Today, many of the traditional spice mixtures of the Mediterranean Jewish kitchen, such as ras el hanout and za’atar, advieh, and bahārāt, can be purchased at specialty food stores or online. Other once hard-to-find ingredients, such as freekeh, pomegranate molasses, tamarind paste, and tahini, are now commonly found in well-stocked grocery stores as well as online.
ADVIEH. This Iranian spice mix, which is also popular in Iraq, varies from region to region, from family to family, and even from dish to dish, with pilafs using a different combination of spices than is used for stews. A typical blend would be 2 tablespoons each ground turmeric and cinnamon; 1 tablespoon ground cardamom; 1 teaspoon each ground coriander, ginger, and saffron; ½ teaspoon each freshly ground black pepper and freshly grated nutmeg; and a pinch of cayenne pepper. Some blends add dried rose petals.
ALEPPO, MARAS, AND URFA PEPPER FLAKES. These three mildly hot red pepper varieties are from the Syrian town of Aleppo and from Kahramanmaraş and Şanlıurfa in northeastern Turkey, respectively. Aleppo lies less than 30 miles from the Syrian-Turkish border and all three cities are within 150 miles of one another. Brick red and fruity, Maras pepper (also known as Marash and Turkish red pepper) and Aleppo pepper are nearly interchangeable, with Maras a bit hotter, though neither pepper is very hot. Blackish purple Urfa peppers are molasses sweet with a bit of bitterness like coffee and have a smoky, raisiny, earthy flavor.
Both Turkish peppers are processed with salt (the US Food and Drug Administration allows packagers to include up to 8 percent salt with these pepper flakes). The producers insist that if they did not add salt, the pepper flakes would quickly spoil.
BAHĀRĀT. This spice blend—bahārāt is the Arabic word for “spices”—is used in many countries of the Middle East. Its composition varies, however, with different spices, ratios, and degrees of sweetness. It is usually composed of allspice, cardamom, black pepper, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, cumin, nutmeg, and paprika. The Turks may add some dried mint, and the Tunisians favor a simple mixture of cinnamon, black pepper, and dried rose petals. Bahārāt is used to flavor meat, fish, and poultry. Here are three common blends:
1½ tablespoons each allspice, coriander, cinnamon, and cumin; 1 tablespoon each black pepper and paprika; 2 teaspoons nutmeg; and 1 teaspoon each cardamom and cloves
2 tablespoons each paprika and black pepper; 1½ tablespoons cumin; 1 tablespoon each coriander, cinnamon, and cloves; 1½ teaspoons cardamom; and ½ teaspoon nutmeg
2 tablespoons each allspice and cinnamon, 1 tablespoon black pepper, 1 teaspoon each cloves and cardamom, and ½ teaspoon each nutmeg and ginger (Iraqis call this seven spices)
BARBERRIES. These tart, dark crimson dried fruits are about the size of a currant or small raisin and are used in Iranian cooking, often mixed with rice. Before adding them to a dish, they must be plumped in hot water or quickly sautéed in butter to soften.
BULGUR. A staple grain of the Lebanese, Jordanian, Syrian, and Turkish kitchens, bulgur is durum wheat berries that have been partially hulled and then steamed, dried, and ground. Bulgur, which is considered a whole grain because its exterior is only lightly abraded, comes in four grinds. Fine is used for tabbouleh and is easily reconstituted by soaking, medium is used mainly for pilafs and kibbeh and cooks in 15 to 20 minutes, and coarse and extra coarse are also used for pilafs and take longer to cook. Bulgur is not to be confused with cracked wheat, which is ground raw wheat berries.
CHARMOULA. A specialty of Morocco but popular throughout North Africa, this spice-and-herb mixture, sometimes spelled chermoula, is used as a marinade and finishing sauce primarily for fish and less often for vegetables and meats (see page 239).
COUSCOUS. These small, fine pasta pellets made from semolina (durum wheat) are the signature starch of North Africa (see page 158).
DRIED OMANI LIMES. These sour fruits originated in the Persian Gulf, thus their name. They are used in kitchens throughout the region and have been cultivated in Iran for centuries, where they are added to soups and stews to impart a tart flavor. Available whole and powdered, they range in color from cream to almost black and will impart some of their color to the dish in which they are cooked. If using whole limes, rinse them well and then give them a gentle thwack with a meat pounder so they crack, allowing their flavor to diffuse throughout the dish.
DUKKAH. Also spelled duqqa, this Egyptian seasoning mixture, which is now used elsewhere in the Middle East, as well, is typically made up of nuts, seeds, spices, and herbs that are toasted separately and then pounded together (the word dukkah comes from the Arabic word for “to pound”). Some mixtures include toasted chickpeas, as well. Dukkah is primarily eaten on bread that has first been dipped in olive oil and is also good on raw and cooked vegetables and rice. Here are two suggested combinations:
¾ cup hazelnuts, toasted, skinned, and finely chopped; ¼ cup coriander seeds, toasted and ground; 3 tablespoons cumin seeds, toasted and ground; ½ cup sesame seeds, toasted; 1 teaspoon salt; ½ teaspoon freshly ground black pepper; and a pinch of paprika or nigella seeds (optional)
½ cup almonds or hazelnuts, toasted, skinned, and finely chopped; 3 tablespoons coriander seeds, toasted and ground; 2 tablespoons cumin seeds, toasted and ground; 1 teaspoon Aleppo or Urfa pepper flakes; 3 tablespoons sesame seeds, toasted; 1 teaspoon nigella seeds; 2 teaspoons salt; and 1 teaspoon dried mint
FREEKEH. Popular in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, and to a lesser degree in Turkey and North Africa, freekeh is green wheat that has been roasted and cracked. The wheat is harvested when the seeds are still soft, and the stalks are stacked and left to dry in the sun. The stacks are carefully set on fire to burn off only the chaff and straw, leaving behind the roasted kernels, which are then thrashed and dried again in the sun. Sold both whole and cracked, freekeh is used in soups, pilafs, and stuffings and is easy to cook: allow a ratio of three parts water to one part wheat and start checking for doneness after 15 minutes if using cracked freekeh or after 45 minutes if using whole freekeh.
HARISSA. This North African hot sauce is used primarily in Tunisia and Morocco. Moroccan harissa is typically a mixture of chiles, garlic, cumin, and olive oil. The Tunisian version is a bit more distinctive, as it infuses sweet red peppers with tābil (see entry), a mixture of caraway, coriander, and garlic. Although you can buy harissa paste in a tube or jar, it will never be as good as when you make it yourself. I have included two recipes for harissa on page 355.
KAYMAK. Similar to clotted cream, creamy, rich Turkish kaymak is made by gently simmering milk (traditionally water buffalo’s milk) until a thick, creamy layer forms on the surface, which is then removed and left to firm up and ferment slightly before using. Similar preparations are found in Iran and Iraq and throughout Central Asia. Kaymak is a common breakfast food and a popular accompaniment to desserts. It is difficult to find outside the region, however. Clotted cream, labneh (see entry), mascarpone, or Greek yogurt can be used in its place in recipes in this book.
LABNEH. This Middle Eastern fresh cheese, which is becoming more commonly available in the dairy case of US markets, is traditionally made by hanging yogurt in cheesecloth until most of the moisture has dripped away and a soft cheese has formed. It is delicious drizzled with olive oil and sprinkled with za’atar as an accompaniment for pita bread and is a good substitute for kaymak in recipes in this book.
NIGELLA SEEDS. These tiny black seeds, sometimes called black cumin or black caraway, have a slightly oniony taste. They are sprinkled atop pastries for both a color accent and the aroma they impart.
ORANGE FLOWER WATER. Sold in bottles, this is the clear liquid that results from distilling orange blossoms. It is a popular addition to desserts in the Mediterranean, North Africa, and the Middle East.
POMEGRANATE MOLASSES. Sometimes labeled “pomegranate juice concentrate,” pomegranate molasses is a thick syrup made by reducing pomegranate juice. Tart and sweet, it is used in the Middle East in dressings, as a marinade, and as a sauce enhancement where a sweet-and-sour flavor is desired. The best-known brands are Cortas and Carlo, imported from Lebanon.
PRESERVED LEMONS. A staple in every Moroccan kitchen, preserved lemons are a signature flavor in many of the country’s dishes. See page 356 for directions on putting them up.
RAS EL HANOUT. The name of this Moroccan spice mixture means “top of the shop.” Ras el hanout can contain as many as thirty spices and is added to stews and other meat dishes, vegetable dishes, marinades and brines, and condiments. Because commercial ras el hanout in years past often included cantharides beetle in the mix, making the spice blend non-kosher, observant Jews traditionally prepared their own blend.
To make your own ras el hanout, combine equal parts ground cinnamon, ground cardamom, ground mace, ground nutmeg, ground sweet paprika, ground black pepper, ground turmeric, and ground ginger. Toast the spices in a dry pan until fragrant, and store in a tightly sealed jar.
ROSE WATER. Made from fresh petals by the process known as steam distillation, rose water was first mass-produced by Persians in medieval times. Today it is widely used in desserts throughout the Middle East.
SAFFRON. Introduced to Spain and Portugal from Asia Minor by the Moors, and planted in Andalusia, Valencia, and southern Castile, saffron is best when bought in threads or filaments rather than in powder form. To release the maximum flavor, the threads are ideally warmed in a dry pan on the stove top until fragrant or on a plate in a microwave oven for 30 seconds. The warmed threads are then typically crushed in a mortar and steeped in warm liquid (wine, broth, or water) to develop their flavor and color. Saffron imparts a lovely golden hue and an intriguing sweet-bitter accent to food. The best Spanish brand is La Mancha, which packages deep red threads. Superb saffron also comes from Iran.
SUMAC. The dried fruits (drupes) of a shrub native to the Middle East, sumac is a dark reddish purple spice with a tart, lemony taste. It is sold both whole and ground and is used to garnish meze and to flavor salads like fattoush. In Iran, where a shaker of sumac sits on the table alongside salt and pepper, it is sprinkled over rice, kebabs, and anything else that needs a tangy accent. Sumac is also one of the components of za’atar (see entry).
TĀBIL. A signature spice mixture in Tunisian cooking—tābil means “seasoning” in Tunisian Arabic—tābil is a combination of caraway, coriander, garlic, and lots of hot pepper. It is a common addition to soups and stews.
TAHINI. A pantry staple in the Arab nations of the Middle East, Turkey, and Israel, tahini is a thick paste made from grinding toasted sesame seeds and oil. It comes to the market in cans, jars, and plastic containers. Not all tahini is of equal quality, so I advise sampling a few different brands to find one that has a rich flavor and no bitterness. (Some of the natural foods brands are not mellow enough for my palate, and a few have a nasty aftertaste.) My favorite brand, Al Wadi, is produced in Lebanon. Once the tahini is packed, the sesame paste settles to the bottom of the container in a dense lump, with the oil floating on top. You will have to stir it vigorously, using a strong wrist and a fork, before using it. A whirl in a blender or food processor will also work, after which you can put what you don’t use back in the original container. Every time you return to the container, however, you will have to repeat the stirring process, as the paste will always settle to the bottom, topped with the oil layer.
Tahini becomes a salad dressing by blending it with fresh lemon juice and thinning the purée with water. It can be thick or quite thin. Garlic is usually added, as well as such spices as cumin and cayenne pepper. Creamy tahini dressing can be served as a dip for pita bread, cucumber spears, carrot batons, radishes, or green onions, or it can be spooned over cooked fish. When thinned with additional water, it is delicious drizzled over sliced tomatoes, beets and greens, or a simple salad of romaine lettuce, sliced cucumbers, and sliced radishes. It is superb spooned over sautéed or grilled eggplant or zucchini or roasted carrots or beets. You can also stir tahini into mashed roasted eggplant to make baba ghanouj (page 29) or into mashed chickpeas to create hummus (page 38).
TAMARIND. The tart-sweet pulp found inside the pods that grow on trees of the same name, tamarind (from the Arabic tamr-hindī, meaning “date of India”) is used in Turkey, Iran, Syria, Lebanon, and elsewhere in the Middle East in sauces and marinades and in meat, fish, and poultry dishes. It can be purchased as a paste or extract and diluted as needed.
ZA’ATAR. Popular all over the Middle East, za’atar is an aromatic dry mixture typically made up of hyssop or oregano, thyme, sumac, and sesame seeds. It is commonly eaten with pita bread that has first been dipped in olive oil and is also good sprinkled on top of cooked vegetables, soft goat cheese, or hummus or other spreads. Although za’atar is traditionally made with dried herbs, I sometimes use fresh herbs for their fragrance. Here is a simple recipe: ¼ cup sesame seeds, 2 tablespoons ground sumac, ½ teaspoon salt, and about ½ cup chopped fresh thyme, hyssop, or marjoram.