accounts Like Never Before, Putting User Growth at Risk.” Washington Post, July 6, 2018. https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2018/07/06/twitter-is-sweeping-out-fake-accounts-like-never-before-putting-user-growth-risk/.

“Trust: The Truth?” Ipsos MORI Thinks. 2019. https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/publication/documents/2019-09/ipsos-thinks-trust-the-truth.pdf.

Turkle, Sherry. Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other. 3rd ed. New York: Basic Books, 2017.

“UK Statistics Authority Statement on the Use of Official Statistics on Contributions to the European Union.” UK Statistics Authority (blog), May 27, 2016. https://www.statisticsauthority.gov.uk/news/uk-statistics-authority-statement-on-the-use-of-official-statistics-on-contributions-to-the-european-union/.

Umpierre, Flávia. “Dilma vai à justiça contra os robôs de Aécio [Dilma goes to justice against the robots of Aécio].” Partido dos Trabalhadores, October 10, 2014. https://pt.org.br/dilma-vai-a-justica-contra-os-robos-de-aecio/.

Ungerleider, Neal. “Behind the Mystery of Spam Tweets Clogging Syrian Protesters’ Streams.” Fast Company, April 21, 2011. https://www.fastcompany.com/1748827/behind-mystery-spam-tweets-clogging-syrian-protesters-streams.

“US Secretly Created ‘Cuban Twitter’ to Stir Unrest and Undermine Government.” Guardian, April 3, 2014. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/03/us-cuban-twitter-zunzuneo-stir-unrest.

US Senate. Select Committee on Intelligence. “Testimony of Sean J. Edgett, Twitter, Inc.” November 1, 2017. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/os-sedgett-110117.pdf.

Vaidhyanathan, Siva. Antisocial Media: How Facebook Disconnects Us and Undermines Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

“Venezuela Ruling Party Games Twitter for Political Gain.” Voice of America, August 4, 2015. https://www.voanews.com/americas/venezuela-ruling-party-games-twitter-political-gain.

We Are Social. “Digital in 2017: South America.” January 26, 2017. https://www.slideshare.net/wearesocialsg/digital-in-2017-south-america.

Weiwei, Ai. “China’s Paid Trolls: Meet the 50-Cent Party.” New Statesman, October 17, 2012. https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/politics/2012/10/china%E2%80%99s-paid-trolls-meet-50-cent-party.

Wertime, David. “Meet the Chinese Trolls Pumping Out 488 Million Fake Social Media Posts.” Foreign Policy, May 19, 2016. https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/05/19/meet-the-chinese-internet-trolls-pumping-488-million-posts-harvard-stanford-ucsd-research/.

Westen, Drew. The Political Brain: The Role of Emotion in Deciding the Fate of the Nation. Reprint ed. New York: PublicAffairs, 2008.

“WhatsApp Bans Hundreds of Thousands of Accounts in Brazil.” Washington Post, October 19, 2018. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/whatsapp-bans-hundreds-of-thousands-of-accounts-in-brazil/2018/10/19/0c1fd1a0-d3cc-11e8-83d6-291fcead2ab1_story.html.

“Who Is Using EGHNA Media Server.” EGHNA Media Server. http://media.eghna.com/success_stories. Accessed June 16, 2014; URL discontinued.

Wojcik, Stefan, et al. “Bots in the Twittersphere.” Pew Research Center, April 9, 2018. http://www.pewinternet.org/2018/04/09/bots-in-the-twittersphere/.

Woolley, Samuel C., and Douglas R. Guilbeault. “United States: Manufacturing Consensus Online.” In Computational Propaganda: Political Parties, Politicians, and Political Manipulation on Social Media, edited by Samuel C. Woolley and Philip N. Howard, 21–40. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Woolley, Samuel C., and Philip N. Howard. Computational Propaganda: Political Parties, Politicians, and Political Manipulation on Social Media. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

———. “Political Communication, Computational Propaganda, and Autonomous Agents.” International Journal of Communication 10, Special Issue (2016): 4882–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/146144402321466813.

YouGov, and The Economist. “The Economist/ YouGov Poll,” 2016. https://d25d2506sfb94s.cloudfront.net/cumulus_uploads/document/ljv2ohxmzj/econTabReport.pdf.