354 Id., par. 110.

355 Id., par. 4 (dissenting opinion of Judge Tulkens).

356 Id., par. 5 (dissenting opinion of Judge Tulkens).

357 Hasan And Chaush v. Bulgaria, [2000] ECHR 30985/96 [GC] (26 Oct. 2000), at par. 87.

358 Id. at par. 87.

359 Segerstedt-Wiberg and Others v. Sweden, [2006] ECHR 62332/00 (6 June 2006).

360 Id. at par. 76 and see generally, Kim Lane Scheppele, When the Law Doesn’t Count: The 2000 Election and the Failure of the Rule of Law, 149 U. PA. L. REV. 1361, 1370–95 (2001).

361 Segerstedt-Wiberg, at par. 76.

362 Id. at par. 76.

363 Id. at par. 76.

364 Id. at par. 76.

365 Id. at par. 79.

366 Id. at par. 73.

367 Id. at par. 88.

368 Wildhaber, supra note 242, at 529–31.

369 Id. at 535.

370 Id. at 536.

371 Id. at 535.

372 See Judgment, C-402/05 P and C-415/05 P Yassin Abdullah Kadi and Al Barakaat Int’l. Found. v Council of the European Union and Com’n of the European Communities (Sept. 3, 2008), available at http://curia.europa.eu/jcms/jcms/j_6; Opinion, Advocate Gen. Poiares Maduro, in Id. delivered on Jan. 23, 2008; Kim Lane Scheppele, The International State of Emergency: Challenges to Constitutionalism after September 11, http://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1048&context=schmooze_papers.

373 Wildhaber, supra note 242, at 536.

374 Id. at 537.

375 Id.

376 Id. at 536.

377 Carlos Bernal Pulido, There Are Still Judges in Berlin: On the Proposal to Amend the Ecuadorian Constitution to Allow Indefinite Presidential Reelection, INT’L J. CONST. L. (blog), Sept. 10, 2014, http://www.iconnectblog.com/2014/09/there-are-still-judges-in-berlin-on-the-proposal-to-amend-the-ecuadorian-constitution-to-allow-indefinite-presidential-reelection/.

Chapter 5. Rules of Democracy

1 See Niels Petersen, The Principle of Democratic Teleology in International Law, 34 BROOKLYN J. INT’L L. 33, 37–40 (2008); and see ROBERT A. DAHL, POLYARCHY: PARTICIPATION AND OPPOSITION 3–4 (Yale Univ. Press 1971).

2 Gerardo L. Munck and Jay Verkuilen, Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices, 35:1 COMP. POL. STUD. 5, 29–30 (Feb. 2002); updated in GERARDO L. MUNCK, MEASURING DEMOCRACY: A BRIDGE BETWEEN SCHOLARSHIP & POLITICS 13–37 (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press 2009).

3 U.S. CONST., art. I, secs. 9–10, art. III, sec. 3, art. IV, sec. 2, par. 1; Id. sec. 4; Amends. 2–6, 8, and see generally, IRVING BRANT, THE BILL OF RIGHTS: ITS ORIGIN AND MEANING (Bobbs-Merrill 1965).

4 U.S. CONST., Amends. 1, 14, 15, 17, 19, 23, 24, & 26.

5 1 ANNALS OF CONG. 454 (U.S. H. Rep., 1st Cong., 1st Sess., June 8, 1789).

6 U.S. CONST., Amends. 13–15, 19, 24 & 26.

7 THE FEDERALIST NO. 25, at 167 (Alexander Hamilton) (New American Library, Clinton Rossiter, ed. 1961); The Federalist No. 48, in id. at 308 (Madison); The Federalist No. 49, in id. at 317 (Madison); The Federalist No. 73, in id. at 442 (Hamilton).

8 CULLEN MURPHY, ARE WE ROME: THE FALL OF AN EMPIRE AND THE FATE OF AMERICA (Houghton Mifflin 2007).

9 PAUL KENNEDY, THE RISE AND FALL OF THE GREAT POWERS (Random House 1987).

10 KEVIN PHILLIPS, WEALTH AND DEMOCRACY: A POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN RICH 171–200 (Broadway Books 2002).

11 Eric Lichtblau, F.B.I. Scrutinizes Antiwar Rallies, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 23, 2003, sec. 1, at 1.

12 Quoted in James Bamford, The Agency That Could Be Big Brother, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 25, 2005.

13 See Scott Shane, Election Spurred A Move to Codify U.S. Drone Policy, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 25, 2012, at A1; Ethan Bronner, With Longer Reach, Rockets Bolster Hamas Arsenal, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 18, 2012, at A1; Jonathan Masters, Targeted Killings (Council on Foreign Relations), May 23, 2013, http://www.cfr.org/intelligence/targeted-killings/p9627; Peter W. Singer, Do Drones Undermine Democracy?, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 22, 2012, at SR5; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 6, 999 U.N.T.S. 171. The ACLU also follows this issue on its website under the heading “targeted killings.”

14 Hedges v. Obama, 2012 U.S. Dist. Lexis 130354 (S.D.N.Y. 2012).

15 Hedges v. Obama, 2013 U.S. App. LEXIS 14417 (2d Cir. July 17, 2013).

16 Ctr. for Nat’l Sec. Studies v. United States DOJ, 215 F. Supp. 2d 94 (D.D.C. 2002), rev’d, 331 F.3d 918 (D.C. Cir. 2003), cert. den. 540 U.S. 1104 (2004); Id. at 937 (Tatel, J., dissenting). See also Eunice Moscoso, Secret Detention of Suspects Upheld; Federal Judges Say That Disclosure Could Tip Terrorists to U.S. Investigations, Security Efforts, ATLANTA JOURNAL-CONSTITUTION, June 18, 2003, at 1A; Michael Kirkland, On Law: “Secret Arrests” and Liberty (United Press International), June 20, 2003, http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Security-Industry/2003/06/20/On-Law-Secret-arrests-and-liberty/UPI-93511056132863/.

17 DWIGHT LOWELL DUMOND, ANTISLAVERY ORIGINS OF THE CIVIL WAR 13 & 32–34 (U. of Michigan Press 1959).

18 LEEANNA KEITH, THE COLFAX MASSACRE: THE UNTOLD STORY OF BLACK POWER, WHITE TERROR, AND THE DEATH OF RECONSTRUCTION (Oxford Univ. Press 2008); CHARLES LANE, THE DAY FREEDOM DIED: THE COLFAX MASSACRE, THE SUPREME COURT, AND THE BETRAYAL OF RECONSTRUCTION (Henry Holt & Company 2008); C. VANN WOODWARD, THE STRANGE CAREER OF JIM CROW, 65–91 (Oxford Univ. Press 1957).

19 See WYN CRAIG WADE, THE FIERY CROSS: THE KU KLUX KLAN IN AMERICA 324–25 (Oxford Univ. Press 1987).

20 See WILLIAM L. RIORDON, PLUNKITT OF TAMMANY HALL (Signet Classic 1996); FRANK S. ROBINSON, MACHINE POLITICS: A STUDY OF ALBANY’S O’CONNELLS (Transaction Books 1977); ALFRED STEINBERG, THE BOSSES (Macmillan 1972); Darryl McGrath, Albany Is Us, METROLAND, Apr. 28, 2005, http://www.metroland.net/back_issues/vol28_no17/features.html. See also Stephen E. Gottlieb, Rebuilding the Right of Association: The Right to Hold a Convention as a Test Case, 11 HOFSTRA L. REV. 191, 221–27, 238–43 (1982).

21 See Theola S. Labbe, Federal Intervention a Rare Move, ALBANY TIMES UNION, Apr. 26, 2001, at B11; Marv Cermak, Officials Discuss Police Plan with Feds, ALBANY TIMES UNION, Mar. 5, 2002, at B5; Kim Martineau, Prosecutor Recuses Self from Review of Police, ALBANY TIMES UNION, Mar. 5, 2002, at A1.

22 COMM’N TO INVESTIGATE ALLEGATIONS OF POLICE CORRUPTION AND THE ANTI-CORRUPTION PROCEDURES OF THE POLICE DEP’T, CITY OF NEW YORK (THE “MOLLEN COMM’N”), COMM’N REPORT (1994), available at http://www.parc.info/clientfiles/Special%20Reports/4%20-%20Mollen%20Commission%20-%20NYPD.pdf.

23 See Erwin Chemerinsky, An Independent Analysis of the Los Angeles Police Department’s Board of Inquiry Report on the Rampart Scandal, 34 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 545 (2001).

24 Richard Perez-Pena, Supervision of Troopers Faulted in Evidence-Tampering Scandal, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 4, 1997, at B1; Ronald Sullivan, Trooper’s 2d Tampering Charge, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 6, 1994, at B9.

25 See DA’s Office v. Osborne, 557 U.S. 52, 82 (2009) (Alito, J., concurring) and citing Erin Murphy, The New Forensics: Criminal Justice, False Certainty, and the Second Generation of Scientific Evidence, 95 CAL. L. REV. 721, 772–773 (2007) (collecting examples).

26 Van de Kamp v. Goldstein, 555 U.S. 335 (2009); Connick v. Thompson, 131 S. Ct. 1350 (2011); Id. at 1371–75 (Ginsburg, J., dissenting).

27 See Colbert I. King, Whose Rights Will They Come for Next?, ALBANY TIMES UNION, June 13, 2002, at A13; Eric Lichtblau, F.B.I. Scrutinizes Antiwar Rallies, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 23, 2003, A1; and see ATHAN THEOHARIS, FROM THE SECRET FILES OF J. EDGAR HOOVER (I.R. Dee 1991); DOUGLAS M. CHARLES, J. EDGAR HOOVER AND THE ANTI-INTERVENTIONISTS: FBI POLITICAL SURVEILLANCE AND THE RISE OF THE DOMESTIC SECURITY STATE, 1939–1945 (Ohio State Univ. Press 2007); WILLIAM W. KELLER, THE LIBERALS AND J. EDGAR HOOVER: RISE AND FALL OF A DOMESTIC INTELLIGENCE STATE (Princeton Univ. Press 1989); OVID DEMARIS, THE DIRECTOR: AN ORAL BIOGRAPHY OF J. EDGAR HOOVER 96 (Harper’s Magazine Press 1975); Alan Brinkley, Black Sites (review of JANE MAYER, THE DARK SIDE), N.Y. TIMES BOOK REVIEW, Aug. 3, 2008; Matt Taibbi, The Hunters and the Hunted (review of SETH ROSENFELD, SUBVERSIVES: THE FBI’S WAR ON STUDENT RADICALS, AND REAGAN’S RISE TO POWER), N.Y. TIMES BOOK REVIEW, Oct. 7, 2012.

28 See NEW YORK CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION, TAKING TASERS SERIOUSLY: THE NEED FOR BETTER REGULATION OF STUN GUNS IN NEW YORK (2011), available at http://www.nyclu.org/files/publications/nyclu_TaserFinal.pdf.

29 Mike Goodwin, Claim against Ex-Cops Rejected, ALBANY TIMES UNION, May 26, 2005, at A1; Paul Grondahl, Grim End to a Grim Journey, ALBANY TIMES UNION, Apr. 4, 2010, at A1.

30 PAUL CHEVIGNY, POLICE POWER: POLICE ABUSE IN NEW YORK CITY (Pantheon 1969), and see Kami Chavis Simmons, Cooperative Federalism and Police Reform: Using Congressional Spending Power to Promote Police Accountability, 62 ALA. L. REV. 351, 362 (2011).

31 Labbe, supra note 21; MICHELLE ALEXANDER, THE NEW JIM CROW: MASS INCARCERATION IN THE AGE OF COLOR-BLINDNESS (New Press 2012).

32 William J. Stuntz, Local Policing After the Terror, 111 YALE L.J. 2137 (2002); JEFFREY IAN ROSS, THE DYNAMICS OF POLITICAL CRIME 100 (Sage Publications 2003); Lincoln Caplan, William Stuntz, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 24, 2011, at A30.

33 Simmons, supra note 30, 62 ALA. L. REV. at 353–54 & 360–66.

34 See ALEXANDER, supra note 31.

35 Simmons, supra note 30, 62 ALA. L. REV. at 354.

36 Id. at 362.

37 Id. at 355.

38 NATIONAL COMM’N ON LAW OBSERVANCE AND ENFORCEMENT (THE “WICKERSHAM COMM’N”), REPORT ON LAWLESSNESS IN LAW ENFORCEMENT 5 (GPO 1931), and see Miranda v. Ariz., 384 U.S. 436, 447 (1966).

39 MOLLEN COMM’N REPORT, supra note 22.

40 INDEPENDENT COMM’N ON THE LOS ANGELES POLICE DEPARTMENT (THE “CHRISTOPHER COMM’N”), REPORT (1991), available at http://www.parc.info/client_files/Special%20Reports/1%20-%20Chistopher%20Commision.pdf.

41 H.R. Doc. No. 102–242(I), at 136–138 tit. Omnibus Crime Control Act of 1991 (Oct. 7, 1991), 1991 WL 206794, available at http://web2.westlaw.com/find/default.wl?cite=1991+WL+206794&rs=WLW13.04&vr=2.0&rp=%2ffind%2fdefault.wl&sv=Full&fn=_top&mt=208.

42 CHEVIGNY, supra note 30.

43 ALEXANDER, supra note 31.

44 DAHL, POLYARCHY, supra note 1, at 3; PAUL WILKINSON, TERRORISM VERSUS DEMOCRACY: THE LIBERAL STATE RESPONSE 75–100 & 194–95 (Routledge, 3d ed. 2011); JENNIFER S. HOLMES, TERRORISM AND DEMOCRATIC STABILITY (Manchester Univ. Press 2001).

45 Raymond D. Gastil, The Comparative Survey of Freedom: Experiences and Suggestions, in ON MEASURING DEMOCRACY: ITS CONSEQUENCES AND CONCOMITANTS 21–46 (Transaction, Alex Inkeles, ed. 1991); Ted Robert Gurr, Keith Jaggers and Will H. Moore, The Transformation of the Western State: The Growth of Democracy, Autocracy, and State Power since 1800, in id. at 69–104; Joseph E. Ryan, Survey Methodology, 25:1 FREEDOM REVIEW 9–13 (1994).

46 See DAHL, POLYARCHY, supra note 1, at 3 & 17–32.

47 See generally HOLMES, supra note 44. See also WILKINSON, supra note 44, at 79–85 & 203.

48 WILKINSON, supra note 44, at 199–200 & 203.

49 Id. at 207; HOLMES, supra note 44.

50 ALEXANDER, supra note 31.

51 BRUCE BUENO DE MESQUITA AND ALASTAIR SMITH, THE DICTATOR’S HANDBOOK: WHY BAD BEHAVIOR IS ALMOST ALWAYS GOOD POLITICS (Public Affairs 2011).

52 COMMEMORATIVE BIOGRAPHICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF DAUPHIN COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA: CONTAINING SKETCHES OF PROMINENT AND REPRESENTATIVE CITIZENS AND MANY OF THE EARLY SCOTCH-IRISH AND GERMAN SETTLERS 37–38 (J.M. Runk & Co. 1896), available at http://archive.org/stream/commemorativebio00jmru#page/n53/mode/2up/search/buckshot; THOMAS FREDERICK WOODLEY, THADDEUS STEVENS 114–41 (The Telegraph Press 1934), available at http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89096842679;view=1up;seq=148.

53 Nigel Anthony Summers, Treasonous Tenant Farmers and Seditious Share Croppers: The 1917 Green Corn Rebellion Trials, 27 OKLA. CITY U. L. REV. 1097, 1105–06 (2002).

54 On intimidation with an open ballot, see ROBERT M. BASTRESS, THE WEST VIRGINIA STATE CONSTITUTION: A REFERENCE GUIDE 114 (Greenwood Press 1995). On white control over black votes See, e.g., Susan Pace Hamill, The Book That Could Change Alabama, 56 ALA. L. REV. 219 (2004) (reviewing HARVEY H. JACKSON III, INSIDE ALABAMA: A PERSONAL HISTORY OF MY STATE); GUNNAR MYRDAL, AN AMERICAN DILEMMA: THE NEGRO PROBLEM AND MODERN DEMOCRACY 480 (Harper & Brothers 1944). And see Brian K. Landsberg, Sumter County, Alabama and the Origins of the Voting Rights Act, 54 ALA. L. REV. 877 (2003). On intimidation of blacks, see RICHARD KLUGER, SIMPLE JUSTICE: THE HISTORY OF BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION AND BLACK AMERICA’S STRUGGLE FOR EQUALITY 3, 10, 23–25, 222–24, 303 & 229–31 (Knopf 2004); and see Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. 343, 354–357, 363 (2003); NAACP v. Alabama, 357 U.S. 449, 462–67 (1958); WYN CRAIG WADE, THE FIERY CROSS: THE KU KLUX KLAN IN AMERICA 324–25 (Oxford Univ. Press 1987). On intimidation in the former Confederate states, see Maj. Gen. Carl Schurz, Report on the Condition of the South, Ex. Doc. No. 2, U.S. Sen, 39th Cong., 1st Session, at 17–21, 30–34, 36–38 & 50–51 (1865).

55 Shelby County v. Holder, 133 S. Ct. 2612, 2636 (2013) (Ginsburg, J., dissenting); Statement of Pamela S. Karlan, in THE CONTINUING NEED FOR SECTION 5 PRE-CLEARANCE, Hearing Before the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 109th Cong., 2d Sess., May 16, 2006, Serial No. J–109–77, at 5–7.

56 See sources cited, supra note 20.

57 See ANDREW GUMBEL, STEAL THIS VOTE 113 (Nation Books 2005).

58 JOSEPH P. HARRIS, ELECTION ADMINISTRATION IN THE UNITED STATES 15–17, 150–54 & 315–22 (Brookings Inst. 1934), available at http://www.nist.gov/itl/vote/josephharrisrpt.cfm; STEINBERG, supra note 20.

59 See Philip Converse Change in the American Electorate, in THE HUMAN MEANING OF SOCIAL CHANGE, 282 & 286–288 (Russell Sage Foundation, Angus Campbell and Philip E. Converse, eds. 1972).

60 See HARRY M. CAUDILL, THE WATCHES OF THE NIGHT (Little, Brown 1976).

61 Id. at 217–18; HOWARD R. PENNIMAN, SAIT’S AMERICAN PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 338–41 (Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 5th ed. 1952).

62 See Jaikumar Vijayan, Election Watchdogs Keep Wary Eye on Paperless E-Voting Systems, COMPUTERWORLD, Oct. 30, 2012, http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9233058/Election_watchdogs_keep_wary_eye_on_paperless_e_voting_systems.

63 Bob Sullivan, New Jersey’s Email Voting Suffers Major Glitches, Deadline Extended to Friday, NBCNEWS.COM, Nov. 6, 2012, http://usnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/11/06/14974588-new-jerseys-email-voting-suffers-major-glitches-deadline-extended-to-friday?lite; Jaikumar Vijayan, Use of E-voting Machines Unaltered Despite Power Outages Caused by Hurricane Sandy, COMPUTERWORLD, Nov. 2, 2012, http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9233196/Use_of_e_voting_machines_unaltered_despite_power_outages_caused_by_Hurricane_Sandy?taxonomyId=13.

64 John M. Broder, In Case of a Recount, a Long Wait for Ohio, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 6, 2012, at A10; Lizette Alvarez, Obama Win Is Confirmed in Florida, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 11, 2012, at A33; Editorial, A Broken Election System, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 21, 2012, at A26.

65 Declan McCullagh, Pennsylvania E-voting Machine Casts Wrong Ballot. Oops, CNET NEWS, Nov. 6, 2012, http://news.cnet.com/8301–13578_3–57545940–38/pennsylvania-e-voting-machine-casts-wrong-ballot-oops/.

66 Kate Taylor and David W. Chen, After a Chaotic Election, City Leaders and Watchdogs Call for a System Overhaul, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 8, 2012, at A16.

67 GUMBEL, supra note 57, and JOHN FUND, STEALING ELECTIONS: HOW VOTER FRAUD THREATENS OUR DEMOCRACY (Encounter Books 2004).

68 Alexander Keyssar, Something Has Changed about Election Night, N.Y. TIMES (blog) (E-Day Campaign Stops), Nov. 6, 2012, http://campaignstops.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/11/06/e-day/#Keyssar.

69 David Barstow and Don Van Natta, Jr., How Bush Took Florida: Mining the Overseas Absentee Vote, N.Y. TIMES, July 15, 2001, sec. 1, at 1.

70 See the findings on “Disenfranchised Voters” in U.S. COMM’N. ON CIVIL RIGHTS, VOTING IRREGULARITIES IN FLORIDA DURING THE 2000 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION (June 2001), available at http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/vote2000/report/exesum.htm; Abby Goodnough, In Florida, Wrestling Again Over Felons and Voting, N.Y. TIMES, June 9, 2004, at A16; Katharine Q. Seelye, Divided Civil Rights Panel Approves Election Report, N.Y. TIMES, June 9, 2001, at A8; GREG PALAST, THE BEST DEMOCRACY MONEY CAN BUY: AN INVESTIGATIVE REPORTER EXPOSES THE TRUTH ABOUT GLOBALIZATION, CORPORATE CONS AND HIGH FINANCE FRAUDSTERS 6–43 (Pluto Press 2002).

71 Robert F. Kennedy Jr., Was the 2004 Election Stolen?, ROLLING STONE, June 1, 2006, available at http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/10432334/was_the_2004_election_stolen.

72 Id.

73 See Becket Adams, Fact Check: Does George Soros Own an Overseas Company That Will Count U.S. Votes?, THE BLAZE, Sept. 13, 2012, http://www.theblaze.com/stories/fact-check-does-soros-own-an-overseas-company-that-will-count-u-s-votes/, and SCYTL, SNOPES.COM, Sept. 11, 2012, http://www.snopes.com/politics/ballot/scytl.asp; Election Fraud Now Outsourced to Socialist Spain, REDSTATE, Apr. 11, 2012, http://www.redstate.com/lastgopinillinois/2012/04/11/election-fraud-now-outsourced-to-socialist-spain/.

74 Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1, 10, 14–15 (1964).

75 Art. I, sec. 2, par. 3; art. II, sec. 1, par. 2.

76 See 1 RECORDS OF THE FEDERAL CONVENTION OF 1787, at 604 (Yale Univ. Press, Max Farrand, ed. 1966) (remarks of Gouverneur Morris, July 13, 1787); Jack Rakove, The Great Compromise: Ideas, Interests and the Politics of Constitution Making, 44 WM. & MARY Q. 3d ser. 424, 450 & 452 (1987); STAUGHTON LYND, CLASS CONFLICT, SLAVERY, & THE UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION 185–213 (Bobbs-Merrill 1967); CALVIN C. JILLSON, CONSTITUTION MAKING: CONFLICT AND CONSENSUS IN THE FEDERAL CONVENTION OF 1787 (Agathon Press 1988); Calvin C. Jillson, The Representation Question in the Federal Convention of 1787; Madison’s Virginia Plan and its Opponents, 8 Congressional Studies no. 1, at 21–41 (1981); and Staughton Lynd, The Compromise of 1787, 81 POL. SCI. Q. 225–50 (1966).

77 See 27 Cong. Ch. 47; 5 Stat. 491 (enacted June 25, 1842).

78 See Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962); Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1 (1963); Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 (1964); and see Gordon E. Baker, The Unfinished Reapportionment Revolution, in POLITICAL GERRYMANDERING AND THE COURTS (Agathon Press, Bernard Grofman, ed. 1990).

79 Kramer v. Union Free School Dist., 395 U.S. 621 (1969); Moore v. Ogilvie, 394 U.S. 814 (1969); Kirkpatrick v. Preisler, 394 U.S. 526 (1969); Wells v. Rockefeller, 394 U.S. 542 (1969); and see Baker, Unfinished Reapportionment Revolution, supra note 78, at 24–25.

80 GEORGE ORWELL, ANIMAL FARMch. 10 (Harcourt, Brace & Co. 1946).

81 Brown v. Thomson, 462 U.S. 835, 839 (1983) (Brennan, J., dissenting). The numbers are confusing but the difference between most and least well-represented voters reached 2.5 and 3 to 1, id. at 854–55 (Brennan, J., dissenting).

82 See also MORALITY IMPOSED: THE REHNQUIST COURT AND LIBERTY IN AMERICA 38–48 (N. Y. Univ. Press 2000) and The Rehnquist Court (1986–): Radical Revision of American Constitutional Law, in THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT: THE PURSUIT OF JUSTICE 327, 336–40 (Houghton Mifflin with the Am. Bar Found., Christopher L. Tomlins, ed. 2005).

83 League of United Latin American Citizens [LULAC] v. Perry, 548 U.S. 399, 512 (2006) (Scalia, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part); Holder v. Hall, 5412 U.S. 874, 896–903 (1994) (Thomas, J., concurring in the judgment).

84 Bush v. Vera, 517 U.S. 952, 965 (1996) (plurality opinion).

85 Vieth v. Jubelirer, 541 U.S. 267 (2004).

86 DE MESQUITA AND SMITH, THE DICTATOR’S HANDBOOK, supra note 51, at 264–68 (Public Affairs 2011).

87 See G. BINGHAM POWELL, JR., CONTEMPORARY DEMOCRACIES: PARTICIPATION, STABILITY, AND VIOLENCE 75–77 (Harvard Univ. Press 1982); M. Rainer Lepsius, From Fragmented Party Democracy to Government by Emergency Decree and National Socialist Takeover: Germany, in THE BREAKDOWN OF DEMOCRATIC REGIMES: EUROPE 44–45 (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, eds. 1978); Juan J. Linz, From Great Hopes to Civil War: The Breakdown of Democracy in Spain, in id. at 169.

88 Stephanopoulos, Nicholas, Our Electoral Exceptionalism, 79 U. CHI. L. REV. 769 (2013), available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2139123.

89 See Brief Amicus Curiae of Gary King, et al, in support of neither party in LULAC, supra note 83, at 5–6; CHARLES STEWART III, ANALYZING CONGRESS 204 (W.W. Norton 2000).

90 See Daniel Lowenstein and Jonathan Steinberg, The Quest for Legislative Districting in the Public Interest: Elusive or Illusory?, 33 UCLA L. REV. 1 (1985).

91 Vieth v. Jubilirer, 541 U.S. 267, 311–12 (2004).

92 See, e.g., “Supreme Court Dismisses Ojukwu’s Appeal Against Yar’Adua,” Africa News, Apr. 25, 2009 (Nigeria); Abraham Korir Sing’Oei, The ICC As Arbiter in Kenya’s Post-Electoral Violence, 19 MINN. J. INT’L L. ONLINE 5, 12–13 (Kenya); Peter W. Schroth and Ana Daniela Bostan, International Constitutional Law and Anti-Corruption Measures in the European Union’s Accession Negotiations: Romania in Comparative Perspective, 52 AM. J. COMP. L. 625, 637n (2004); United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U.S. 542 (1875); and see sources cited supra note 18.

93 See CHARLES DE SECONDAT, BARON DE MONTESQUIEU, L’ESPRIT DE LOIS OR THE SPIRIT OF LAWS (G. Bell & Sons, Ltd. 1914) (1748).

94 See POWELL, CONTEMPORARY DEMOCRACIES supra note 87.

95 THE FEDERALIST, supra note 7.

96 See Gregory E. Maggs, A Concise Guide to the Federalist Papers as a Source of the Original Meaning of the United States Constitution, 87 B.U. L. REV. 801, 802 (2007); J. Christopher Jennings, Note: Madison’s New Audience: The Supreme Court and the Tenth Federalist Visited, 82 B.U. L. REV. 817 (2002); Ira C. Lupu, The Most Cited Federalist Papers, 15 CONST. COMMENT. 403 (1998); and see, e.g., Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 602 (2006); id. at 675 (Scalia, J., dissenting); id. at 679 & 691 (Thomas, J., dissenting); Gonzales v. Raich, 545 U.S. 1, 57 (2005) (O’Connor, J., dissenting); id. at 65, 66 & 69 (Thomas, J., dissenting).

97 JUAN J. LINZ, THE BREAKDOWN OF DEMOCRATIC REGIMES: CRISIS, BREAKDOWN, & REEQUILIBRATION 72–74 (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press 1978); G. BINGHAM POWELL, JR., ELECTIONS AS INSTRUMENTS OF DEMOCRACY: MAJORITARIAN AND PROPORTIONAL VISIONS (Yale Univ. Press 2000).

98 Adam Przeworski, Michael Alvarez, José Antonio Cheibub and Fernando Limongi, What Makes Democracies Endure? 7 J. DEMOCRACY 39, 46 (1996).

99 Id.

100 Id. at 63–64 & 72.

101 Boumediene v. Bush, 553 U.S. 723, 742–44, 765 (2008); Id. at 833–34 (Scalia, J., dissenting); Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 690–91 (2006) (Thomas, J., dissenting); Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 535–36 (2004) (O’Connor, J., plurality opinion); Cheney v. United States Dist. Court, 542 U.S. 367 (2004); but see Morrison v. Olson, 487 U.S. 654 (1988).

102 The Federalist No. 48, supra note 7, at 308 (Madison); and see, The Federalist No. 27, in id. at 305 (Madison).

103 See Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579, 634 (1952) (Jackson, J. concurring); H. JEFFERSON POWELL, THE PRESIDENT AS COMMANDER IN CHIEF: AN ESSAY IN CONSTITUTIONAL VISION (Carolina Academic Press 2014); RAYMOND TATALOVICH AND THOMAS S. ENGEMAN, THE PRESIDENCY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE: TWO HUNDRED YEARS OF CONSTITUTIONAL DEBATE (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press 2003); FORREST MCDONALD, THE AMERICAN PRESIDENCY: AN INTELLECTUAL HISTORY (Univ. Press of Kansas 1994).

104 This section is based on Stephen E. Gottlieb, What Federalism & Why? Science Versus Doctrine, 35 PEPP. L. REV. 47 (2007).

105 See ALBERT O. HIRSCHMAN, EXIT, VOICE, AND LOYALTY: RESPONSES TO DECLINE IN FIRMS, ORGANIZATIONS, AND STATES 21 (Harvard Univ. Press 1970).

106 Compare New York v. United States, 505 U.S. 144, 188 (1992), with VICKI C. JACKSON AND MARK TUSHNET, COMPARATIVE CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 825–26 (Foundation Press 1999).

107 See JACKSON AND TUSHNET, supra note 106, at 825–43 (materials on German federalism).

108 See SEYMOUR MARTIN LIPSET, POLITICAL MAN: THE SOCIAL BASES OF POLITICS 64–86 (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press 1981) (1960); Graham Smith, Mapping the Federal Condition: Ideology, Political Practice and Social Justice, in FEDERALISM: THE MULTIETHNIC CHALLENGE 1 & 16–22 (Longman, Graham Smith, ed. 1996).

109 See SUSAN L. WOODWARD, BALKAN TRAGEDY: CHAOS AND DISSOLUTION AFTER THE COLD WAR 29 (Brookings Inst. 1995).

110 See Vesna Popovski, Yugoslavia: Politics, Federation, Nation, in FEDERALISM: THE MULTIETHNIC CHALLENGE, supra note 108, at 180 & 186–93 (discussing the history of the Yugoslav Federation).

111 Id. at 188.

112 Id. at 196–203.

113 See, e.g., LIPSET, supra note 108; Bernard Grofman and Robert Stockwell, Institutional Design in Plural Societies: Mitigating Ethnic Conflict and Fostering Stable Democracy (Ctr. for the Study of Democracy) June 1, 2001, http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1075&context=csd.

114 See WOODWARD, supra note 109, at 380–82.

115 Compare AREND LIJPHART, PATTERNS OF DEMOCRACY: GOVERNMENT FORMS AND PERFORMANCE IN THIRTY-SIX COUNTRIES (Yale Univ. Press 1999) and AREND LIJPHART, DEMOCRACY IN PLURAL SOCIETIES: A COMPARATIVE EXPLANATION (Yale Univ. Press 1977) with POWELL, CONTEMPORARY DEMOCRACIES supra note 87, at 212–18 & 270–71, POWELL, ELECTIONS AS INSTRUMENTS, supra note 97; G. Bingham Powell Jr., Political Responsiveness and Constitutional Design, in DEMOCRACY AND INSTITUTIONS: THE LIFE WORK OF AREND LIJPHART 9 (Univ. of Michigan Press, Markus M. L. Crepaz et al., eds. 2000); WOODWARD, supra note 109.

116 See Otto K. Kaufmann, Swiss Federalism, in FORGING UNITY OUT OF DIVERSITY: THE APPROACHES OF EIGHT NATIONS 206 (American Enterprise Institute, Robert A. Goldwin et al., eds. 1989); DANIEL J. ELAZAR, FEDERAL SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD: A HANDBOOK OF FEDERAL, CONFEDERAL, AND AUTONOMY ARRANGEMENTS 132 (Longman, 2d ed. 1994); Thomas O. Hueglin, New Wine in Old Bottles? Federalism and Nation States in the Twenty-First Century: A Conceptual Overview, in RETHINKING FEDERALISM: CITIZENS, MARKETS, AND GOVERNMENTS IN A CHANGING WORLD 203 & 205–09 (UBC Press, Karen Knop et al., eds. 1995); JACKSON AND TUSHNET, supra note 106, at 843–62.

117 See Richard Cullen, Adaptive Federalism in Belgium, 13 U. NEW S. WALES L. J. 346 (1990); Alexander Murphy, Belgium’s Regional Divergence: Along the Road to Federation, in FEDERALISM: THE MULTIETHNIC CHALLENGE, supra note 108, at 73; JACKSON AND TUSHNET, supra note 106, at 925–46.

118 See JACKSON AND TUSHNET, supra note 106, at 889–925.

119 LIPSET, supra note 108, at 81.

120 See the work of LIJPHART and POWELL cited supra note 115.

121 See WOODWARD, supra note 109.

122 See generally GIUSEPPE DI PALMA, TO CRAFT DEMOCRACIES: AN ESSAY ON DEMOCRATIC TRANSITIONS (Univ. of California Press 1990); Barry R. Weingast, The Political Foundations of Democracy and the Rule of Law, 91 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 245 (1997); Minasse Haile, The New Ethiopian Constitution: Its Impact upon Unity, Human Rights and Development, 20 SUFFOLK TRANSNAT’L L. REV. 1 (1996), excerpted in JACKSON AND TUSHNET, supra note 106, at 949–62.

123 See John Bell, FRENCH CONSTITUTIONAL LAW (Oxford Univ. Press 1992), excerpted in JACKSON AND TUSHNET, supra note 106, at 504–05.

124 See Prigg v. Pennsylvania, 41 U.S. 539, 611, 624 (1842) (Story, J.).

125 Larry Diamond et al., Building and Sustaining Democratic Government in Developing Countries: Some Tentative Findings, 150 WORLD AFFAIRS 5, 12–13 (1987); see also MICHAEL WALZER, ON TOLERATION 21 (Yale Univ. Press 1997).

126 The late Harry Eckstein in discussion at the 1994 meeting of the American Political Science Association.

127 See Garcia v. San Antonio Metro. Transit Auth., 469 U.S. 528 (1985).

128 See Grofman and Stockwell, supra note 113, at 5–6; 1 RECORDS OF THE FEDERAL CONVENTION, supra note 76, at 296 (remarks of Hamilton, June 18, 1787).

129 See WOODWARD, supra note 109, at 84.

130 See Garcia v. San Antonio Metro. Transit Auth., 469 U.S. 528, 546 (1985).

131 LIJPHART, DEMOCRACY IN PLURAL SOCIETIES, supra note 115, at 53–103.

132 Ian Shapiro, Notes Toward a Conditional Theory of Rights and Obligations in Property, in STEPHEN E. GOTTLIEB, BRIAN H. BIX, TIMOTHY D. LYTTON AND ROBIN L. WEST, JURISPRUDENCE CASES AND MATERIALS: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF LAW AND ITS APPLICATIONS 998 & 999 (LexisNexis 2d ed. 2006).

133 LINZ, supra note 97, at 62.

134 ROBERT A. DAHL, DILEMMAS OF PLURALIST DEMOCRACY: AUTONOMY VS. CONTROL 102–07 (Yale Univ. Press 1982).

135 See William Michael Treanor, The Original Understanding of the Takings Clause and the Political Process, 95 COLUM. L. REV. 782, 866–67 (1995) and William A. Fischel, Exploring the Kozinski Paradox: Why Is More Efficient Regulation a Taking of Property? 67 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 865, 886 (1991) (empirically supporting Madison, The Federalist No. 10).

136 The Federalist No. 44, supra note 7 at 280 (Madison) (discussing the Necessary and Proper Clause and restrictions on the power of the states and pointing out the extent to which the states would restrain the national government);The Federalist No. 51, in id. at 320 & 323 (Madison) (“The different governments will control each other, at the same time that each will be controlled by itself.”);The Federalist No. 85, in id. at 520 & 521 (Hamilton) (describing “additional securities to republican government, to liberty, and to property . . . [from] the restraints which the preservation of the Union will impose on local factions and insurrections, and on the ambition of powerful individuals in single States, who might acquire credit and influence enough from leaders and favorites to become the despots of the people. . . .”).

137 The Federalist No. 39, supra note 7, at 240 (Madison).

138 SeeThe Federalist No. 48, in id. at 308 (Madison) (“Unless these departments be so far connected and blended as to give to each a constitutional control over the others, the degree of separation which . . . [is] essential to a free government, can never in practice be duly maintained.”).

139 The Federalist No. 51, in id. at 320 (Madison).

140 See Virginia Resolution (Dec. 21, 1798) repr. in 5 THE FOUNDERS’ CONSTITUTION, at 135 (Liberty Fund, Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, eds. 1987), available at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/virres.htm; Kentucky Resolution (Nov. 16, 1798) and Kentucky Resolution (Nov. 10, 1799), repr. in id. at 134, available at http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/kenres.asp; and see H. Jefferson Powell, The Principles of ’98: An Essay in Historical Retrieval, 80 VA. L. REV. 689 (1994). On subsidiarity as a check, see Alex Mills, Federalism in the European Union and the United States: Subsidiarity, Private Law, and the Conflict of Laws, 32 U. PA. J. INT’L L. 369 (2010).

141 See generally POWELL, ELECTIONS AS INSTRUMENTS, supra note 97; Powell, Political Responsiveness, supra note 115.

142 The Federalist No. 10, in THE FEDERALIST, supra note 7, at 77 (Madison).

143 See Martha Minow, Putting Up and Putting Down: Tolerance Reconsidered, in COMPARATIVE CONSTITUTIONAL FEDERALISM: EUROPE AND AMERICA 77 (Greenwood, Mark Tushnet, ed. 1990).

144 “Stacking” and “cracking” are techniques of gerrymandering. Votes are wasted by stacking or packing as many voters of one political stripe into one or a small number of districts. Votes are wasted by cracking or spreading them into as many districts as possible. Gerrymandering combines both. See my Identifying Gerrymanders, 15 ST. LOUIS U. L.J. 540, 546–53 (1971) (explaining gerrymandering as a combination of otherwise benign procedures to produce a distorted result).

145 DAHL, DILEMMAS, supra note 134, at 85–107.

146 Id.

147 See Richard Simeon and Katherine Swinton, Introduction: Rethinking Federalism in a Changing World, in RETHINKING FEDERALISM, supra note 116, at 3.

148 The Federalist No. 10, supra note 7, at 77 (Madison).

149 Theodore J. Lowi, Our Millennium: Political Science Confronts the Global Corporate Economy, 22 INT’L POL. SCI. REV. 131, 141–42 (2001).

150 SeeThe Federalist No. 10, supra note 7 at 77 (Madison); Minow, supra note 143.

151 See Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. 36, 128–29 (1872) (Swayne, J., dissenting).

152 Coleman v. Thompson, 501 U.S. 722, 759 (1991) (Blackmun, J., dissenting); quoted in United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549, 576 (1995); New York v. United States, 505 U.S. 144, 181 (1992).

153 Coleman, 501 U.S. at 759.

154 Lopez, 514 U.S. at 576.

155 See supra note 142 and accompanying text.

156 See Diamond et al., supra note 125.

157 See Powell, Political Responsiveness, supra note 115.

158 Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 469 U.S. 528, 546, 550–51 (1985).

159 See, e.g., Br., States of Arizona, et al. as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioners, United States v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598 (1999), 1999 U.S. S. Ct. Briefs LEXIS 219.

Chapter 6. General Welfare

1 Seymour Martin Lipset, Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy, 53 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 69 (1959), ideas incorporated in SEYMOUR M. LIPSET, POLITICAL MAN: THE SOCIAL BASES OF POLITICS (Doubleday 1960).

2 NANCY BERMEO, ORDINARY PEOPLE IN EXTRAORDINARY TIMES: THE CITIZENRY AND THE BREAKDOWN OF DEMOCRACY 38–41 (Princeton Univ. Press 2003).

3 See SAMUEL P. HUNTINGTON, THE THIRD WAVE: DEMOCRATIZATION IN THE LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY (Univ. of Oklahoma Press 1991).

4 See JUAN J. LINZ, CRISIS, BREAKDOWN, & REEQUILIBRATION 3, 11–13 & 72–74 (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, eds. 1978, THE BREAKDOWN OF DEMOCRATIC REGIMES, vol. 1).

5 The following account draws heavily on BERMEO, supra note 2, as well as THE BREAKDOWN OF DEMOCRATIC REGIMES (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, eds. 1984), four volumes of studies of individual national histories; see also TRANSITIONS FROM AUTHORITARIAN RULE: COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Guillermo O’Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead, eds. 1986).

6 BERMEO, supra note 2, at 28.

7 Juan J. Linz, From Great Hopes to Civil War: The Breakdown of Democracy in Spain, in THE BREAKDOWN OF DEMOCRATIC REGIMES: EUROPE 160–71 (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, eds. 1978).

8 Id. at 48.

9 See DARON ACEMOGLU AND JAMES A. ROBINSON, ECONOMIC ORIGINS OF DICTATORSHIP AND DEMOCRACY (Cambridge Univ. Press 2006).

10 See AMY CHUA, WORLD ON FIRE: HOW EXPORTING FREE MARKET DEMOCRACY BREEDS ETHNIC HATRED AND GLOBAL INSTABILITY 1–5 & 153–57 (Doubleday 2003) for a portrait of class relations in the Philippines; Carl H. Lande, Review of Booty Capitalism: The Politics of Banking in the Philippines. By Paul D. Hutchcroft, 94 AMER. POL. SCI. REV. 216 (2000).

11 CHUA, supra note 10, at 4.

12 John D. Stephens, The Contribution of Barrington Moore’s Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy to the Study of the Historical Development of Democracy, 11:1 COMP. DEMOCRATIZATION 1, 8 (Jan. 2013).

13 HUNTINGTON, supra note 3.

14 G. BINGHAM POWELL, JR., CONTEMPORARY DEMOCRACIES: PARTICIPATION, STABILITY, AND VIOLENCE 35–38, 71 & 72 (Harvard Univ. Press 1982).

15 Id. at 35–37.

16 Id. at 69–71.

17 ACEMOGLU AND ROBINSON, supra note 9; CARLES BOIX, DEMOCRACY AND REDISTRIBUTION (Cambridge Univ. Press 2003); IAN SHAPIRO, THE STATE OF DEMOCRATIC THEORY 86–93 (Princeton Univ. Press 2003); ROBERT A. DAHL, A PREFACE TO ECONOMIC DEMOCRACY 10 & 45–46 (Univ. of California Press 1985); Gary King and Langche Zeng, Research Note: Improving Forecasts of State Failure, 53 WORLD POLITICS 623, 637 (2001), available at http://gking.harvard.edu/files/civil.pdf; Larry Diamond, Seymour Martin Lipset and Juan Linz, Building and Sustaining Democratic Government in Developing Countries: Some Tentative Findings, 150:1 World Affairs 5, 12–13 (Summer 1987); but see Gerardo L. Munck, “Democracy Studies: Agendas, Findings, Challenges,” paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the APSA, 2001, 6n.

18 DANIEL C. ESTY ET AL., STATE FAILURE TASK FORCE REPORT: PHASE II FINDINGS 59–62 (Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Environmental Change & Security Project Report, Issue No. 5, Summer 1999); and see Political Instability Task Force, Consolidated State Failure Events 1955–2006, http://globalpolicy.gmu.edu/pitf/pitftabl.htm (last visited Apr. 9, 2009).

19 ESTY ET AL. supra note 18, at 62.

20 Id. at 56–57.

21 Id. at 62.

22 King and Zeng, supra note 17, 53 WORLD POL. at 648–50, 652 & 654.

23 See CHARLES TILLY, THE POLITICS OF COLLECTIVE VIOLENCE 26–54 & 231–32 (Cambridge Univ. Press 2003).

24 ROBERT A. DAHL, A PREFACE TO ECONOMIC DEMOCRACY 45 (Univ. of California Press 1985).

25 Id. at 45–46. On correlation of economic development and longevity of constitutions, see Tom Ginsburg, Zachary Elkins, and James Melton, The Lifespan of Written Constitutions, 16 (Center for the Study of Democratic Governance, Working Paper No. SES-0648288, 2007), http://jenni.uchicago.edu/WJP/Vienna 2008/Ginsburg-Lifespans-California.pdf. On correlation of preference for revolution and inequality. Robert MacCulloch, Income Inequality and the Taste for Revolution, 48 J. L. & ECON. 93 (2005). See also Adam Przeworski, Michael Alvarez, Jose Antonio Cheibub and Fernando Limongi, What Makes Democracies Endure?, 7 J. DEMOCRACY 39, 46–47 (1996).

26 See TATU VANHANEN, PROSPECTS OF DEMOCRACY: A STUDY OF 172 COUNTRIES 277–343 (Routledge 1997); and see TATU VANHANEN, DEMOCRATIZATION: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF 170 COUNTRIES 2 (Routledge 2003).

27 Murphy’s Law, http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/murphy’s%20law (Merriam-Webster Dictionary) (defining Murphy’s Law as, “anything that can go wrong will go wrong”).

28 TATU VANHANEN, THE EMERGENCE OF DEMOCRACY: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF 119 STATES, 1850–1979 (Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters [Societas Scientiarum Fennica], 1984); TATU VANHANEN, POWER AND THE MEANS OF POWER: A STUDY OF 119 ASIAN, EUROPEAN, AMERICAN, AND AFRICAN STATES, 1850–19 (Univ. Microfilms International 1979); TATU VANHANEN, THE PROCESS OF DEMOCRATIZATION: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF 147 STATES, 1980–88 (Taylor & Francis 1990); VANHANEN, PROSPECTS OF DEMOCRACY, supra note 26; VANHANEN, DEMOCRATIZATION, supra note 26.

29 VANHANEN, EMERGENCE OF DEMOCRACY, supra note 28, at 129. See also VANHANEN, DEMOCRATIZATION, supra note 26, at 1–2, in which he introduces another hypothesis: nations tend to become democratic at about the same level of resource distribution. Id. at 5. I have not explored that second hypothesis because of deep flaws in his indices which have been pointed out by many scholars.

30 See VANHANEN, PROSPECTS FOR DEMOCRACY, supra note 26, at 277–343.

31 PAUL FINKELMAN, DEFENDING SLAVERY: PROSLAVERY THOUGHT IN THE OLD SOUTH: A BRIEF HISTORY WITH DOCUMENTS 28 (Bedford/St. Martin’s, The Bedford Series in History and Culture 2003); Fisher’s Negroes v. Dabbs, 14 Tenn. 119 (1834); THOMAS R. R. COBB, AN INQUIRY INTO THE LAW OF NEGRO SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA TO WHICH IS PREFIXED AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF SLAVERY ccxvii–ccxviii (Univ. of Georgia Press, Paul Finkelman, ed. 1999) (1858).

32 A finite group of firms can agree to control a market, explicitly or by following a leader, aided by publicity and extensive media coverage of rivals. Economists describe oligopoly as a market with few firms that can act more like a monopoly. Competitors who can’t win by bucking the market fall into line. What signals count, and who can exercise what power is a moving target.

33 BRUCE BUENO DE MESQUITA AND ALASTAIR SMITH, THE DICTATOR’S HANDBOOK: WHY BAD BEHAVIOR IS ALMOST ALWAYS GOOD POLITICS (Public Affairs 2011); BRUCE BUENO DE MESQUITA ET AL., THE LOGIC OF POLITICAL SURVIVAL (MIT Press 2003).

34 King and Zeng, supra note 17, at 637; James D. Fearon and David D. Laitin, Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War, 97 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 75, 88 (2003).

35 King and Zeng, supra note 17, at 637.

36 Fearon and Laitin, supra note 34, at 88.

37 BOIX, supra note 17, at 13–14.

38 ACEMOGLU AND ROBINSON, ECONOMIC ORIGINS, supra note 9, at 312–13; BOIX, supra note 17, at 10–12; Matthew D. Fails and Jonathan Krieckhaus, Colonialism and Democratization, 12 COMP. DEMOCRATIZATION 1, 4 (2014); Stephan Haggard, Robert Kaufman and Terence Teo, Inequality and Regime Change: The Role of Distributive Conflict, 11:3 COMP. DEMOCRATIZATION 1 at 6 (Oct. 2013); Carles Boix, RMDs, 11:3 COMP. DEMOCRATIZATION 2 at 13, 14 (Oct. 2013); Daron Acemoglu, Suresh Naidu, Pascual Restrepo, and James A. Robinson, Democracy, Public Policy and Inequality, in id. 2 at 16; Christian Houle, Inequality, Democratization and Democratic Consolidation, in id. 3 at 21, 24 (Oct. 2013).; John R. Freeman and Dennis P. Quinn, The Economic Origins of Democracy Reconsidered, 106 AMER. POL. SCI. REV. 58 (2012); see also Noam Lupu and Jonas Pontusson, The Structure of Inequality and the Politics of Redistribution, 105 AMER. POL. SCI. REV. 317 (2011).

39 See sources cited supra note 38, and see also Daniel Ziblatt, Why Do We Read Barrington Moore? Some Reflections on the Survival of an Intellectual Icon, 11:1 COMP. DEMOCRATIZATION 1, at 6 (Jan. 2013); Stephens, supra note 12, at 8; Michael Bernhard and Jeffrey Kopstein, Moore as Sovietologist: The Contributions of Revolutionary Violence to Post-Communist Gradualism, 11:1 COMP. DEMOCRATIZATION 2, at 10 (Jan. 2013); and see Sheri Berman, Lessons Lost?What Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy Still Has to Teach Us about Political Development, Id., 2, at 12.

40 Houle, supra note 40, at 21.

41 On breakdown, see id. at 12, 13; Houle, supra note 38, at 21 & 24; on democratization, see Boix, supra note 38, at 13; Haggard, Kaufman, and Teo, supra note 38, at 5–6; Ben Ansell and David Samuels, Rethinking Inequality and Democratization: How Inequality Divides Elites and Underpins Regime Change, 11:3 COMP. DEMOCRATIZATION 1, at 8 (Oct. 2013); but see Houle, supra note 38, at 21.

42 See BUENO DE MESQUITA AND SMITH, supra note 33; BUENO DE MESQUITA ET AL., supra note 33.

43 CHUA, supra note 10, at 1–5, 11 & 153–57.

44 Tomila Lankina, Trends in Within-Legacy and Cross-Legacy Analysis of Democracy and Development, 12:1 COMP. DEMOCRATIZATION 1, at 8 (Mar. 2014).

45 HUNTINGTON, supra note 3, at 59–72; see also CHARLES TILLY, DURABLE INEQUALITY (Univ. of California Press 1998); Raymond H. Brescia, The Cost of Inequality: Social Distance, Predatory Contact, and the Financial Crisis, 66 NEW YORK U. ANN. SURV. OF AM. L. 641 (2011).

46 HUNTINGTON, supra note 3, at 59–72; and see SAMUEL P. HUNTINGTON, AMERICAN POLITICS: THE PROMISE OF DISHARMONY 144–45 (Belknap Press 1981).

47 FREDERICK WILLIAM DALLINGER, NOMINATIONS FOR ELECTIVE OFFICE IN THE UNITED STATES 96 & 99 (Arno Press 1974 [c1897]); AUSTIN RANNEY, CURING THE MISCHIEFS OF FACTION: PARTY REFORM IN AMERICA 156–57 (Univ. of California Press 1975).

48 JOHN A. WOOD, THE PANTHERS AND THE MILITIAS: BROTHERS UNDER THE SKIN 31–32 (Univ. Press of America 2002); Judd Marmor, Psychosocial Roots of Violence, in VIOLENCE AND RESPONSIBILITY: THE INDIVIDUAL, THE FAMILY AND SOCIETY 15 (SP Medical & Scientific Books, distributed by Halstead Press, Robert L. Sadoff, ed. 1978). See also A. Maslow and J. Honigman, Synergy—Some Notes of Ruth Benedict, 72 AMER. ANTHROPOLOGIST 320 (1970).

49 See HUNTINGTON, supra note 3, at 59–72; King and Zeng, supra note 17, at 637.

50 See DALLINGER, supra note 47, at 96 & 99; RALPH KORNGOLD, THADDEUS STEVENS: A BEING DARKLY WISE AND RUDELY GREAT 53–63 (Harcourt Brace 1955); RANNEY, supra note 47, at 156–57; EUGENE H. ROSEBOOM, A HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS 41–42 (Macmillan 1957); ALFRED STEINBERG, THE BOSSES 3 (Macmillan 1972); Philip E. Converse, Change in the American Electorate, in THE HUMAN MEANING OF SOCIAL CHANGE 263, 278–96 (Russell Sage Foundation, Angus Campbell and Philip E. Converse, eds. 1972); Noble E. Cunningham, Jr., The Jeffersonian Republican Party, in 1 HISTORY OF UNITED STATES POLITICAL PARTIES 239, 250 (Chelsea House Publishers, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., ed. 1973). On the development of patronage practices, see LEONARD D. WHITE, THE JACKSONIANS: A STUDY IN ADMINISTRATIVE HISTORY, 1829–1861, at 307–16 (Macmillan 1954); LEONARD D. WHITE, THE JEFFERSONIANS: A STUDY IN ADMINISTRATIVE HISTORY, 1801–1829, at 347–64 (Macmillan 1956). On specific machines, see HARRY M. CAUDILL, THE WATCHES OF THE NIGHT 217–18 (Little, Brown 1976); HOWARD R. PENNIMAN, SAIT’S AMERICAN PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 338–41 (Appleton-Century-Crofts, Frederic A. Ogg, ed., 5th ed. 1952); FRANK S. ROBINSON, MACHINE POLITICS: A STUDY OF ALBANY’S O’CONNELLS (Transaction Books 1977); T. HARRY WILLIAMS, HUEY LONG 753–59 (Knopf 1969); and see Stephen E. Gottlieb, Rebuilding the Right of Association: The Right to Hold a Convention as a Test Case, 11 HOFSTRA L. REV. 191, 225–30 (1982).

51 See also INTER-AMERICAN DIALOGUE, THE AMERICAS IN A NEW WORLD: THE 1990 REPORT OF THE INTER-AMERICAN DIALOGUE 63 (Aspen Institute 1990) quoted in Jose Nun, Democracy and Modernization, Thirty Years Later, 20 LATIN AMERICAN PERSPECTIVES 7 (The Struggle for Popular Participation 1993), available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/2633911.

52 See, e.g., Dandridge v. Williams, 397 U.S. 471, reh’g den., 398 U.S. 914 (1970).

53 Ayn Rand, Man’s Rights, in CAPITALISM: THE UNKNOWN IDEAL 19 (New American Library, Ayn Rand, ed. 1967); and see William F. Buckley, Jr., Our Mission Statement, Nov. 19, 1955, NATIONAL REVIEW ONLINE, http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/223549/our-mission-statement/william-f-buckley-jr#; Mount Vernon Statement of Constitutional Conservatism, available at http://www.themountvernonstatement.com/ (issued Feb. 17, 2010) (last visited Nov. 18, 2012).

54 See ROBERT DEVIGNE, RECASTING CONSERVATISM: OAKESHOTT, STRAUSS, AND THE RESPONSE TO POSTMODERNISM 59–64 (Yale Univ. Press 1994); DANIEL BELL, THE CULTURAL CONTRADICTIONS OF CAPITALISM (Basic Books 1976); James Q. Wilson, The Rediscovery of Character: Private Virtue and Public Policy, 81 PUB. INTEREST 1 (Fall 1985).

55 FRIEDRICH A. VON HAYEK, THE ROAD TO SERFDOM 46–47 & 77–79 (Univ. of Chicago Press 1944).

56 See KEVIN PHILLIPS, WEALTH AND DEMOCRACY (Random House 2002); GARDINER C. MEANS AND ADOLPH A. BERLE, THE MODERN CORPORATION AND PRIVATE PROPERTY (Macmillan 1932); LOUIS HARTZ, THE LIBERAL TRADITION IN AMERICA (Harcourt, Brace & World 1955); RICHARD HOFSTADTER, THE AGE OF REFORM: FROM BRYAN TO F.D.R. (Knopf 1955); ERIC GOLDMAN, RENDEZVOUS WITH DESTINY (Vintage Books, rev. & abridged ed. 1956).

57 See Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501 (1946).

58 HARRY M. CAUDILL, NIGHT COMES TO THE CUMBERLANDS: A BIOGRAPHY OF A DEPRESSED AREA (Little, Brown 1962).

59 This conclusion is fundamental to the findings of BUENO DE MESQUITA AND SMITH, supra note 33; and see DARON ACEMOGLU AND JAMES A. ROBINSON, WHY NATIONS FAIL: THE ORIGINS OF POWER, PROSPERITY, AND POVERTY (Crown Publishers 2012).

60 Chad Stone et al., A Guide to Statistics on Historical Trends in Income Inequality (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities) (rev. Dec. 5, 2013), http://www.cbpp.org/files/11–28–11pov.pdf, at 11–12.

61 These conclusions have been documented repeatedly. See Jacob S. Hacker, Suzanne Mettler and Dianne Pinderhughes, Inequality and Public Policy (Table 1), in INEQUALITY AND AMERICAN DEMOCRACY: WHAT WE KNOW AND WHAT WE NEED TO LEARN 160–62 (Russell Sage Foundation, Lawrence R. Jacobs and Theda Skocpol, eds. 2005, research reports for the APSA Task Force on Inequality and American Democracy); EDWARD N. WOLFF, TOP HEAVY: THE INCREASING INEQUALITY OF WEALTH IN AMERICA AND WHAT CAN BE DONE ABOUT IT (New Press, rev. ed. 2002, A Century Foundation Report); see also James B. Davies et al., Estimating the Level and Distribution of Global Household Wealth, Research Paper No. 2007/77, United Nations Univ. World Institute for Development Economics Research, Nov. 2007, available at http://www.wider.unu.edu/publications/working-papers/research-papers/2007/en_GB/rp2007–77/_files/78517347310961664/default/rp2007–77.pdf (visited Apr. 30, 2008).

62 . Anders Bjorklund and Markus Jantti, Intergenerational Income Mobility in Sweden Compared to the United States, 87 AMER. ECON. REV. 1009, 1017 (1997); WOLFF, TOP HEAVY, supra note 61, at 31–36. See also Daniel P. McMurrer and Isabel V. Sawhill, “The Declining Importance of Class,” Urban Institute, No. 4 in series “Opportunity in America,” http://webarchive.urban.org/publications/307017.html, and Daniel P. McMurrer, Mark Condon, and Isabel V. Sawhill, Intergenerational Mobility in the United States: A Companion Piece to The Declining Importance of Class, http://webarchive.urban.org/publications/406796.html (May 1997).

63 HERBERT MCCLOSKY AND JOHN ZALLER, THE AMERICAN ETHOS: PUBLIC ATTITUDES TOWARD CAPITALISM AND DEMOCRACY 163, 174, 182 & 185 (Harvard Univ. Press, Twentieth Century Fund Report 1984); Paul M. Sniderman et al., The Fallacy of Democratic Elitism: Elite Competition and Commitment to Civil Liberties, 21 BRIT. J. OF POL. SCI. 349 (1991); and see HERBERT MCCLOSKY AND ALIDA BRILL, DIMENSIONS OF TOLERANCE: WHAT AMERICANS THINK ABOUT CIVIL LIBERTIES (Russell Sage 1983).

Chapter 7. A Sense of We

1 Robert D. Putnam, E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-First Century, 30 SCANDINAVIAN POL. STUD. 137, 139 (2007).

2 James L. Gibson, The Political Consequences of Intolerance: Cultural Conformity and Political Freedom, 86 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 338 (1992); and see WILLIAM KORNHAUSER, THE POLITICS OF MASS SOCIETY (Free Press 1959).

3 See SAMUEL A. STOUFFER, COMMUNISM, CONFORMITY, AND CIVIL LIBERTIES: A CROSS-SECTION OF THE NATION SPEAKS ITS MIND (Doubleday 1955); Steven E. Finkel, Lee Sigelman, and Stan Humphries, Democratic Values and Political Tolerance, in 2 MEASURES OF POLITICAL ATTITUDES 216−19 (Academic Press, John P. Robinson, Phillip R. Sahver, and Lawrence S. Wrightsman, eds. 1999); and see G. BINGHAM POWELL, CONTEMPORARY DEMOCRACIES: PARTICIPATION, STABILITY, AND VIOLENCE 212−25 (1982).

4 ROBERT D. PUTNAM, MAKING DEMOCRACY WORK: CIVIC TRADITIONS IN MODERN ITALY (Princeton Univ. Press 1993).

5 Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital, 6 J. OF DEMOCRACY 65 (1995); see also ROBERT D. PUTNAM, BOWLING ALONE: THE COLLAPSE AND REVIVAL OF AMERICAN COMMUNITY (Simon & Schuster 2000).

6 Conference on Democracy & Trust, Georgetown Univ., Nov. 7–9, 1996.

7 Putnam, E Pluribus Unum, supra note 1, at 138.

8 See Barry R. Weingast, The Political Foundations of Democracy and the Rule of Law, 91 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 245−63 (1997).

9 See DAVID C. MCCLELLAND, THE ACHIEVING SOCIETY (VanNostrand 1961). See also David C. McClelland, National Character and Economic Growth in Turkey and Iran, in COMMUNICATION AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT 152, 163 (Princeton Univ. Press, Lucian W. Pye, ed. 1963).

10 DAVID RIESMAN, THE LONELY CROWD: A STUDY OF THE CHANGING AMERICAN CHARACTER (Yale Univ. Press, in collaboration with Reuel Denney and Nathan Glazer 1950).

11 Thanks to Kim Lane Scheppele for reminding me of the methodological criticism in a conversation in 2007. In the 1960s and 1970s, I corresponded with McClelland regarding some of those criticisms. He referred me to his 1975 introduction to THE ACHIEVING SOCIETY and a new preface by David Atkinson to DAVID C. MCCLELLAND ET AL., THE ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE (Irvington Publishers 1976).

12 See An Ordinance for the Government of the Territory of the United States north-west of the river Ohio, July 1787), reprinted in Act of Aug. 7, 1789, ch. 8, 1 Stat. 50, 51–53 n.(a) (Northwest Ordinance, art. III, on schools); Thomas Jefferson, Preamble to a Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge, quoted in LAWRENCE A. CREMIN, AMERICAN EDUCATION: THE COLONIAL EXPERIENCE, 1607−1783, at 440 (Harper & Row 1970); Peter S. Onuf, State Politics and Republican Virtue: Religion, Education, and Morality in Early American Federalism, in TOWARD A USABLE PAST: LIBERTY UNDER STATE CONSTITUTIONS 91−111 (Univ. of Georgia Press, Paul Finkelman, and Stephen E. Gottlieb, eds. 1991); Thomas James, Rights of Conscience and State School Systems in Nineteenth-Century America, in Id. at 122.

13 Madison, Federalist No. 10 responds.

14 1 ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE, DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA 263 (A. A. Knopf, Francis Bowen and Phillips Bradley, eds., Henry Reeves, trans. 1945) (1835).

15 RIESMAN, supra note 10; KORNHAUSER, supra note 2.

16 See STOUFFER, supra note 3.

17 See Gibson, supra note 2, at 339 & 340−41; HERBERT MCCLOSKY AND ALIDA BRILL, DIMENSIONS OF TOLERANCE: WHAT AMERICAN BELIEVE ABOUT CIVIL LIBERTIES (Russell Sage Foundation 1983); JOHN L. SULLIVAN, JAMES PIERESON AND GEORGE E. MARCUS, POLITICAL TOLERANCE AND AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 27−49, 106−09 & 112 (Univ. of Chicago Press 1982); see also John T. Jost, Jack Glaser, Aric W. Kruglanski, and Frank J. Sulloway, Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition, 129 PSYCHOL. BULL. 339, 345−46 (2003); and see NAT HENTOFF, FREE SPEECH FOR ME—BUT NOT FOR THEE: HOW THE AMERICAN LEFT AND RIGHT RELENTLESSLY CENSOR EACH OTHER (HarperCollins 1992).

18 On the philosophical issues, see TOLERATION AND ITS LIMITS: NOMOS XLVIII (New York Univ. Press, Melissa S. Williams and Jeremy Waldron, eds. 2004); ROBERT PAUL WOLFF, BARRINGTON MOORE, JR., AND HERBERT MARCUSE, A CRITIQUE OF PURE TOLERANCE (Beacon Press 1969). See also SANFORD LEVINSON, CONSTITUTIONAL FAITH 98 (Princeton Univ. Press 1988); Robert Post, The Social Foundations of Defamation Law, 74 CALIF. L. REV. 736, 736−37 (1986). For impact of waves of intolerance, see DAVID HALBERSTAM, THE COLDEST WINTER: AMERICA AND THE KOREAN WAR 198 & 238−47 (Hyperion 2007).

For legal fallout, see MARTIN H. REDISH, THE LOGIC OF PERSECUTION: FREE EXPRESSION AND THE MCCARTHY ERA 137−41 (Stanford Univ. Press 2005). And see SAMUEL WALKER, IN DEFENSE OF AMERICAN LIBERTIES: A HISTORY OF THE ACLU 197 (Southern Ill. Univ. Press, 2d ed. 1999). On spies and foreign agents compared to McCarthy’s charges and popular fears, see Jacob Weisberg, Cold War Without End, N.Y. TIMES MAGAZINE, Nov. 28, 1999, at 116; Maurice Isserman, They Led Two Lives, N.Y. TIMES BOOK REV., May 9, 1999, at 34; David Oshinsky, In the Heart of the Heart of Conspiracy, N.Y. TIMES BOOK REV., Jan. 27, 2008, at 23; and see RED CHANNELS (American Business Consultants 1950) (the “blacklist”).

19 See Adam Clymer, No Deal; Politics and the Dead Arts of Compromise, N.Y. TIMES, Oct. 22, 1995, sec. 4, at 1.

20 See STOUFFER, supra note 3.

21 Gibson, supra note 2, at 342 & 348−50.

22 Robert J. Samuelson, Polarization Myths, WASH. POST, Dec. 3, 2003, at A29.

23 Donna Lieberman (NYCLU Executive Director), Letter to the Editor, NYCLU Assesses Giuliani Administration, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 31, 2001, available at http://www.nyclu.org/content/letter-nyclu-assesses-giuliani-administration.

24 See Stauber v. City of New York, 45 No. 03 Civ. 9162, 2004 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 13350 (S.D.N.Y. July 16, 2004), discussed in Coalition to Protest the Democratic Nat’l Convention v. City of Boston, 327 F. Supp. 2d 61, 74 (D. Mass. 2004).

25 Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 1046, 1047 (2000) (Scalia, J., concurring) (counting votes “threaten irreparable harm to petitioner . . . by casting a cloud upon . . . the legitimacy of his election”).

26 Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000). See also Stephen E. Gottlieb, Bush v. Gore Typifies the Rehnquist Court’s Hostility to Voters, in THE U.S. SUPREME COURT AND THE ELECTORAL PROCESS 58 (Georgetown Univ. Press, David Ryden, ed., 2d ed. 2002).

27 Andrew Kohut, introduction to The 2004 Political Landscape: Evenly Divided and Increasingly Polarized, PEW RES. CTR. FOR THE PEOPLE & THE PRESS (Nov. 5, 2003), http://www.people-press.org/files/legacy-pdf/196.pdf.

28 Id. at 7.

29 John Leo, Splitting Society, Not Hairs, U.S. NEWS & WORLD REP., Dec. 15, 2003, at 66.

30 Partisan Polarization Surges in Bush, Obama Years: Trends in American Values: 1987−2012, PEW RES. CTR. FOR THE PEOPLE & THE PRESS 1, 19 & 99−102 (June 4, 2012), http://www.people-press.org/2012/06/04/partisan-polarization-surges-in-bush-obama-years/.

31 Gary Dorrien, Book Review, CHRISTIAN CENTURY, May 24, 2000, at 618 (reviewing KYLE A. PASEWARK AND GARRETT E. PAUL, THE EMPHATIC CHRISTIAN CENTER: REFORMING AMERICAN POLITICAL PRACTICE 618 [1999]).

32 Martin Gottlieb, Hyper-Partisanship No Illusion; Many Forces Selfishly Push Americans Apart, DAYTON DAILY NEWS (Ohio), Jan. 14, 2004, at A6 [hereinafter Gottlieb, Hyper-Partisanship No Illusion].

33 Richard Tomkins, Analysis: Climate of Hate in 2004 Contest, UNITED PRESS INT’L (Jan. 14, 2004, 12:36 PM), http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Security-Industry/2004/01/14/Analysis-Climate-of-hate-in-2004-contest/UPI-67141074101819/.

34 Mark O’Keefe, A Divide Forms When Politics Battles Religion, HOUS. CHRON., Feb. 14, 2004, Religion, at 1.

35 Id., quoting John Kenneth White, E Pluribus Duo: Red State vs. Blue State America: An Analysis of the O’Leary Report/Zogby International Values Poll 2 (2003) (unpublished manuscript on file with author).

36 Jean M. Twenge, SDSU—A Corrision of Trust, ACADEMICMINUTE.ORG, 12/9/14, http://academicminute.org/2014/12/jean-m-twenge-sdsu-a-corrision-of-trust/.

37 Robert B. Reich, Secession of the Successful, N.Y. TIMES MAG., Jan. 20. 1991, at 16 & 42–44; Pamela A. Popielarz, (In)voluntary Association: A Multilevel Analysis of Gender Segregation in Voluntary Organizations, 13 GENDER AND SOC’Y 234 (1999) (finding that women are more likely to belong to gender-segregated groups and women’s groups are also likely to restrict membership to the same age, education, marital and work status).

38 Thomas C. Schelling, On the Ecology of Micromotives, 25 THE PUBLIC INTEREST 59 (1971).

39 See, e.g., Naomi Cahn and June Carbone, Deep Purple: Religious Shades of Family Law, 110 W. VA. L. REV. 459, 471−73.

40 See THRIVENT FINANCIAL FOR LUTHERANS, https://www.thrivent.com/ (last visited Jan. 29, 2013).

41 MELVIN L. OLIVER AND THOMAS M. SHAPIRO, BLACK WEALTH/WHITE WEALTH: A NEW PERSPECTIVE ON RACIAL INEQUALITY 17−18, 51−52, 150 & 174 (Routledge 1995); DOUGLAS S. MASSEY AND NANCY A. DENTON, AMERICAN APARTHEID: SEGREGATION AND THE MAKING OF THE UNDERCLASS 54−55 (Harvard Univ. Press 1993); KENNETH T. JACKSON, CRABGRASS FRONTIER: THE SUBURBANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES 203−15 (Oxford Univ. Press 1985); Florence Wagman Roisman, The Lessons of American Apartheid: The Necessity and Means of Promotiong Residential Racial Integration, 81 IOWA L. REV. 479, 486 (1995) (reviewing MASSEY AND DENTON, AMERICAN APARTHEID); and see NAT’L COMM’N ON URB. PROBLEMS, BUILDING THE AMERICAN CITY: REPORT OF THE NATIONAL COMMISSION ON URBAN PROBLEMS TO THE CONGRESS AND TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 101 (GPO 1969).

42 42 USCS secs. 1971 et seq.

43 See Thomas D. Boston, Trends in Minority-Owned Businesses, in 2 AMERICA BECOMING: RACIAL TRENDS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES 190, 196−97 (National Academy Press, Neil J. Smelser, William Julius Wilson and Faith Mitchell, eds. 2001).

44 CHARLES C. MOSKOS AND JOHN SIBLEY BUTLER, ALL THAT WE CAN BE: BLACK LEADERSHIP AND RACIAL INTEGRATION THE ARMY WAY 66−70 (Basic Books 1996); Carl E. Brody, Jr., A Historical Review of Affirmative Action and the Interpretation of its Legislative Intent by the Supreme Court, 29 AKRON L. REV. 291, 301−13 (1996).

45 Erica Frankenberg, Chungmei Lee, and Gary Orfield, A Multiracial Society with Segregated Schools: Are We Losing the Dream?, THE CIVIL RIGHTS PROJECT, HARVARD UNIV. (Jan. 16, 2003), http://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12-education/integration-and-diversity/a-multiracial-society-with-segregated-schools-are-we-losing-the-dream/frankenberg-multiracial-society-losing-the-dream.pdf.

46 See C. VANN WOODWARD, THE STRANGE CAREER OF JIM CROW 74−83 (Oxford Univ. Press 1955).

47 Elizabeth S. Anderson, Integration, Affirmative Action, and Strict Scrutiny, 77 N.Y.U.L. REV. 1195 (2002) at 1199; MICHAEL O. EMERSON AND CHRISTIAN SMITH, DIVIDED BY FAITH: EVANGELICAL RELIGION AND THE PROBLEM OF RACE IN AMERICA 80−81 (Oxford Univ. Press 2000); Richard D. Alba and John R. Logan, Minority Proximity to Whites in Suburbs: An Individual Level Analysis of Segregation, 98 AM. J. SOC. 1388, 1388−1427 (1993).

48 Anderson, supra note 47; and see OLIVER AND SHAPIRO, BLACK WEALTH/WHITE WEALTH, supra note 41.

49 ASHUTOSH VARSHNEY, ETHNIC CONFLICT AND CIVIC LIFE: HINDUS AND MUSLIMS IN INDIA (Yale Univ. Press 2002).

50 William H. Frey and Dowell Myers, Neighborhood Segregation in Single-Race and Multirace America: A Census 2000 Study of Cities and Metropolitan Areas, FANNIE MAE FOUNDATION 9 (2002), http://www.censusscope.org/FreyWPFinal.pdf; see also U.S. Census Bureau, Residential Segregation of African-Americans Declines; Signals Mixed for Other Groups, Analysis Shows (Nov. 27, 2002), http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/census_2000/cb02cn174.html (regarding report by Iceland and Weinberg) (last visited Jan. 31, 2014).

51 Steven Greenhouse, Suit Claims Discrimination Against Hispanics on Job, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 9, 2003, at 20.

52 Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio, 490 U.S. 642 (1989).

53 Anderson, supra note 47, at 1200.

54 John Dart, Hues in the Pews, THE CHRISTIAN CENTURY FOUNDATION (Feb. 28, 2001), http://hirr.hartsem.edu/cong/articles_huesinthepews.html.

55 EMERSON AND SMITH, supra note 47, at 161.

56 Id. at 80−81.

57 Table 1. Percent Born in State of Residence and Rank: 1990, U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, https://www.census.gov/hhes/migration/files/decennial/pob-rank.txt (last visited Feb. 4, 2014). See Geographical Mobility 1995–2000, U.S. CENSUS BUREAU 8 TBL. 6, http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-28.pdf.

58 Jason Schachter, Why People Move: Exploring the March 2000 Current Population Survey, U.S. CENSUS BUREAU (May 2001), http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/p23–204.pdf.

59 See Daniel P. McMurrer and Isabel V. Sawhill, The Declining Importance of Class, URB. INSTIT. (Apr. 1997), http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/opp4.pdf. See also Alison Aughinbaugh, Reapplication and Extension: Intergenerational Mobility in the United States, 7 LABOUR ECONOMICS 785 (2000) (confirming the .4 correlation).

60 H. Elizabeth Peters, Patterns of Intergenerational Mobility in Income and Earnings, 74 REV. OF ECON. & STAT. 456, 460−61 (1992).

61 These data are explored more fully in Daniel P. McMurrer, Mark Condon, and Isabel V. Sawhill, Intergenerational Mobility in the United States: A Companion Piece to “The Declining Importance of Class,” URB. INSTIT. (May 1997), http://www.urban.org/publications/406796.html (hereinafter A Companion Piece to “The Declining Importance of Class”).

62 Geographical Mobility: 1995–2000, supra note 57.

63 Anders Bjorklund and Markus Jantti, Intergenerational Income Mobility in Sweden Compared to the United States, 87 AM. ECON. REV. 1009 (1997); The Declining Importance of Class, supra note 59; see also A Companion Piece to “The Declining Importance of Class,” supra note 61.

64 Mary C. King, Occupational Segregation by Race and Sex, 1940–88, 115 MONTHLY LABOR REV. 30 (Apr. 1992); Anderson, supra note 47, at 1200; Greenhouse, supra note 51.

65 EMERSON AND SMITH, supra note 47; Dart, supra note 54; Elfriede Wedam, Ethno-Racial Diversity within Religious Congregations in Indianapolis, 2 RESEARCH NOTES (The Polis Ctr., Project on Religion and Urb. Culture), Aug. 1999, available at http://www.polis.iupui.edu/RUC/Newsletters/Research/vol2no4.htm.

66 1 RECORDS OF THE FEDERAL CONVENTION OF 1787, at 253 (Yale Univ. Press, Max Farrand, ed. 1966) (remarks of James Wilson, June 16, 1787).

67 See Raymond H. Brescia, The Cost of Inequality: Social Distance, Predatory Conduct and the Financial Crisis, 66 N.Y.U. ANN. SURV. AM. L. 641, 659−93 (2011) (surveying the literature and some of its consequences).

68 Comm. on Pol. Parties, Am. Pol, Sci. Ass’n, Toward a More Responsible Two-Party System, 44 AM. POL. SCI. REV. (1950).

69 See Barbara C. Neff, Bush and God-Talk: Presidential Language Puts Off Some in Religious Community, NAT’L CATH. REP. 4 (Feb. 21, 2003).

70 Leo, supra note 29.

71 O’Keefe, supra note 34.

72 Debra Gersh, Promulgating Polarization, EDITOR & PUBLISHER 30 (Oct. 10, 1992).

73 Leo, supra note 29; Gottlieb, Hyper-Partisanship No Illusion, supra note 32.

74 Gottlieb, Hyper-Partisanship No Illusion, supra note 32.

75 Morris P. Fiorina, Parties, Participation, and Representation in America: Old Theories Face New Realities, in POLITICAL SCIENCE: THE STATE OF THE DISCIPLINE, 511, at 524–26, 532, 534–35 & 537–38 (W. W. Norton and the American Political Science Assn., Ira Katznelson and Helen V. Milner, eds. 2002).

76 See JAMES W. CEASER, PRESIDENTIAL SELECTION: THEORY AND DEVELOPMENT 236−59 (Princeton Univ. Press 1979).

77 17 U.S.C. sec. 111(c)–(d) (2006) (compulsory licensing); Cable Television Syndicated Program Exclusivity Rules, 79 F.C.C.2d 663 (1980) (ending restrictions on cable rebroadcast of broadcast signals); DOUGLAS H. GINSBURG AND MARK D. DIRECTOR, REGULATION OF BROADCASTING: 1983 SUPPLEMENT 72−102 (1983) (describing rules change sequence).

78 See ERIK BARNOUW, A TOWER IN BABEL, 96−98, 121−22, 172−74, 218−19, 258−61 & 271−72 (Oxford Univ. Press, A HISTORY OF BROADCASTING IN THE UNITED STATES, vol. 1, 1966).

79 See CONG. RESEARCH SERV., RL32589, THE FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION: CURRENT STRUCTURE AND ITS ROLE IN THE CHANGING TELECOMMUNICATIONS LANDSCAPE 2 (2013).

80 See LAWRENCE D. GASMAN, TELECOMPETITION: THE FREE MARKET ROAD TO THE INFORMATION HIGHWAY 74−75 (Cato Inst. 1994); ERIK BARNOUW, THE IMAGE EMPIRE 68−79 & 126 (Oxford Univ. Press, A HISTORY OF BROADCASTING IN THE UNITED STATES, v. 3, 1970).

81 STEVEN J. SIMMONS, THE FAIRNESS DOCTRINE AND THE MEDIA 34, 61−62 (Univ. of California Press 1978); Erik BARNOUW, THE GOLDEN WEB 137 (Oxford Univ. Press, A HISTORY OF BROADCASTING IN THE UNITED STATES, vol. 2, 1968).

82 Memorandum from Chip Shooshan to Subcommittee on Communications of House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, in Staff of S. Comm. on Communications, Options Papers, H.R. Doc. No. 95−13, at 45−65 (1977); Neil K. Alexander, Jr., Note, The Local Service Objective and FCC Broadcast Allocations, in DOUGLAS H. GINSBURG, REGULATION OF BROADCASTING: LAW AND POLICY TOWARDS RADIO, TELEVISION AND CABLE COMMUNICATIONS 163−68 (West 1979) (describing policy).

83 See Shooshan, supra note 82, at 55−60; Alexander, supra note 82.

84 47 U.S.C. sec. 315 (2000).

85 See generally BARNOUW, GOLDEN WEB, supra note 81, at 271−303. For legal challenges, see Comm. for the Fair Broad. of Controversial Issues, 25 F.C.C.2d 283 (1970); Bus. Executives’ Move for Vietnam Peace, 25 F.C.C.2d 242 (1970). See also Yale Broad. Co. v. FCC, 478 F.2d 594 (D.C. Cir. 1973), cert. den., 414 U.S. 914 (1973).

86 See, e.g., BARNOUW, GOLDEN WEB, supra note 81, at 44−51 & 221−24; Brandywine-Main Line Radio, Inc. v. FCC, 473 F.2d 16, 51 (D.C. Cir. 1972).

87 See The Handling of Public Issues Under the Fairness Doctrine and the Pub. Interest Standards of the Communications Act, 89 F.C.C.2d 916, 919−20 (1982); for statutory support, see 47 U.S.C. sec. 315(a); for final withdrawal of the doctrine. See In re Complaint of Syracuse Peace Council 2 F.C.C.R. 5043 (1987).

88 Nat’l Broad. Co. v. FCC, 516 F.2d 1101 (D.C. Cir. 1974), vacated, 516 F.2d 1101 at 1180 (D.C. Cir. 1975), cert. den. sub nom Accuracy in Media v. Nat’l Broad. Co., 424 U.S. 910 (1976); see also EDWARD JAY EPSTEIN, NEWS FROM NOWHERE: TELEVISION AND THE NEWS 65−72 (Random House 1973).

89 BARNOUW, IMAGE EMPIRE, supra note 80, at 128 (describing the increase in news documentaries); Id. at 181; Scott Pelley, “Evening News” Marks Golden Anniversary of 30-Minute Broadcast, CBS News (Sept. 2, 2013, 7:28 p.m.), http://www.cbsnews.com/news/evening-news-marks-golden-anniversary-of-30-minute-broadcast/.

90 See HERBERT T. GANS, DECIDING WHAT’S NEWS: A STUDY OF CBS EVENING NEWS, NBC NIGHTLY NEWS, NEWSWEEK, AND TIME (Pantheon Books 1979).

91 See Michael Robinson, Television & American Politics: 1956−76, 48 PUB. INT. 3, 9−39 (1977).

92 See Cable Television Report and Order, 36 F.C.C.2d 143 (1972) (relating cable signal carriage to copyright rules).

93 See H.R. Rep. No. 94−1476, at 88–91 (1976), reprinted in 1976 U.S.C.C.A.N. 5679, 5702 (on sec. 111 of the Copyright Act of 1976 creating compulsory license).

94 Malrite T. V. of N.Y v. FCC, 652 F.2d 1140, 1143−47 (2d Cir. 1981), cert. den. sub nom. Nat’t Football League, Inc. v. FCC, 454 U.S. 1143 (1982) (describing regulation of cable before and after Copyright Act of 1976).

95 See VINCENT MOSCO, BROADCASTING IN THE UNITED STATES: INNOVATIVE CHALLENGE AND ORGANIZATION CONTROL (Ablex Pub. Corp. 1979) (FCC protected three-network broadcasting oligopoly for half a century).

96 See, e.g., Editorial, The Nuclear Wedge Issue, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 28, 1995, at A22.

97 N.Y. Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254, 258−69 (1964).

98 See Randall P. Bezanson, Libel Law and the Realities of Litigation: Setting the Record Straight, 71 IOWA L. REV. 226, 227−30 (1985). But see Philadelphia Newspapers v. Hepps, 475 U.S. 767 (1986).

99 See Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, 403 U.S. 29, 86 (1971) (Marshall, J., dissenting); John Soloski, The Study and the Libel Plaintiff: Who Sues for Libel, 71 IOWA L. REV. 217, 219−20 (1985).

100 Editorializing by Broad. Licensees, 13 F.C.C. 1246, 1247 (1948); Mayflower Broad. Corp., 8 F.C.C. 333, 340 (1940) (on origins of doctrine); and see Stephen E. Gottlieb, In the Name of Patriotism: The Constitutionality of “Bending” History in Public Secondary Schools, 62 N.Y.U. L. REV. 497, 553−77 (1987).

101 The Handling of Public Issues Under the Fairness Doctrine and the Public Interest Standards of the Communications Act, 58 F.C.C.2d 691, 708−11 (1976) (Robinson, Comm’r, dissenting), rev’d in part, 567 F.2d 1095 (D.C. Cir. 1977), cert. den., 436 U.S. 926 (1978).

102 Nat’l Broad. Co. v. FCC, 516 F.2d 1101 (D.C. Cir. 1974), vacated, 516 F.2d 1101, at 1180 (D.C. Cir. 1975), cert. den. sub nom Accuracy in Media v. Nat’l Broad. Co., 424 U.S. 910 (1976).

103 See FCC v. League of Women Voters of Cal., 468 U.S. 364, 376 n.11, 378 n.12 (1984); Meredith Corp. v. FCC, 809 F.2d 863 (D.C. Cir. 1987); Syracuse Peace Council, 2 F.C.C.R. 5043 (1987).

104 Materials on licensing from 1930s–1970s collected in GINSBURG (1st ed.), supra note 82, at 75−334. See also BARNOUW, IMAGE EMPIRE, supra note 80; MOSCO, supra note 95; and see 47 U.S.C. sec. 309(i); 47 U.S.C. sec. 309 (j); Balanced Budget Act of 1997, Pub. L. No. 105−33, sec. 3002, 111 Stat. 258, 260; Reexamination of the Comparative Standards for Noncommercial Educ. Applicants, 15 F.C.C.R. 7386 (2000).

105 Metro Broad., Inc. v. FCC, 497 U.S. 547 (1990) overruled by Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Pena, 515 U.S. 200 (1995).

106 47 U.S.C. sec. 230(c) (2000).

107 Zeran v. Am. Online, Inc., 129 F.3d 327 (4th Cir. 1997).

108 See Blumenthal v. Drudge, 992 F. Supp. 44, 50 (D.D.C. 1998).

109 MOSCO, supra note 95.

110 Memorandum, Lewis Powell to Eugene B. Sydnor, Jr., Chairman, Educ. Comm., U.S. Chamber of Commerce (Aug. 23, 1971), available at http://www2.bc.edu/%7Eplater/Newpublicsite05/ 02.5.pdf; see also David Harvey, Political and Economic Dimensions of Free Trade: Neobalism as Creative Destruction, 610 ANNALS 22, 30 (2007) (describing the memo); Zygmunt J. B. Plater, Law, Media, & Environmental Policy: A Fundamental Linkage in Sustainable Democratic Governance, 33 B.C. ENVTL. AFF. L. REV. 511, 529−31 (2006).

111 See, e.g., ERIC ALTERMAN, WHAT LIBERAL MEDIA? THE TRUTH ABOUT BIAS AND THE NEWS (Basic Books 2003) (documenting media holdings).

112 Id. at 225; C. EDWIN BAKER, MEDIA CONCENTRATION AND DEMOCRACY: WHY OWNERSHIP MATTERS 88−96 (Cambridge Univ. Press 2007); see also C. EDWIN BAKER, ADVERTISING AND A DEMOCRATIC PRESS (Princeton Univ. Press 1994); Frank Rich, All the News That’s Fit to Bully, N.Y. TIMES, July 9, 2006, sec. 4, at 12.

113 See KEVIN PHILLIPS, WEALTH AND DEMOCRACY 326 (Random House 2002).

114 See GANS, supra note 90, at 116−45.

115 Id. at 145, 201−2.

116 See generally ERIK BARNOUW, THE SPONSOR: NOTES ON A MODERN POTENTATE (Oxford Univ. Press 1978).

117 See Gersh, supra note 72, at 30.

118 On history of nomination process, see Stephen E. Gottlieb, Rebuilding the Right of Association: The Right to Hold a Convention as a Test Case, 11 HOFSTRA L. REV. 191 (1983).

119 V. O. KEY, AMERICAN STATE POLITICS: AN INTRODUCTION 145−65 (Knopf 1956).

120 Delegate Selection Rules for the 1980 Democratic National Convention (1978); McGovern-Fraser Comm’n, Mandate for Reform: A Report of the Commission on Party Structure and Delegate Selection to the Democratic National Committee (Apr. 1970), reprinted in 117 CONG. REC. 32, 908−917 (1971); CEASER, supra note 76, at 260−303 (describing changes); and see Democratic Party of the U.S. v. Wisconsin ex rel. La Follette, 450 U.S. 107 (1981); Cousins v. Wigoda, 419 U.S. 477 (1975).

121 See Tashjian v. Republican Party of Conn., 479 U.S. 208 (1986).

122 See, e.g., Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 (1964); Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1 (1964); Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962); Vieth v. Jubelirer, 541 U.S. 267, 364 (2004) (Breyer, J., dissenting).

123 Gordon E. Baker, The Unfinished Reapportionment Revolution, in POLITICAL GERRYMANDERING AND THE COURTS 11, 24−25 (Agathon Press, Bernard Grofman, ed. 1990).

124 See, e.g., League of United Latin Am. Citizens v. Perry, 548 U.S. 399, 471 (2006) (LULAC) (Stevens, J., dissenting) citing Samuel Issacharoff and Pamela S. Karlan, Where to Draw the Line? Judicial Review of Political Gerrymanders, 153 U. PA. L. REV. 541, 574 (2004).

125 Davis v. Bandemer, 478 U.S. 109, 130–31 (1986) (White, J., plurality); and see Stephen E. Gottlieb, Fashioning a Test for Gerrymandering, 15 J. LEGIS. 1, 7 (1988); Stephen E. Gottlieb, Identifying Gerrymanders, 15 ST. LOUIS U. L. J. 540, 546–53 (1971).

126 Robert J. Samuelson, Polarization Myths, WASH. POST, Dec. 3, 2003, at A29.

127 Id.; see also Identifying Gerrymanders, supra note 125, at 547.

128 LULAC, 548 U.S. at 414, 419−20.

129 Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1 (1976); Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, Pub. L. No. 92–225, 86 Stat. 3 (1972) (codified at 2 U.S.C. sec. 431–55 (2006)). See also Fed. Election Comm’n v. Colo. Republican Fed. Campaign Comm., 533 U.S. 431, 465 (2001); Dave Levinthal, Campaign Contribution Limits Increase for 2012 Election Cycle, CTR. FOR RESPONSIVE POL. (Feb. 3, 2011, 5:27 PM), http://www.opensecrets.org/news/2011/02/campaign-contribution-limits-increa.html.

130 2 U.S.C. sec. 441a(a)(1)(A), 441a(c), 441a(3).

131 2 U.S.C. sec. 441a(1)-(6). See 2 U.S.C. sec. 441a(7); see Stephen E. Gottlieb, Fleshing out the Right of Association: The Problem of the Contribution Limits of the F.E.C.A., 49 ALB. L. REV. 825 (1985).

132 Buckley v. Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 39−51 (1976).

133 See, e.g., LARRY J. SABATO, PAYING FOR ELECTIONS: THE CAMPAIGN FINANCE THICKET 5 (Priority Press 1989).

134 See Stephen E. Gottlieb, The Dilemma of Election Campaign Finance Reform, 18 HOFSTRA L. REV. 213, 255 (1989); Ian Ayres and Jeremy Bulow, The Donation Booth: Mandating Donor Anonymity to Disrupt the Market for Political Influence, 50 STAN. L. REV. 837, 838 (1998). BRUCE ACKERMAN AND IAN AYRES, VOTING WITH DOLLARS: A NEW PARADIGM FOR CAMPAIGN FINANCE (Yale Univ. Press 2004); Bruce E. Cain, Cheap Talk Citizenship: The Democratic Implications of Voting with Dollars, 37 U. RICH. L. REV. 959, 961 (2003).

135 See Richard A. Viguerie and David Franke, The Big Winners, WASH. POST, Oct. 24, 2004, at B1.

136 See Sarah Parnass, Obama’s White House Fundraising “Unseemly but Perfectly Legal,” ABC NEWS BLOG (June 28, 2011, 1:22 PM), http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2011/06/president-obama-joins-ranks-of-predecessors-in-unseemly-but-perfectly-legal-white-house-campaign-act/; Daniel Henninger, The Democrats Have a Nominee, WALL ST. J., Apr. 24, 2008, at A11; Peter Baker, Two of a Kind?, WASH. POST, Mar. 10, 2008, at A13.

137 Norman J. Ornstein, The House That Jack Built, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 14, 2007, sec. 7, at 25 (reviewing PETER H. STONE, HEIST: SUPERLOBBYIST JACK ABRAMOFF, HIS REPUBLICAN ALLIES, AND THE BUYING OF WASHINGTON [2006]); Sarah Smith, Letter to the Editor, The K Street Project, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 18, 2007, sec. 7, at 5. Norman Ornstein, reply to Sarah Smith’s Letter to the Editor.

138 David D. Kirkpatrick, Use of Bundlers Raises New Risks for Campaigns, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 31, 2007.

139 PHILLIPS, supra note 113, at 321−27. See also DAVID CAY JOHNSTON, PERFECTLY LEGAL: THE COVERT CAMPAIGN TO RIG OUR TAX SYSTEM TO BENEFIT THE SUPER RICH-AND CHEAT EVERYBODY ELSE (Portfolio 2003); CHARLES LEWIS AND THE CENTER FOR PUBLIC INTEGRITY, THE BUYING OF THE PRESIDENT 2004 (Perennial 2004).

140 See Trevor Potter and Bryson B. Morgan, The History of Undisclosed Spending in U.S. Elections & How 2012 Became the “Dark Money” Election, 27 ND J. L. ETHICS & PUB POL’Y 383 (2013).

141 Reich, supra note 37, at 17.

142 See Hunter v. Pittsburgh, 207 U.S. 161 (1907).

143 See San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973).

144 See Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co., 272 U.S. 365 (1926).

145 Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, 1996 Enacted H.R. 3734, 104 Enacted H.R. 3734, 110 Stat. 2105, 2162 and see Hein v. Freedom from Religion Found., Inc., 551 U.S. 587 (2007).

146 See Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act of 2000, 42 U.S.C.S. sec. 2000cc-1(a)(1)-(2); and see Patricia E. Salkin and Amy Lavine, The Genesis of RLUIPA and Federalism: Evaluating the Creation of a Federal Statutory Right and Its Impact on Local Government, 40 URB. LAWYER 195 (2008).

147 See C. VANN WOODWARD, THE STRANGE CAREER OF JIM CROW 74−83 (Oxford Univ. Press 1955).

148 See JOSEPH A. SCHUMPETER, CAPITALISM, SOCIALISM AND DEMOCRACY 61 (Harper & Brothers 1942).

149 Toward a More Responsible Two-Party System, supra note 68.

150 See Gibson, supra note 2; see also James L. Gibson, Enigmas of Intolerance: Fifty Years After Stouffer’s Communism, Conformity, and Civil Liberties, 4 PERSP. ON POL. 21 (2006); ROBERT WEISSBERG, POLITICAL TOLERANCE: BALANCING COMMUNITY AND DIVERSITY 185−224 (Sage Publications 1998); MICHAEL WALZER, ON TOLERATION (Yale Univ. Press 1997).

151 NANCY BERMEO, ORDINARY PEOPLE IN EXTRAORDINARY TIMES: THE CITIZENRY AND THE BREAKDOWN OF DEMOCRACY 5–6 (Princeton Univ. Press 2003).

152 Id. at 168; THE BREAKDOWN OF DEMOCRATIC REGIMES (Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, eds. 1984).

153 See BERMEO, supra note 151; THE BREAKDOWN OF DEMOCRATIC REGIMES, supra note 152.

154 Josh Barbanel, Examining the Vote; How the Ballots Were Examined, N.Y. TIMES, July 15, 2001, sec. 1, at 16; David Barstow and Don Van Natta Jr., How Bush Took Florida: Mining the Overseas Absentee Vote, N.Y. TIMES, July 15, 2001, sec. 1, at 1; Richard L. Berke, Examining the Vote: News Analysis; Who Won Florida? The Answer Emerges, but Surely Not the Final Word, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 12, 2001, at A16; Richard L. Berke, Democrats Seek Inquiry on Florida Vote Count, N.Y. TIMES, July 16, 2001, at A11; Richard L. Berke, Lieberman Put Democrats in Retreat on Military Vote, N.Y. TIMES, July 15, 2001, sec. 1, at 16; C. J. Chivers, House Republicans Pressed Pentagon for E-Mail Addresses of Sailors, N.Y. TIMES, July 15, 2001, sec. 1, at 19; Michael Cooper, Timely but Tossed Votes Were Slow to Get to the Ballot Box, N.Y. TIMES, July 15, 2001, sec. 1, at 19; Ford Fessenden and John M. Broder, Study of Disputed Florida Ballots Finds Justices Did Not Cast the Deciding Vote, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 12, 2001, at 1; Archie Tse, The Confusing Ballots, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 12, 2001, at A16; Ford Fessenden, Ballots Cast by Blacks and Older Voters Were Tossed in Far Greater Numbers, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 12, 2001, at A17; Ford Fessenden, Examining the Vote: The Method; How the Consortium of News Organizations Conducted the Ballot Review, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 12, 2001, at A17.

155 Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000).

156 GREG PALAST, THE BEST DEMOCRACY MONEY CAN BUY: AN INVESTIGATIVE REPORTER EXPOSES THE TRUTH ABOUT GLOBALIZATION, CORPORATE CONS, AND HIGH FINANCE FRAUDSTERS 7−12 (Pluto Press 2002).

157 See Carl Hulse, With Promises of a Better-Run Congress, Democrats Take on Political Risks, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 27, 2006, at A23.

158 See generally AMY CHUA, WORLD ON FIRE: HOW EXPORTING FREE MARKET DEMOCRACY BREEDS ETHNIC HATRED AND GLOBAL INSTABILITY (Doubleday 2003); SUSAN L. WOODWARD, BALKAN TRAGEDY: CHAOS AND DISSOLUTION AFTER THE COLD WAR (Brookings Inst. Press 1995).

159 RICHARD HOFSTADTER, THE PARANOID STYLE IN AMERICAN POLITICS AND OTHER ESSAYS (Univ. of Chicago Press 1964).

160 See, e.g., Laird v. Tatum, 408 U.S. 1 (1972) (finding Army data gathering of domestic demonstrations did not present a justifiable controversy); see DANIEL J. SOLOVE, The Digital Person: Technology and Privacy in the Information Age 180 (New York Univ. Press 2004).

161 Famous images of the civil rights movement showed use of fire hoses on demonstrators. Many were murdered at the time. See also Scheuer v. Rhodes, 416 U.S. 232 (1974); VIOLENCE IN AMERICA: AN ENCYCLOPEDIA 261 (Scribner, Ronald Gottesman and Richard Maxwell Brown, eds. 1999); VIOLENCE IN AMERICA: HISTORICAL AND COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES (GPO, Hugh Davis Graham and Ted Robert Gurr, eds. 1969).

162 See Schiller v. City of N.Y., 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 4253 (S.D.N.Y. Jan. 23, 2008).

163 See Peter Kornbluh, Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents Relating to the Military Coup, GEO WASH.: THE NAT’L SECURITY ARCHIVE (Sept. 11, 1973), http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8i.htm; Kate Doyle and Peter Kornbluh, CIA and Assassinations: The Guatemala 1954 Documents, GEO WASH.: THE NAT’L SECURITY ARCHIVE, http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB4/. See also STEPHEN KINZER, ALL THE SHAH’S MEN: AN AMERICAN COUP AND THE ROOTS OF MIDDLE EAST TERROR (John Wiley & Sons 2003).

164 Fiorina, supra note 75, at 539–40. See also Ian Shapiro, The State of Democratic Theory, in POLITICAL SCIENCE: THE STATE OF THE DISCIPLINE, supra note 75, 235 at 251–55.

165 Id. at 541.

166 See Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, 403 U.S. 29, 86 (1971) (Marshall, J., dissenting).

167 Stephen E. Gottlieb, Brown v. Board of Education and the Application of American Tradition to Racial Division, 34 SUFFOLK U. L. REV. 281, 287−98 (2001).

168 Putnam, E Pluribus Unum, supra note 1, at 138. See also HUGH DONALD FORBES, ETHNIC CONFLICT: COMMERCE, CULTURE, AND THE CONTACT HYPOTHESIS (Yale Univ. Press 1997); GORDON W. ALLPORT, THE NATURE OF PREJUDICE 250−67 (Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. 1954).

169 Elliot Aronson, Stateways can Change Folkways, in BIGOTRY, PREJUDICE, AND HATRED: DEFINITIONS, CAUSES, AND SOLUTIONS 185 (Prometheus Books, Robert M. Baird and Stuart E. Rosenbaum, eds. 1992); PHYLLIS A. KATZ AND DALMAS A. TAYLOR, ELIMINATING RACISM: PROFILES IN CONTROVERSY 362−63 (Plenum Press 1988); Mark A. Chesler, Contemporary Sociological Theories of Racism, in TOWARDS THE ELIMINATION OF RACISM 36 (Pergamon Press, Phyllis A. Katz, ed. 1976).

170 KARL W. DEUTSCH, NATIONALISM AND SOCIAL COMMUNICATION: AN INQUIRY INTO THE FOUNDATIONS OF NATIONALITY 97−125 (MIT Press 1962); and see RUPERT EMERSON, FROM EMPIRE TO NATION: THE RISE TO SELF-ASSERTION OF ASIAN AND AFRICAN PEOPLES 329−59 (Beacon Press 1960); Cooper v. Aaron, 358 U.S. 1, 9, 11 (1958).

171 CHARLES C. MOSKOS AND JOHN SIBLEY BUTLER, ALL THAT WE CAN BE: BLACK LEADERSHIP AND RACIAL INTEGRATION THE ARMY WAY (Basic Books 1997). See also Peter Karsten, Who Volunteered for Service in World War II?, in MILITARY IN AMERICA: FROM THE COLONIAL ERA TO THE PRESENT, 335−37 (Free Press, Peter Karsten, ed. 1980); Larry Ingraham, The American Enlisted Man in the All-Volunteer Army, in Id. at 461−63.

172 ASHUTOSH VARSHNEY, ETHNIC CONFLICT AND CIVIC LIFE: HINDUS AND MUSLIMS IN INDIA 173−78, 289−90 & passim (Yale Univ. Press 2002).

173 MICHELLE ALEXANDER, THE NEW JIM CROW: MASS INCARCERATION IN THE AGE OF COLORBLINDNESS (New Press 2010): Memorandum from Daniel Patrick Moynihan on the “status of Negroes” to President Nixon, reproduced in Peter Kihss, “Benign Neglect” on Race Is Proposed by Moynihan, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 1, 1970.

174 Putnam, E Pluribus Unum, supra note 1, at 139.

Chapter 8. Threat of Force

1 On the KKK, see WYN CRAIG WADE, THE FIERY CROSS: THE KU KLUX KLAN IN AMERICA 324–25 (Oxford Univ. Press 1987); on the Mafia, see JAMES JACOBS, MOBSTERS, UNIONS AND FEDS: THE MAFIA AND THE AMERICAN LABOR MOVEMENT (New York Univ. Press 2005).

2 WOODY HOLTON, UNRULY AMERICANS AND THE ORIGINS OF THE CONSTITUTION 145–55 (Hill and Wang 2007).

3 U.S. Constitution, Art. I, sec. 8, cl. 16; and see 1 THE RECORDS OF THE FEDERAL CONVENTION OF 1787, at 114 (Yale Univ. Press, Max Farrand, ed. 1966) (remarks of Gerry, July 25, 1787).