INTRODUCTION
1. Authorship
The letter to the Ephesians was accepted as the work of the apostle Paul until about the beginning of the 1800s, when his authorship came under suspicion. Such denials have persisted to the present day among a considerable body of scholars. But a strong case can still be made for the traditional view.
First, Ephesians clearly claims to have been written by Paul. The writer begins by identifying himself and proceeds in typically Pauline fashion to ascribe his apostolic authority to the will of God (1:1; cf. 2Co 1:1; Gal 1:1; Col 1:1). Paul’s name also reappears later (3:1). The writer often uses the first person singular, and the self-portrait that emerges from these passages corresponds with what we know about Paul from other sources.
The structure of Ephesians is in line with the rest of Paul’s correspondence. We can trace the same sequence of salutation, thanksgiving, doctrinal exposition, moral appeal, final courtesies, and benediction. Particularly striking is the author’s treatment of ethics as an extension of theology, so typical of Paul. Furthermore, the language used is sufficiently similar to that of the other letters of Paul to substantiate his authorship.
Furthermore, the doctrinal stance of this letter is characteristically Pauline. While it is true that fresh emphases appear (particularly in the doctrine of the church), the reader gains the overall impression of continuity with Pauline thought. These familiar themes recur: God’s gracious sovereignty (1:3, 9, 11, 12; 2:4–7), the centrality of Christ’s work of reconciliation on the cross (1:7; 2:13–18), the resurrection and exaltation of Christ (1:20–22), and the distinctive ministry of the Holy Spirit (2:18, 22; 3:5, 16; 4:1–4, 30; 5:18; 6:18). While there are differences in his treatment of these themes, these developments are consistent with Paul’s other letters. In other words, in Ephesians Paul seeks to relate the
great doctrines he has previously handled to the concept of the church as the body of Christ through which the purpose of God is fulfilled.
Regarding external evidence, Ephesians was widely circulated and accepted as one of Paul’s letters by the middle of the second century. It was listed in the canon of Marcion (c. A.D. 140) and in the Muratorian Canon (c. A.D. 180). That is, this letter was unhesitatingly assigned to Paul from the time when the NT corpus began to be recognized in the mid-second century.
2. Destination
a. The problem
To whom was this letter addressed? The title “To the Ephesians” was supplied at least as early as the middle of the second century and appears on all subsequent Greek manuscripts. It was almost everywhere acknowledged as directed to the Christians in Ephesus; the only exception is Marcion, who referred to it as the Epistle to the Laodiceans.
But uncertainty as to the destination of Ephesians and the originality of the title arises from a textual problem in 1:1. The definitive place name “in Ephesus” is omitted from some of the oldest and most reliable manuscripts. If “in Ephesus” did in fact appear in the original text, then reasons would have to be sought to explain its omission in the earlier manuscripts.
Furthermore, an examination of the letter itself serves to deepen the suspicions aroused by the textual dilemma. Paul does not appear to be acquainted with his readers personally, or at least not with all of them. He has only heard of their faith and love (1:15), and they have only heard of the stewardship of God’s grace entrusted to him (3:2). Paul seems only to be able to assume that they have been taught the truth about Jesus (4:21). Yet Paul had remained in Ephesus for no less than three years. Could he have written like this to the Christians there?
There is little trace of local coloring in the letter. Timothy, for example, was with Paul when he wrote Colossians and Philemon (Col 1:1; Phm 1), two letters written about the same time. Timothy was well known in Ephesus (Ac 19:22), yet he is not mentioned in Ephesians. Moreover, there are no personal greetings, nor is a single word of familiarity or affection to be found. Even the benediction is in the third person and not the second, as in every other instance in Paul’s letters (6:23–24). These considerations compel us to subscribe to the general consensus today, which considers it most unlikely that the Ephesian church was exclusively or immediately addressed.
b. Possible solution
Various solutions have been proposed to the lack of “in Ephesus” in 1:1. Of these, the best is to see this letter as a circular letter. On this view Ephesians is a letter intended to be read by Christians living in the Roman province of Asia, of which Ephesus was the capital. It was not addressed to any particular local congregation, but to all. From Ephesus it was circulated throughout the churches of Asia, no doubt by means of a courier (possibly Tychicus; cf. 6:21; Col 4:7). An alternate acceptable view is that at some stage copies of this letter were sent to other churches with the original destination erased, so that the church could fit in its own name. A few manuscripts omit “in Rome” from Ro 1:7, giving rise to a similar conjecture that this letter was also used for more a general distribution.
3. Background
The foundation of the Ephesian church was laid by the apostle Paul on his return from his second missionary journey. On his route from Greece to Syria, the apostle paid a visit to Ephesus, accompanied by Priscilla and Aquila, whom he left behind in the city (Ac 18:18–21). It was only a brief stopover, for he was hurrying on to Jerusalem. He found time, however, to engage in dialogue with the Jewish leaders in the local synagogue. He so impressed them that they begged him to remain. He was unable to change his plans, though he promised to return if that was God’s will for him.
Clearly this proved to be so, for he included Ephesus in his itinerary on his next missionary tour and actually extended his stay to a period of approximately three years, probably from A.D. 54 to 57 (Ac 19:8, 10, 21–22). Evidently the apostle realized the strategic potential of the metropolis, situated on the main highway between east and west. Ephesus was surrounded by 230 independent communities within the Roman province of Asia. If the Christian faith were firmly established in the capital city, it could be spread from the hub to the rim.
While in Ephesus, Paul began by resuming his previous confrontation with the Jews, but he soon aroused opposition. He took his converts with him and transferred to the lecture hall of Tyrannus, where he held daily conferences over a period of two years (Ac 19:9). From Ephesus, all the residents of provincial Asia, Jews and Greeks alike, heard the word of the Lord (Ac 19:10). Those who came into the capital on business or for pleasure could not fail to hear of what was happening. Some apparently became Christians and then went back to their own towns to communicate the gospel. The places in Asia explicitly named in the NT include the seven churches referred to in Rev 2–3, together with Troas, Assos, Adramyttium, Miletus, Trogyllium, and Hierapolis.
This remarkable expansion led to and was temporarily halted by the disturbance described in Ac 19:23–41, when Demetrius the silversmith rallied his fellow trade-unionists to riot against the Christian movement. Paul was already on the point of departure, and this was the signal for his withdrawal. On his last voyage to Syria, he landed at Miletus and there took leave of the Ephesian elders, committing the oversight of the flock to them in a solemn and moving charge (Ac 20:18–35). Paul was never to visit Ephesus again. Yet it is altogether credible that he would wish to write a circular letter to the church in Ephesus and to all the Christian communities established during the Ephesian mission.
4. Place of Origin and Date
Paul wrote Ephesians from prison (3:1; 4:1; 6:20). Since Tychicus was the bearer of this letter (6:21), as well as of Colossians (Col 4:7) and presumably of Philemon also (cf. Phm 24), it may be deduced that these three documents belong to the same time and place. But where was Paul imprisoned? Three possibilities present themselves: Rome (Ac 28:30), Ephesus (cf. 1Co 15:32; 2Co 1:8–10), and Caesarea (Ac 24:23)—see introduction to Philippians. Of these, the best (and the traditional) choice is Rome.
Paul was placed under house arrest in Rome for two years (Ac 28:30). The conditions of his free confinement allowed him scope to proclaim the gospel (Ac 28:16–17, 23, 31; Eph 6:18–20; Php 1:12–18; Col 4:2–4), and from prison he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon. A Roman imprisonment accords well with the personal references in each of these letters. The mention of the palace guard and the emperor’s household in Php 1:13 and 4:22 favors it. The fact that Paul is conscious that he might have to face a sentence of death also confirms a location in Rome (Php 1:19–26; 2:17, 23). Aristarchus is associated with Paul’s greetings in Col 4:10, and we are told in Ac 27:2 that he accompanied Paul on the journey to Rome. The presence of Luke (Col 4:14) during the Roman imprisonment is attested by Ac 28:14, 16.
The date of Ephesians is tied up with the question of its place of origin, and, of course, its authorship. If we are correct in our analysis of those two matters, then the letter was written sometime around A.D. 60, perhaps as late as 63. Almost certainly Ephesians was written shortly after both Colossians and Philemon.
5. Occasion and Purpose
While Paul was under house detention in Rome, he enjoyed certain privileges, such as the freedom to receive a constant stream of visitors. Representatives of the Jewish community came to inquire about Christianity (Ac 28:22–23), and some of Paul’s intimate friends were with him (e.g., Luke, Aristarchus, and Timothy). From time to time he received messengers from churches that he had started, one of whom was Epaphras (see Col 1:7; 4:12; Phm 23). This man seems to have been instrumental in evangelizing the Lycus Valley region during the Ephesian mission and founded churches in Colosse Hierapolis, and Laodicea. Epaphras came to Paul in Rome to bring a progress report about these congregations. There was much to rejoice about, but he also told Paul about a virulent heresy that was threatening Christians in Colosse and perhaps others (see introduction to Colossians).
The province of Asia with its many splendid cities was one of the jewels on a belt of Roman lands encircling the Mediterranean.
Located on the most direct sea and land route to the eastern provinces of the empire, Ephesus was an emporium that had few equals anywhere in the world. Certainly no city in Asia was more famous or more populous. It ranked with Rome, Corinth, Antioch and Alexandria among the foremost urban centers of the empire.
Situated on an inland harbor (now silted up), the city was connected by a narrow channel via the Cayster River with the Aegean Sea some three miles away. Ephesus boasted impressive civic monuments, including, most prominently, the temple of Artemis (Diana), one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Coins of the city proudly displayed the slogan Neokoros, “temple-warden.”
Here in Ephesus Paul preached to large crowds of people. The silversmiths complained that he had influenced large numbers of people here in Ephesus and in practically the whole province of Asia (Ac 19:26). In one of the most dramatic events recorded in the NT, the apostle escaped a huge mob in the theater. This structure, located on the slope of Mt. Pion at the end of the Arcadian Way, could seat 25,000 people!
Other places doubtless familiar to the apostle were the Commerical Agora, the Magnesian Gate, the Town Hall or “Council House,” and the Street of the Curetes. The location of the lecture hall of Tyrannus, where Paul taught, is unknown.
© 1985 The Zondervan Corporation
Tychicus, another friend of Paul and a native of Ephesus, was also with Paul at this time. He was about to leave for the province of Asia, and Paul took advantage of using him as a courier for Colossians. Also, Onesimus (a fugitive slave from Colosse) had been befriended by Paul at this time and had confessed Christ. He had defrauded his master Philemon, and Paul was anxious that he be pardoned and possibly released for Christian service. Paul therefore decided to send Onesimus along with Tychicus (see introduction to Philemon).
But before Tychicus and Onesimus left, Paul finished a third letter to take along—one that he sent to Ephesus and to all the churches founded as a result of his mission throughout Asia. As befits a letter intended for more general circulation, Paul did not deal with particular issues (as in Colossians). His aim was not to combat error and expose false teaching. Rather, it was more detached and therefore more exalted. He rose above the smoke of battle and captured a vision of God’s sovereign plan that transcends the bitterness of controversy and the necessity for the church militant to fight incessantly for its very existence. Consequently, he treated his doctrinal themes more broadly in terms of the fellowship of Christians in Christ’s body, the church, and the reconciliation of the entire universe to him. Yet Paul’s objective was not purely inspirational. He sought to relate his vision to the practical demands of Christians living in a hostile society.
6. Theological Values
Ephesians is above all a hymn of unity. Paul’s conception of oneness in Christ extends beyond the church to include all creation. God’s ultimate purpose is “to bring all things in heaven and on earth together under one head, even Christ” (1:10). Yet our Lord has been appointed as “head over everything for the church, which is his body, the fullness of him who fills everything in every way” (1:22–23). The corporate aspect of Christ’s Saviorhood and Lordship, adumbrated in other letters and particularly in Colossians, is here expounded more thoroughly.
Unity was a topic of general interest in the first century A.D. The Stoic philosophers recognized an orderliness in the universe which they attributed to the cosmic Reason or Logos. The fact that much of the Mediterranean world was politically unified under the imperial government led to the vision of a universal commonwealth. At the same time the mystery cults, which were gaining in popularity as conventional religion declined, offered a certain sense of oneness in the common quest for deliverance from demonic forces and the achievement of personal integration.
In Ephesians Paul was able to demonstrate that this almost obsessive search for unity finds its ultimate goal only in Christ. It is he who represents the coordinating principle of all life. The ideal of world citizenship, cherished by the philosophers, is realized in the universal church. Human beings can be liberated from bondage to the principalities and powers that threaten their welfare only as they share the triumph Christ gained over them at the Cross (1:21; 2:2; 3:10–11; 6:12–13; cf. Col 2:15). Thus the distinctive theology of Ephesians is no academic abstraction. It was tuned to the contemporary mood of Paul’s day, and in a deeply divided world today it still conveys a relevant word from God.
EXPOSITION
Salutation (1:1–2)
1 As in his other letters, Paul adopts the conventional form of address used in letters of the period. Usually a writer identified himself, named the prospective recipients, and added some expressions of greeting. Paul freely expanded or contracted these three items as circumstances required.
Each phrase of this salutation can be paralleled in other Pauline letters. Paul usually refers to his apostleship at the opening of his letters. “Apostle” (GK 693) is a comprehensive term for one who bears the NT message. It was applied first to the original disciples (Mt 10:2; Ac 1:2) and then to other Christian missionaries (Ac 14:14; Ro 16:7). Paul claimed that, like that of the Twelve, his commission came directly from Christ (Ac 26:16–18; 1Co 9:1). This title stresses the authority of the sender and the accountability of the one sent. Paul alludes to “the will of God,” not in order to draw attention to his own status but to reflect his awareness that his mission did not arise from any qualifications he himself might possess.
Paul regularly addresses “the saints” (GK 41) in the church to which he writes. This word is the normal NT designation for Christians; it denotes inward, personal consecration to God. As in Col 1:2, he describes them as “faithful . . . in Christ.”“Faithful” (GK 4412) combines the ideas of trust and fidelity. This exercise of faith with its matching faithfulness is possible only “in Christ Jesus.” On the particular question whether “in Ephesus” belongs in this letter, see the introduction.
2 “Grace” (GK 5921) and “peace” (GK 1645) reflect the standard greetings in Greek and Hebrew (cf. Ro 1:7b). Paul prefers to replace the Greek chaire (“rejoice”) by charis (“grace”) as embodying the essence of the gospel. For “peace” (Heb. shalom; Gk 8934), see Ezr 4:17; 5:7; 7:12; Da 4:1; 6:25, et al. Paul associates “the Lord Jesus Christ” with “God our Father” as the originator of these blessings. The name of Christ appears in each of the three clauses in this opening salutation. What follows in the body of Ephesians has to do with the relationship between “the saints” and their living Lord.
II. Doctrine: The Implications of Christian Faith (1:3–3:21)
A. An Act of Praise (1:3–14)
As in previous Pauline letters, the first part of Ephesians is doctrinal and the second part practical. In this case, however, the whole doctrinal section (1:3–3:21) is a thanksgiving expressed in the language of worship and prayer.
3 The focus of praise in vv.3–14 is what God has done in Christ. Christian faith and life have their center in God’s Son, and the letter therefore opens with an expression of gratitude for all that is found in him. It is cast in the form of a Jewish blessing. Its structure is poetic and is ruled by parallelism, though scholars are not agreed as to how its stanzas are to be grouped.
“Praise be to” (or “blessed be”; GK 2329) is used exclusively of God (Father or Son) in the NT to indicate the One who alone is worthy of worship. “Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” is a distinctively Christian addition arising out of a unique relationship. God who is to be blessed has already blessed all his people in Christ through the saving events of his life, death, and resurrection. A blessing in the OT denotes the bestowal of good; it is often material and invariably specific. God’s blessings for us in Christ are more exclusively spiritual but nonetheless definite. These benefits are “spiritual” (GK 4461) in nature because they are communicated to us through the Holy Spirit, whose function is to transfer to believers all that God has achieved in Christ. They have already been secured “in the heavenly realms” (cf. 1:20: 2:6; 3:10; 6:12) where Christ now reigns, having triumphed over “the spiritual forces of evil” (6:12) that threatened to usurp control. Their value is measured by the price that was paid to obtain them when on the cross the Son of God fought satanic opponents and disarmed them (Col 2:15).
4 Paul now traces the spiritual blessings of v.3 to their ultimate source in the eternal purpose of God. Christians have been selected in Christ prior to the work of creation. The verb “chose” (GK 1721) is the usual one employed in LXX in connection with God’s choice of Israel. Before the foundations of the world were laid, God had determined that all who believed on his Son should be saved.
Election in Christ has a moral aim in view: to be “holy” (GK 41) and “blameless” (GK 320). “Holy” means to be set apart for God in order to reflect his purity; “blameless” means “free from blemish,” like the sacrificial animals presented on the altar in the old dispensation. The latter word is applied to Christ himself (Heb 9:14), to the ideal church (Eph 5:27), and to Christians at the end of the age (2Pe 3:14; Jude 24) and also now (Php 2:15).
5 The NIV takes “in love” (v.4) as starting a new sentence, thus emphasizing the loving nature of predestination. Any interpretation of this mysterious doctrine that detracts from the love of God is rightly suspect. It has to do with those who through Christ are to be received into God’s family by adoption. Under Roman law, an adopted son enjoyed the same status and privileges as a real son. Christ is God’s Son “by nature”; believers are so by adoption and grace, yet they are co-heirs with him (Ro 8:17). The basis of this gracious action is in the character of God himself—his “pleasure” (GK 2306) and “will” (GK 2525).
6 The ultimate aim throughout the divine plan of redemption is that the recognition of God’s merciful dealings with people should evoke unlimited praise. The “grace” (GK 5921) that evokes such praise finds its richest outlet in God’s love-gift to us—his Son. It is the objective grace of God that is in view, indicating his favorable regard, rather than the further ethical effect of that grace in making us gracious.
The Son is referred to as the one the Father loves. “Beloved” is a title applied in LXX to Israel in its special role as God’s chosen race, along with “Servant” and “Elect.” Because of his filial obedience, Jesus gained the Father’s approval.
7–8 Paul proceeds to list some of the blessings that flow from the matchless grace of God. It may be that an early Christian confession of faith underlies this text. These blessings are all “in Christ”; he is not only their source but also their sphere (cf. Col 1:14). They are enjoyed by the believer in the present.
“Redemption” (GK 667) has to do with the emancipation either of slaves or of prisoners. The term implies the payment of a ransom price, a factor frequently reflected in its usage. Here it is specified as being “through his blood” (cf. Col 1:20). The price paid for our redemption from bondage to sin was costly beyond measure; it was the very lifeblood of Christ himself, poured out in his death on the Cross. What was foreshadowed in the Levitical system of sacrifices was realized at the Cross when the Son of God laid down his life in death and ransomed us from sin.
“Forgiveness” (GK 912) means loosing a person from what binds him or her; it stems from a verb meaning “to send away” (GK 918). When God deals with our sin, it is dispatched into the wilderness like the scapegoat (Lev 16:20–22). Here, however, the reference is not to “sin” (GK 281), as in Col 1:14, but to “sins” (GK 4183). The first term denotes a sinful condition; the second, sinful acts or deviations from the right path. Forgiveness deals with both. The magnanimity of God displayed in redemption and remission of sins is in proportion to “the riches of God’s grace” (a Pauline expression that also occurs in 1:18; 2:4, 7; 3:8, 16).
These riches of grace have been “lavished” (GK 4355) on us; God always gives generously. Paul then enumerates further blessings: every kind of “wisdom” (GK 5053; i.e., knowledge which sees things as they really are) and “understanding” (GK 5860; i.e., discernment that leads to right action).
9–10 What God has thus revealed is the mystery concerning his will. “Mystery” (GK 3696) is a recurring term in this letter (3:3–4, 9; 5:32; 6:19). Here, as in the rest of the NT, it simply means a truth once hidden but now made known (Ro 11:25; Col 1:26; cf. Mt 13:11, 35). For many Jews in Paul’s day, the secret plan of God would become apparent at the end of the age. In the NT the unlocking of that mystery has now taken place by virtue of Christ’s appearance in the flesh, and there is no need to wait till the last day. This affirmation may be intended to counteract the incipient Gnosticism appearing in Asia Minor (see introduction to Colossians). “Us” covers all believers (cf. “we” in vv.11–12).
All this is in accordance with God’s “pleasure” (as in v.5), which has been set out in Christ (cf. v.11; Ro 1:13; 3:25). From all eternity, the Father cherished in his own mind a plan “to be put into effect” (GK 3873) in Christ (cf. 3:9). This has now been revealed to the church through Paul. In the rest of Ephesians the content of the plan is more fully elaborated. Here the apostle restricts himself to a brief summary.
This plan takes place when the messianic age is inaugurated. Salvation history is regarded as unfolding in a series of “times” (GK 2789) that reach their climax in the advent of Christ (Gal 4:4). The Christian era has still to run its course, however, and not until its close will God’s eternal purpose come to full fruition (Ac 1:6). Then universal reconciliation will be achieved; God will “bring . . . together under one head” (GK 368) everything in heaven and on earth under Christ (cf. 1Co 15:24–28; Php 2:10–11). This recognition of Christ’s preeminence will ensure that the original harmony of the universe is restored (Ro 8:18–21). Christ’s mission extends beyond the human race and assumes cosmic dimensions.
11 Paul now passes on to a further consideration—namely, that Christians have been “chosen [as heirs]” (GK 3103). Israel was regarded as the Lord’s inheritance and portion. The church, the new Israel, now enters into the same privilege (Ro 8:17; Gal 3:29; Col 1:12). This apportionment stems from the divine foreordination (cf. vv.4–5). It is no accident that God has allotted to his new people in Christ the inheritance designed for those who recognize the Savior. But we must not think that Christians have somehow usurped Jewish privileges. Before time began, God marked out those in Christ to be co-heirs with his Son. Whatever he decides is put into effect, for he is the one who ensures that everything is worked out in line with his own will (cf. v.5).
12 So far, what Paul has written applies to Jews and Gentiles alike, united in the one body of Christ. Now he refers in turn to one class (v.12) and then to the other (vv.13–14). The “first to hope [GK 4598] in Christ” (lit., “the Christ” or “the Messiah”) were Jews who recognized Jesus as their Messiah prior to the conversion of the Gentiles. This expectation of God’s coming deliverer was distinctive to the Jews; the Gentiles had not entertained any such prospect (2:12). Paul earlier showed that the adoption of Christians as God’s children furthers the praise of his glorious grace (v.6). Here he says that their participation in the divine inheritance will have a similar effect. The “glory,” or revealed character, of God will shine out through them and evoke praise from the whole universe (3:10).
13 “You also,” in contrast to “we,” clearly identifies the Gentile Christians in Ephesus (cf. 2:19). They are only addressed in this specific manner in order to remind them that they are fully incorporated into the body of Christ. Jews can no longer cling to their former prerogatives; Gentiles are equal partners and in every respect share the inheritance. In the Christian community there are no second-class citizens.
It is the hearing of faith that brings salvation. The Ephesians had embraced “the word of truth”—i.e., the teaching that told them the truth because it was derived from the God of truth (4:21). The truth they needed to know was that they as Gentiles had a place in God’s redemptive plan (2Co 6:7; Col 1:5; Jas 1:18). This was good news indeed, and through accepting it they were liberated from bondage to sin.
Hearing, faith, and salvation were immediately followed by the sealing of the Holy Spirit. At the moment they believed, the Ephesian Christians received the stamp of the Spirit (cf. Ac 19:2). Paul does not have water baptism primarily in mind here, but rather what water baptism symbolizes—the effusion of the Holy Spirit himself. He is made available to believers according to the promises recorded in the OT and confirmed by Jesus. The Holy Spirit is at once the one promised and the one in whom the promises are fulfilled.
A “seal” (GK 5381 & 5382) had various uses, all of which are instructive as applied to the Holy Spirit. It was affixed to a document to guarantee its genuineness. It was attached to goods in transit to indicate ownership and ensure protection. It also represented a designation of office in the state service.
14 Paul adds a further analogy: The Holy Spirit is a “deposit” (GK 775; cf. 2Co 1:22; 5:5). This word is borrowed from the commercial world and means a deposit or first installment in hire purchase. It is a token payment assuring the vendor that the full amount will eventually follow. Paul regards the Holy Spirit as the first installment of the Christian’s inheritance. At the end of the age God will redeem his pledge and open the treasuries of heaven to all who are his in Christ. Meanwhile, the Spirit gives us the assurance that these things will one day be ours.
B. A Prayer of Intercession (1:15–23)
The Christian “blessing” in vv.3–14 has intervened between the opening salutation and the thanksgiving that normally follows it in Paul’s letters. Although Paul uses the customary formula of gratitude in v.16, this section becomes a prayer of intercession from v.17 onward.
15 Paul’s thanksgiving for the spiritual progress of the Ephesian Christians arises out of what he has just written in vv.13–14. News had been brought to him in Rome about the continuing “faith” and “love” displayed by those whom he now addresses (cf. Phm 5). Faith finds its focus in Christ and expresses itself in love to others (Gal 5:6). We need not assume that the reference in this verse is to their initial experience of Christ and that Paul therefore did not know them personally. On the other hand, if Ephesians is a circular letter, there may well have been some readers who were not actually known to him.
16 Paul assures the Ephesians of his unremitting remembrance of them in his prayers—both thankfulness and intercession. He had already taken on similar responsibilities in relation to other churches. “Remembering” (lit., “making mention”) implies that those for whom Paul prayed were actually named before God.
17 The apostle addresses his constant prayer on their behalf to God, the only one who is capable of answering it (v.3). “Glorious Father” is a typical expression that points both to God’s essential being and to what proceeds from it in mercy (v.7). Paul prays that his readers may be fully endowed with the Holy Spirit. God has already made provision for this, but it was necessary that they themselves should be quickened with the spiritual powers of wisdom and vision. “Revelation” (GK 637) refers here to the insight and discernment that the Spirit brings into the mysteries of divine truth (1Co 2:14, 16). All this is so that they may get to “know” God more completely.
18–19 Paul now employs an unusual and figurative expression (“the eyes of your heart”) to denote an inner awareness, provided by the Holy Spirit, that realizes everything that God has made available to them. The “heart” (GK 2840) is the seat of thought and moral judgment as well as of feeling. Three items are selected for particular attention. (1) Calling (“called”; GK 3104) is regarded here as a pledge of “hope.” This call has already taken place (2Ti 1:9) and yet represents an ongoing calling (1Th 2:12; 5:24); it looks to the future, since it is attached to the “blessed hope” (Tit 2:13) of eternal glory.
(2) Paul wants his readers to appreciate that they will inherit all the “riches” of God himself (cf. vv.11, 14). Old Israel was promised an inheritance on earth; new Israel is given an inheritance in heaven. The everlasting Canaan-rest of glory is assured all the saints, and God’s faithfulness will be vindicated.
(3) Paul wants his readers to recognize the “incomparably great power” of God. The word “incomparably” (GK 5650) suggests an unimaginable divine potency that is directed toward all who believe. Paul then proceeds to collect all the synonyms he can lay hands on as he describes how the “power” (GK 1539) of God functions according to the “working” (GK 1918; cf. 3:7; 4:16) of the “strength” (GK 3197; cf. 6:10) of his might (GK 2709; cf. 6:10; a word used of bodily strength and muscular force).
20 Having piled up the vocabulary of divine power, Paul shows where it was most impressively exerted—in the resurrection of Christ and his subsequent exaltation to the place of authority. Paul has no hesitation in ascribing the resurrection of Jesus to the Father in accordance with other Scriptures. Yet Father and Son are so at one in this, as in all things, that our Lord could also claim in Jn 10:19 that he had authority both to relinquish his life and to resume it again.
Paul links with Christ’s resurrection his ascension and his sitting down at God’s right hand in heaven. God not only raised his Son from the grave but exalted him to the seat of power. Paul alludes here to Ps 110:1; the exaltation of the king of Israel as the Lord’s anointed found its ultimate application in Christ’s exaltation. Although spatial imagery is involved, we must not think of God’s right hand as a place but as a symbol of authority. Similarly, the “heavenly realms” are not to be identified with outer space (cf. v.3).
21 “Far above” (cf. 4:10; Heb 9:5) is not a dimensional expression but simply indicates the superiority of Christ. “Rule” (GK 794), “authority” (GK 2026), “power” (see v.19), and “dominion” (GK 3262) no doubt reflect various degrees of angels in the Jewish hierarchy. They are not to be classified in a graded series, nor should we ask whether the ranks are arranged in ascending or descending order. Angels were thought to control human destiny, but Paul sees Christ as controlling them with absolute authority because he is infinitely superior.
Paul then proceeds to use a comprehensive phrase (“every title that can be given”) to include not only those names known now by people living on earth but also those that will be used in “the [age] to come.” The familiar contrast between the present era and the coming messianic age was adopted by writers in the early church who nevertheless recognized that for those in Christ the last days had already begun.
22 The apostle winds up this opening chapter by underlining the exaltation of Christ. The verb “placed . . . under” (GK 5718) refers not only to the supremacy of Christ but also to the subjection of all things to him (cf. 1Co 15:27). Psalm 8:6 (cf. Heb 2:8) is clearly in Paul’s mind. The psalmist affirms humanity’s dominion on earth; here Paul claims that Christ, as God’s new man, has universal dominion. Human beings have largely forfeited their status through sin, but through Christ they are restored to their proper dignity. So far from constituting a threat to the realization of true humanity, the Christian gospel provides the only means by which it can be attained. Only at the end of the age will the consummation take place, when death itself will be finally overcome; yet even now the Christian becomes a new creation in Christ Jesus (2Co 5:17).
We might have expected the apostle to explain (cf. Col 1:15–20) that, as head over everything, Christ is head of his body, the company of believers. But that is not how he puts it. Instead, he says that Christ in his exaltation over the universe is God’s gift bestowed on the church. In other words, the head of the church is also the head of all things. The church can thus overcome all opposition because of the absolute Lordship of Christ.
23 The church is described as Christ’s body (Col 1:18). It is so not only in symbol but in fact (cf. 4:4, 12, 16; 5:30). The church is not an institution but an organism. It exists and functions only by reason of its vital relationship with the risen Lord as its Head. This picture of the church as a body deriving life and power from its Head is developed only in Ephesians and Colossians. In Paul’s earlier letters the church is regarded as a body because its members are coordinated in a common function (see Ro 12:4–5; 1Co 10:17; 12:22–27; but cf. 1Co 11:3).
The church is further described as “the fullness of him who fills everything in every way.” The precise significance of these enigmatic words has been widely discussed. “Fullness” (GK 4445) here suggests two things: (1) that which is filled with Christ; i.e., the church contains the fullness of Christ; (2) that which is filled by Christ; i.e., the church is filled by Christ not only with his own life and presence but also with the gifts and blessings he bestows. As his body, the church manifests Christ to the world, but it can do so only as he fills it with himself (Col 3:19) and with all his gifts of grace (Eph 4:7, 11; cf. 1Co 12:1–11). But this Christ also fills the whole universe. He is at once immanent within the church and transcendent over it, as he is both within and above the cosmos. This carefully balanced statement of Christ’s role was designed to encourage the church militant here on earth.
C. Life from Death (2:1–10)
Ephesians 2 elaborates ch. 1. In vv.1–10 the theme of redemption (1:7) is developed in terms of God’s raising of humanity from the death of sin to the new life in Christ (a theme that permeates Romans). From v.11 on, the theme of reconciliation (1:10, 22–23) applies to the relationship between Jews and Gentiles in the church. Throughout the chapter Paul contrasts humanity prior to the revelation of faith with humanity under faith.
1 “As for you” resumes the second person of 1:13, 15–18 and anticipates v.11 (“you who are Gentiles by birth”). However, as v.3 makes clear, the Jews are in no better condition, for the sinful human nature is shared by all alike (cf. Ro 2:1–3:20). Redemption has made it possible for human beings to be brought from death to life (v.5). Without God, people are spiritually dead (Col 2:13) and utterly unable to meet the requirements of the divine law (Ro 7:9). Paul is not speaking here about physical death nor only about the sinner’s ultimate fate in the second death. What is meant is a real and present death. The most vital part of a person’s personality—the spirit—is dead to the most important factor in life—God.
“Transgressions” (GK 4183) are lapses, while “sins” (GK 281) are shortcomings. This repetition simply serves to underscore the multiplicity of ways in which our spiritual death is evidenced.
2 Verses 2–4 are a typical Pauline digression. The mention of “transgressions and sins” in v.1 leads the apostle to supply a fuller account than he had intended of the Ephesians’ former way of life. As a result, he does not pick up the thread of his original sentence until v.5.
To “live” (lit., “walk about”; GK 4344) is the customary word used in the Greek OT for one’s manner of life. This use is carried over into the NT and is prominent in Paul’s writings (cf. 2:10; 4:17; 5:2). The Ephesians’ former walk-about, Paul adds, was in accordance with “the ways [lit., “age”; GK 172] of this world [GK 3180]” (cf. these same two words in 1Co 3:18–19). The terms represent the same idea from the standpoints of time and space respectively. The word “age” may even represent the devil (cf. 1 Cor 2:8).
In any case, the evil one is certainly identified in the two clauses that follow. He is the “ruler” (GK 807) of a realm said to be “of the air.” Taken literally, this would signify the atmosphere around the earth, which, according to ancient cosmology, was the abode of demons. Paul may be adopting that term as a figure of speech to suggest Satan’s dominion. Satan is also the unholy “spirit” (1Co 2:12) who apes the operations of his divine counterpart by being constantly “at work” (the same basic word as used of the Holy Spirit in Eph 1:19–20, implying a mutual rivalry). “Those who are disobedient” discloses the fact that rebellion against God and refusal to believe in him are inherent in humankind (Eph 5:16).
3 “Among them” refers to the “disobedient” rather than to “transgressions and sins” (v.1). So far Paul has been depicting the former lifestyle of Gentile Christians. Now he admits that Jewish believers were no better, for they too once “lived” an earth-bound life in the grip of sin. Nor does he exclude himself from this general indictment (cf. “all of us”), despite his claim to have been technically blameless under the law (Php 3:6; but cf. Ro 7:7–11).
The past life of Jewish Christians, like that of the Gentiles, was dominated by the appeal of fallen nature. The “sinful nature” (lit., “flesh”; GK 4922) is not merely the body but the whole person orientated away from God and toward one’s own selfish concerns. Human beings have a multiplicity of sinful urges. “Thoughts” refers not to the mind itself but to the projects it entertains with uncontrolled abandon. The natural human being is altogether at the mercy of the tyrant self and its rash impulses.
Because of all this, the Jewish converts were just as much in danger of God’s “wrath” and judgment as anyone. “By nature” (GK 5882) contrasts with “by grace” in vv.5, 8. Those who prefer to stand on their own and refuse to accept what God has done for them in Christ are self-condemned.
4 Over against humanity’s churlish rejection of God, Paul sets God’s gracious acceptance of human beings in Christ. Though he cannot approve of sin if he is to remain righteous, God is not hostile toward those he has created. He loves them and has made possible their reconciliation to himself. Had he decided to destroy his refractory children, he would have been entirely justified, and nothing could have averted the catastrophe (Hos 13:9). Instead, love led to “mercy” (GK 1799)—God’s compassion for the helpless, issuing in action for their relief. There is an inexhaustible treasury of such mercy in the loving heart of God.
5 The main verb of this extended sentence in the Greek does not emerge until this verse (see comment on v.1). Paul’s main point is that God “made us alive with [GK 5188] Christ” (cf. Col 2:15). This is the first of three verbs that describe what God has done in Christ for every Christian (the other two are in v.6). For those who were spiritually dead in transgressions, God gave new life together “with Christ.” This is not the language of mysticism but of fact. The life Christians now possess is an effect of which Christ’s resurrection was the cause.
Christ’s revivification was by an act of God’s power (cf. 1:19–20); the regeneration of believers is by an act of God’s “grace” (GK 5921; a bold, definitive assertion that is reiterated in v.8). Salvation is viewed retrospectively. The Ephesians are now in the position of having been saved.
6 In addition to making us alive with Christ (v.5), God has “raised us up” with him (GK 5283; cf. Col 2:12) and has “seated us with” (GK 5154) him on his throne “in the heavenly realms.” Jesus actually left the tomb in which he had been laid and appeared to his disciples; forty days later, he ascended into heaven (Ac 1:6–11) and sat down at the right hand of the Father (1:20–21). Both these events have their counterpart in the experience of believers. Not only do they anticipate resurrection and glorification at the end of the age; they are matched by a present realization of the risen life in Christ and of our participation with him in his ascended majesty (Col 3:1–4).
Comparison of Ephesians and Colossians
Paul wrote both Ephesians and Colossians about the same time, from prison in Rome. There are an amazing number of similarities in content between these two books.
| Theme | Ephesians | Colossians |
| Paul’s greeting | 1:1–2 | 1:1–2 |
| Holy and with out blemish in God’s sight | 1:4; 5:27 | 1:22 |
| Redemption through Christ’s blood | 1:7 | 1:14, 20 |
| Wisdom, knowledge, and understanding from God | 1:8, 17 | 1:9–10 |
| Knowledge of God’s will | 1:9 | 1:9 |
| All things (re)created through Christ | 1:10 | 1:16 |
| Paul heard about faith and gave thanks | 1:15–16 | 1:3–4 |
| Paul’s continual prayer for Ephesians/Colossians | 1:16 | 1:9 |
| The believer’s hope | 1:18 | 1:5, 27 |
| An inheritance for the saints | 1:18 | 3:24 |
| Strengthened by God’s power | 1:19; 3:16; 6:10 | 1:11 |
| Christ’s power over rule, authority, and dominion | 1:21 | 1:13, 16; 2:10, 15 |
| Christ as the head of his body, the church | 1:22; 4:15–16 | 1:18, 24 |
| Christ as God’s fullness | 1:23; 3:19 | 1:19; 2:9 |
| Christ fills all things | 1:23 | 3:11 |
| A part from Christ people are dead in sin | 2:13 | 2:13; 3:7 |
| God made us alive in Christ and in his resurrection | 2:5–6 | 2:12–13 |
| Reconciliation through Christ’s blood | 2:13 | 1:20 |
| Christians called to peace | 2:14–15 | 3:15 |
| Christ abolished the law and its regulations | 2:14–15 | 2:14 |
| Being built up in Christ | 2:20–22 | 2:7 |
| Paul’s call by God’s grace to reveal God’s mystery | 3:2–4 | 1:25–27; 2:2 |
| God’s grace at work in Paul | 3:7, 20 | 1:29 |
| God’s mystery hidden for centuries | 3:9 | 1:26 |
| Rooted in Christ and his love | 3:17 | 2:7 |
| Humility, gentleness, patience, and love | 4:20, 31; 5:1 | 3:12–14 |
7 All this was done by God in Christ with a single end in view: to demonstrate in successive ages “the incomparable riches of his grace” (cf. 1:7, 18; 2:4, 7; 3:8, 16). This was God’s publicity program for the whole of history—and beyond. He planned a continuing exhibition of his favor toward humankind to cover all the centuries between the ascension and the return of Christ, and after that through all eternity (cf. Jude 25). This dimension implies that it will be for the benefit of angels as well as human beings. “Kindness” (GK 5983) is love in tender action, which God showed to humans when it was most needed (Ro 5:8).
8 Paul again reminds his readers (cf. v.5) that they owe their salvation entirely to the undeserved favor of God. “Grace” is the objective, operative, and instrumental cause of salvation. Paul expands v.5 by adding that the medium that apprehends salvationis “faith” (GK 4411), which is also its necessary condition. Faith, however, is not something a person can produce; it is simply a trustful response that is itself evoked by the Holy Spirit.
Lest faith should be in any way misinterpreted as our contributing in any way to our own salvation, Paul immediately adds a rider to explain that nothing is of our own doing; rather, everything is the “gift of God.” The entire process of salvation comes from nothing that we have done (cf. Ro 10:17).
| Theme | Ephesians | Colossians |
| Encouragement to unity | 4:3 | 3:14 |
| Becoming mature/perfect in Christ | 4:13 | 1:28 |
| Obtaining fullness in Christ | 4:13 | 2:10 |
| Growth in Christ | 4:16 | 2:19 |
| Apart from Christ, alienation from God | 4:18 | 1:21 |
| Impurity and lust in unbelievers | 4:19 | 3:5 |
| Putting off the old self and putting on the new | 4:22–24 | 3:9–10 |
| Putting off falsehood and lies and speaking the truth | 4:25 | 3:9 |
| Putting away filthy language | 4:29; 5:4 | 3:8 |
| Speaking in order to help others | 4:29 | 4:6 |
| Getting rid of anger, malice, and slander | 4:30 | 3:8 |
| Being forgiving | 4:31 | 3:13 |
| Believers should allow no one to deceive them | 5:6 | 2:4, 8 |
| God’s coming wrath | 5:6 | 3:6 |
| Doing what pleases the Lord | 5:10 | 3:20 |
| Walking carefully and making the most of every opportunity | 5:15 | 4:5 |
| Singing psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs | 5:19 | 3:16 |
| Giving thanks to God the Father | 5:20 | 3:17 |
| Instructions for wives | 5:22 | 3:18 |
| Instructions for husbands | 5:25 | 3:19 |
| Instructions for children | 6:1 | 3:20 |
| Instructions for fathers | 6:4 | 3:21 |
| Instructions for slaves | 6:5–8 | 3:22–25 |
| Instructions for masters | 6:9–10 | 4:1 |
| Praying and keeping watch | 6:18 | 4:2 |
| Praying for Paul, the missionary | 6:19–20 | 4:3–4 |
| Tychicus as Paul’s messenger | 6:21–22 | 4:7–8 |
| Closing benediction | 6:24 | 4:18 |
9 Paul firmly excludes every possibility of self-achieved salvation by adding to his emphasis in v.8, “not by works.” The apostle does not specify these “works” (GK 2240) as those related to the law, since he is not thinking only of Jewish Christians. Any kind of human self-effort is comprehensively ruled out by this terse expression. The reason is immediately attached: it is to prevent the slightest self-congratulation. If salvation is by the sheer unmerited favor of God, boasting is altogether out of place.
10 This verse is the outcome of the whole process. It shows what salvation is intended for: to produce the good works that attest its reality. While works play no part at all in securing salvation, Christians will prove their faith by works. Here Paul shows himself at one with James (see Jas 2:14–26).
We are God’s “workmanship”—his work of art, his new creation. “Created” (GK 3231; also in OT, 1343) is a verb used exclusively of God and denotes the creative energy he exerts. The creation takes place “in Christ Jesus” (cf. vv.6–7). The life of goodness that regeneration produces has been prepared for believers to “do” from all eternity. Here is a further reason why Christians have nothing left to boast about. Even the good they now do has its source in God, who has made it possible.
D. Jews and Gentiles Reconciled (2:11–22)
In vv.1–10 Paul considered the moral condition of the Gentiles before their conversion to Christianity. Now he reminds them of their previous deprivation in terms of their religious status as estimated from a Jewish point of view.
11 “Therefore” refers back not simply to v.10 but to the entire paragraph (vv.1–10), which presents a single sentence in the Greek text. Second-generation Gentile Christians, such as those now emerging, were apt to forget their former disadvantages. They had been and indeed still were “the Gentiles”: the article specifies the underprivileged group to which they belonged. They were non-Jews or pagans so far as their physical descent was concerned. The rest of the verse elaborates on the distinction by citing the contemptuous nickname attached to them by the Jews: “uncircumcised.” Paul does not himself use it in a derogatory manner: he simply reports its use. As a Jew, however, he points out that the self-styled circumcisionists have nothing to boast about, since an external man-made mark in itself holds no spiritual significance. Real circumcision is of the heart (Gal 5:6). Physical circumcision used to be a token of the covenant, but its function ceased when redemption was accomplished in Christ.
12 The apostle goes on to urge the Ephesians to recall what they once were in their heathen state. Four successive phrases depict their debit as compared with the Jews (cf. Ro 9:4–5). (1) They were “separate from Christ”—they had no expectation of a Messiah to light up their darkness. They knew nothing at all about him. (2) They had no rights of “citizenship” (GK 4486) in his kingdom by reason of their birth. This word contrasts with the more intimate expression “members of God’s household” in v.19; it signifies a commonwealth or state. (3) The Gentiles were not entitled to the benefits accruing to the covenantal community. In this respect, they were in the position of “foreigners,” who could not claim the prerogatives of nationals. (4) As a consequence, they lived in a world devoid of “hope” (1Th 4:13) and “God.” This does not imply that they were forsaken by God, but that, since they were ignorant of him (Gal 4:8), they did not believe in him.
13 Quickly and eagerly Paul turns from the tragedy of the Gentiles’ former desolation to the joy of their reconciliation in Christ. “But now” stands in sharp antithesis to v.12. They are no longer “separate from Christ” (v.12) but “in Christ Jesus.” He is the sphere of their new possibilities. The historical name “Jesus” is added at this point to suggest that he is not only the anticipated Messiah of the Jews but the Savior of all (see comment on Mt 1:21). Those who trust in him possess a present salvation as well as a future hope.
“Far away” and “near” are words that describe the position of Gentiles and Jews (the original reference in Hebrew related to distance from Jerusalem). God’s word of peace to both groups is recorded in Isa 57:19 and is fulfilled through the sacrifice of Christ on Calvary (cf. 1:7; 2:15–17).
14 Christ and no one else has solved the problem of our relationship with God and with other people. He draws people to God and to each other in his own person. It is not simply the message he proclaimed or even the message proclaimed about him that effects this reconciliation. It is himself (cf. Mic 5:5). That is, Paul announces that Christ is “peace” as well as “life” (Col 3:4) and “hope” (Col 1:27). The “I am” sayings recorded in the Fourth Gospel provided a foundation for such assertions.
Christ is both peace and peacemaker. He actually brought about the reconciliation of Jew and Gentile when he died on the cross. There he made both into one (cf. vv.15–16). Paul thinks of two parts being united as one whole. Then he personalizes it and speaks of “two” men being recreated as “one new man.” Christ has thus removed “the hostility” that existed between these deeply divided groups. The battlement created by hatred has been broken down forever.
This hostility Paul describes as a “barrier” (GK 5850), a word that means simply a “fence” or “railing.” It recalls the common rabbinic idea of the law as a fence dividing the Jews by their observance of it from all other races and thus arousing hostility. There may be a further allusion to Ps 80:12, where the word also occurs. The breaking down of the protecting wall that surrounded Israel the vine prepares the way for God’s strong man (Ps 80:17).
The second word describing hostility is “dividing wall” (GK 3546); it is a much rarer word and literally means a “middle wall.” Josephus used this term (as well as the previous one) to refer to the balustrade in the Jerusalem temple separating the court of the Gentiles from the temple proper. On it was an inscription that read: “No foreigner may enter within the barricade which surrounds the sanctuary and enclosure. Anyone who is caught doing so will have himself to blame for his ensuing death.” When Jerusalem fell in A.D. 70, this partition was demolished along with the temple itself. But Paul saw it as already destroyed by Christ at the cross. Ironically enough, he himself had been wrongfully accused of taking an Asian Gentile, Trophimus, past this checkpoint (Ac 21:29).
15 The barrier between Jews and Gentiles was overthrown when Christ effectively disposed of the old law with its meticulously defined sanctions enshrined in its innumerable decrees. Paul does accept that in itself the law is right and good, but he insists that the unregenerate are incapable of complying with its legal demands (Ro 3:19–31; 7:7–12; 8:2–4). “Abolishing” (GK 2934) is a favorite Pauline verb not easy to translate. Literally it means “to make ineffective or powerless.” In Lk 13:7 it refers to ground exhausted by a barren tree; it also sometimes meant “to bring to a standstill or to put out of action.” Eventually it signified “to invalidate, nullify, quash.” Paul is thinking of the abolishing of the totality of the law considered as a moral burden.
It was in his crucified flesh that our Lord accomplished the annulment of the law (cf. v.17), so that he might “create in himself” the new humanity of which he as the second Adam is the Head. The Christian is no hybrid but a new creation (v.10).
16 “To reconcile” (GK 639) is a uniquely Pauline verb (cf. Col 1:20, 22) that involves the idea of restoration to a primitive unity (Eph 1:10). The purpose of Christ’s death was not simply that Jews and Gentiles should be reconciled to each other (v.15), but that both of them together should be reconciled to God. “This one body” is neither the crucified body nor the glorified body of Christ. Rather, it suggests that in addition to Jews and Gentiles, a third type of person has now appeared—Christians. This phrase therefore refers to the church (cf. 1:23; 3:6) as the place of peace (cf. Col 3:15). This reconciliation has been brought about “through the cross”; by it the death blow was dealt to the longstanding antipathy between Jew and Gentile and between human beings and God.
17 Another factor in the reconciliation is now added: the preaching of peace. When did Christ come to bring the good news of peace, so that Gentiles far away as well as Jews near at hand could hear it? Clearly it was not during his earthly ministry prior to the cross. Was it after the resurrection and before his ascension? No, it was by the Spirit and through the apostles, as the missionary program of the infant church was inaugurated in obedience to the Great Commission (Mt 28:19–20). Paul suggests that the once-alienated Gentiles are now accorded priority, even though the gospel was taken first to the Jews (cf. Ro 1:16).
18 It is solely through Christ that both Jews and Gentiles now have their “access” (GK 4643) to God the Father. This word was sometimes used to designate the official in an oriental court who conducted visitors into the king’s presence. Is this approach to the Father ensured “by one Spirit” (i.e., the Holy Spirit; cf. 1Co 12:13) or “in one spirit” (i.e., the unity in the body of Christ created by the Holy Spirit)? While a case can be made for either, it is best to follow the NIV in referring it to the Holy Spirit, making the trinitarian implications of this verse obvious.
19 Paul now draws a conclusion from vv.1418 and expands on v.13. Two technical terms commonly denoting inferiority of status are contrasted with “fellow citizens.” “Foreigners” (GK 3828) refers in particular to short-term transients; “aliens” (GK 4230) to those who had settled in a country of their choice. These latter were sojourners who received protection and legal status by paying a small tax, though they had no intrinsic rights. Such had been the position of the Gentiles in relation to the kingdom of God before the coming of Christ. But now they enjoy all the privileges of God’s new people. They are united with the saints of the past (1:18) as well as with contemporary Christians (cf. vv.21–22). In addition, the Gentiles are “members of God’s household”; this phrase describes theocracy in its domestic aspect.
20 “Built” (GK 2224) allows Paul to develop a favorite metaphor of his. When the Gentiles became Christians, they were placed on a firm foundation. In 1Co 3:11 Paul calls Christ himself the foundation. Here, however, the apostles and prophets constitute the foundation as those who were closely associated with Christ in the establishment of the church. They were the witnesses of his resurrection appearances and the preachers of the good news. Filled with and guided by the Spirit, they had a unique role in establishing the church.
Apostles and prophets head the list of leaders in the church set out in Eph 4:11 (cf. 1Co 12:28–30). The apostles included Paul himself (cf. comment on 1:1). The prophets were those of the new Israel, not the old. Christ is the “the chief cornerstone” (GK 214). This word refers to the capstone or binding stone that holds the whole structure together. It covered a right angle joining two walls. Often the royal name was inscribed on it. In the East it was considered even more important than the foundation.
21 Paul expounds on the significance of the building. The function of the cornerstone (v.20) is precisely defined by “joined together” (GK 5274; cf. 4:16), a verb embracing the complicated process of masonry by which stones are fitted together.
Paul refers to “whole building” rather than to each separate building. It has no article in the Greek, implying that the work is still in progress—i.e., “all building that is being done.” “Rises” strengthens the insistence on continuing progress and organic growth. The word used for “temple” (GK 3724) denotes not the entire holy precinct, but the inner shrine. This metaphor is applied in the NT to both the individual and the church (cf. 1Co 3:16–17; 6:19; 2Co 6:16). Without doubt, Paul had the Jewish temple in mind, but he may also have had in mind the famous temple of Artemis at Ephesus, which was one of the seven wonders of the world. Paul’s mission in Ephesus had brought him into head-on collision with the cult of the goddess (Ac 19:23–41).
22 “In him” continues the theme of v.21 (cf. 1:11–12) and “you too” links with v.13. Once again Paul emphasizes continued building. The aim of this entire process is that the church should become God’s “dwelling” (GK 2999), a frequent term in LXX to denote the divine resting place either on earth or in heaven. Formerly, God’s earthly abode was thought to be on Mount Zion and in the Jerusalem temple. Now he makes his home in the church. All this is achieved not only by but also in the Spirit.
E. Grace and Apostleship (3:1–13)
Paul continues the prayer that he began in the opening chapter and has never really abandoned, despite asides and digressions. Once again, however, there is an interruption, for no sooner has he announced in v.1 that it is for the sake of the Gentiles that he finds himself under house arrest than he is diverted from his main theme (resumed in v.14) as he explains how his ministry as the apostle to the nations was given to him. What prompts this parenthesis in vv.2–13 is the mention of his imprisonment in v.1. He hastens to assure the Ephesians that his present circumstances are not to be regarded as a hindrance to his apostolate (v.13).
1 “For this reason” (repeated in v.14) connects immediately with 2:22, but Paul recalls 2:11–22 and perhaps what lies even further back than that. “I, Paul” is left suspended without a verb until v.14, where it is at last supplied—“I kneel.” Having identified himself by name, Paul is reminded of his captivity in Rome. He refuses to regard himself as a victim either of the Jews or of the Roman emperor; rather, he is “the prisoner of Christ Jesus.” He insists that his imprisonment is a mark of his apostleship.
Furthermore, it was his championship of the Gentile cause that had brought about his arrest in Jerusalem (Ac 21:21, 28). It was on account of an Ephesian convert, Trophimus, that he had eventually run afoul of the Jewish mob. “You Gentiles” follows on from Eph 2:11.
2 Paul elaborates on his ministry as a preacher to the Gentiles. He assumes that his readers are aware of his special commission, having heard about it either from Paul himself when he was with them or by report from others.
Paul refers to his ministry as an “administration [GK 3873] of God’s grace.” The term usually means stewardship or task (Col 1:25). Here and in 1:9, however, it means the implementation of a strategy. Paul is not referring here to saving grace as in 2:5, 8, but to what enabled him to fulfill his calling as a missionary to the Gentiles (cf. vv.7–8; 4:7–13). Despite his personal unworthiness as one who had persecuted the church, Paul was God’s chosen instrument to carry his name before the Gentiles as well as to Israel (Ac 9:15). Furthermore, Paul recognizes that the extension of gospel privileges to the Gentiles is itself an act of grace (Ac 11:23), a grace given him for their benefit.
3 The nature of this administration of grace now becomes clear. It has to do with the “mystery” or secret plan (see comment on 1:9) by which God determined to incorporate the Gentiles into the one body of the church (2:16) as equal partners with Israel (3:6). This was disclosed by means of direct “revelation” or spiritual enlightenment (1:18). No doubt Paul’s reference here is to his experience on the Damascus road when he was commissioned as the apostle to the Gentiles. He adds that he has already dealt with this subject of the “mystery” in passing, presumably in the previous part of his letter (e.g., 2:11–22 or even 1:9–10). “Briefly” means in a few words or a short space.
4 As they reread the earlier portions of the letter, the Ephesians will be able to judge for themselves whether Paul has really grasped the essence of God’s secret plan. “Understand” (GK 3783) is to receive into the mind or perceive; an element of intellectual discrimination is implied. “Insight” (GK 5304) results from the revelation (v.3) and represents the profound comprehension God grants his own. In Col 1:27, the “mystery” is Christ’s residence in or among believers, giving them an expectation of future glory. Here it has to do with the inclusion of the Gentiles as those who now inherit such promises (cf. vv.3, 6).
5 Although God’s blessing intended for Gentiles through the people of God was revealed in the OT from Ge 12:3 onward, it was not proclaimed so fully or so extensively as now under the new dispensation. In particular, OT saints did not clearly realize that the old theocracy would be superseded by the body of Christ composed of Jews and Gentiles forming “one new man” (2:15). “Men” in this verse is literally “the sons of men,” a Hebraic phrase that means human beings in general, in contrast with “sons of Israel”—the normal designation of Jews. These people now form God’s new community.
This further disclosure was made to the whole church of Christ (1:8–10, 17–18) through the “apostles and prophets” (2:20), of whom Paul was one. Indeed, he was the first to receive this truth that was not immediately recognized by the rest. The apostles and prophets are designated as “holy” because they were set apart for the special task of proclaiming Christ. Paul is not arrogantly assuming moral superiority here (cf. v.8), but displays a serene and modest objectivity.
The instrument of revelation, as always, is the Holy Spirit. There may well be a subtly ambiguous allusion here, as elsewhere in the NT (cf. Ro 1:4), to the interplay between the Holy Spirit and the human spirit (Eph 1:17; cf. 2:22; 5:18). This is particularly relevant in the context of revelation.
6 The content of the mystery is now stated, summarizing 2:11–22. It is that through the proclamation of the gospel, the Gentiles are received into the fellowship of Christ on an equal footing with Hebrew Christians. Paul describes this fellowship with three terms, each having the word “together.” (1) The Gentiles now “are heirs together [GK 5169] with Israel.” In Ro 8:17 Paul speaks of believers being “co-heirs with Christ.” Here, as in Gal 3:29 and 4:7, he stresses that in Christ Gentiles are co-inheritors of the kingdom along with the Jews. This is how far the new witness of Jew and Gentile stretches.
(2) They are “members together of one body” (GK 5362) and hence enjoy a corporate relationship. Paul seems to have coined this term to meet the unique situation created by the gospel, for it is found only here in the NT and is afterward exclusive to Christian writers. No other society is comparable with the church, since Christ is its Head (Eph 4:15; 5:23; Co 1:18).
(3) Because of Christ, they are “sharers together” (GK 5212) in the covenant promises originally made with Jews (cf. the contrast with 2:12). This union of Jews and Gentiles in one body is a logical consequence of the central doctrine of the gospel that God accepts all who believe.
7 Paul explains how he himself was enlisted in the service “of this gospel,” not through any ambition or qualification of his own but solely through the gift and calling of God (v.2; cf. Col 1:23, 25). The important word here is “servant” (GK 1356). The NT rejects titles of high office and focuses on a word altogether unassociated with prestige. “Servant” designates a table waiter who is always at the bidding of his customers. In the NT, it denotes one who lives and works in the service of Christ and the church.
Paul again stresses that his apostolic function came from God (cf. vv.2, 8) and adds that it came “through the working of his power.” He recognizes that the dramatic intervention which transformed him from an enemy into a friend of Christ was nothing less than an act of divine omnipotence. Now his apostleship reflects God’s power at work in the church (1:19–20).
8 “Given me” forms a link with v.7 (cf. v.2). “Less than the least” is a unique combination of comparative and superlative. Literally it is “more least.” Perhaps there is a playful allusion here to Paul’s own name (v.1), meaning “little.” In 2Co 12:11 Paul acknowledges that in himself he is a nobody, while at the same time recognizing that God has made him a somebody. Such humility is an essential qualification for effective service.
Paul’s God-given commission is “to preach [lit., to announce the good news; GK 2294] to the Gentiles.” In doing so, he is continuing Christ’s own ministry (see 2:17, where the same verb is used). “Unsearchable” is that which cannot be traced out; the accent lies on the boundless treasury of riches in Christ.
9 Paul was called to “make plain” (GK 5894) to everyone the outworking of this mystery of God (see comments on vv.3–5). That is, he was to shed a flood of light on what had earlier been hidden, so that no one would need to be in the dark anymore. This mystery (v.6), now available to all, was for long ages consciously concealed in the mind of God so that not even angelic intelligences knew it (cf. v.10; Col 1:26). This was in accordance with God’s deliberate policy. It was formed before time began (1Co 2:7), but the concealment dated from the inception of the ages (Ro 16:25). In his capacity as the universal Creator, God thus determined what his strategy would be, and the inference is that the world was brought into being with the realization of this purpose in view (1:9–10). “God, who created all things” may be directed against heretical teachers in Asia who anticipated the Gnostic dichotomy between creation and redemption, ascribing the former to subordinate agencies (see the introduction to Colossians).
10 The ultimate goal of both creation and redemption is the manifestation of the divine “wisdom” (GK 5053). This wisdom displayed in creation and embodied in Christ is a many-splendored thing, iridescent with constantly unfolding beauties. What had been screened from the angelic hierarchy (cf. 1:21) is now to be declared through the body of Christ on earth (2:6–7). The ecclesiological implications of such a verse as this are staggering indeed (cf. 1Pe 1:12). Through the mirror of the church, the angels of heaven see the glory of God.
11 Again Paul reverts to God’s overall “purpose” (GK 4606) recognizable through all his dealings (1:11). This purpose is “eternal,” suggesting not only the infinite length but also the complexity of God’s age-long purpose (Heb 1:1). In v.9 the “ages past” appear to begin in time and end with Christ. This purpose God “accomplished in Christ Jesus our Lord.” Paul has more than its conception and predetermination in mind here; he is also deeply concerned with its historical realization.
12 A practical conclusion is drawn from these considerations. The centrality of Christ has a bearing on the devotional life of believers. In Christ and on the ground of faith in him we can enter God’s presence (2:18) without the inhibitions that might arise from any sort of self-reliance and self-consciousness. “Freedom” (GK 4244) is liberty of speech, a word that is normally used in relation to people (cf. 6:20), but here in relation to God. Such openness of speech leads to confidence before God, because he graciously accepts those who come to him through Christ. In turn, after enjoying such freedom of access to God, the Christian acquires a new boldness before other people (6:19).
13 Paul rounds off his account (begun in v.2) of the administration of God’s grace that has been entrusted to him. He makes a request, arising from what he had said in v.1 about his imprisonment. There he had made it clear that what he endured was for the sake of the Gentiles. Now he repeats the assertion that his sufferings are for them, but he begs them not to lose heart because of his predicament. After all, he has learned to take his share of Christ’s continuing passion (Col 1:24). Those sufferings are the price to be paid so that blessing may come to the Gentiles. Paul saw his trials as their glory, and they must learn to look at them like that too.
F. Knowledge and Fullness (3:14–21)
This section contains Paul’s actual prayer. After his parenthesis in vv.2–13, he resumes his prayer, comprising three major petitions (vv.16–17a; 17b–19a; 19b), the first two of which lead into the next, with the last preparing for the closing doxology (vv.20–21). This prayer has a trinitarian outline, in which the apostle asks that his readers may possess the strength of the Spirit (v.16), the indwelling of Christ (v.17), and the fullness of God (v.19).
14 “For this reason” is repeated from v.1 as Paul proceeds along the line he had digressed from in vv.2–13. Because the Gentile Christians are now incorporated into the body of Christ, he prays that they may appropriate their spiritual privileges to the full. Paul says he “kneels.” Standing was the more normal posture among the Jews but kneeling was not unknown (cf. Da 6:10). It symbolizes submissiveness, solemnity, and adoration. Paul turns in prayer “before the Father.” The word for “before” indicates an intimate relationship; he addresses God as Father because through the redemptive act of Christ access is now made possible to him through the Spirit (2:18).
15 The Father is the One after whom “the whole family” is named. Paul confines the concept of family here to believers. This is altogether in keeping with the context and the inference drawn from 2:18–19 (cf. 2:20, 22; 3:6). This family of God is not confined to earth but embraces heaven as well. This may simply refer to the church triumphant, but could include the angelic hosts, described in rabbinic literature as “the higher family.”
16 Paul now sets out the content of his prayer in three items: vv.16–17a; 17b–19a; 19b. As in 1:17–18, the prayer is concerned with the appropriation of God’s provision in Christ through the Spirit. The divine resources that make this possible are described as “his glorious riches” (see comments on “glory” in 1:6, 17; “riches” in 2:4, 7; cf. Ro 9:23). Paul asks God to endow his readers with spiritual blessings on this lavish scale.
Earlier Paul used three terms to indicate aspects of God’s power (see comment on 1:19). Now he reverts to them in the context of what is made available to the believer. The verbal form “strengthen” is the opposite of “be discouraged” in v.13. The Holy Spirit is the agent of this enablement, which is continually being provided to us (cf. Php 1:19). “Inner being” contrasts with the outward person that is wasting away (2Co 4:16), whereas the new self is daily renewed (Col 3:10).
17 The result will be that Christ takes up his residence in the hearts of believers. As the Christian keeps trusting (i.e., “through faith”), Christ continues to indwell. No static condition is in view here but a maintained experience. The “heart” is the focus of mind, feeling, and will; it stands for the whole personality.
“In love” properly belongs with “being rooted and established.” Love will result from Christ’s indwelling presence. Paul mixes biological and architectural metaphors (1Co 3:9), conjuring up two pictures. One is of a tree with deep roots in the soil of love (Col 2:7); the other is of a building with strong foundations laid on the rock of love (Col 1:23; 1Pe 5:10). Jesus himself spoke about trees and buildings (Mt 7:15–20, 24–27).
18 What Paul is praying for is not an isolated experience unique to Christians in Ephesus, but something that is shared by all God’s people. In a letter so concerned with the church and its unity, we would not expect the corporate aspect of spiritual experience to be overlooked. The verb “may have power” (related to “mighty” in 1:19) suggests a relationship between divine empowerment and personal enlightenment; “grasp” here means “to perceive” or “comprehend.”
The four dimensions Paul now presents as the object of such perception are closely linked with the knowledge of Christ’s love. That love, exemplified in Christ’s magnanimity to the Gentiles, is too large to be confined by any geometrical measurements. It is “wide” enough to reach the whole world and beyond (1:9–10, 20). It is “long” enough to stretch from eternity to eternity (1:4–6, 18; 3:9). It is “high” enough to raise both Gentiles and Jews to heavenly places in Christ Jesus (1:13; 2:6). It is “deep” enough to rescue people from sin’s degradation and even from the grip of Satan himself (2:1–5; 6:11–12). The love of Christ is the love he has for the church as a united body (5:25, 29–30) and for those who trust in him as individuals (3:17).
19 Paul recognizes, however, that he is attempting to measure the immeasurable and so paradoxically prays that the Ephesian Christians may in fact come to know a love that is ultimately unknowable (cf. 1:19; 2:7; 1Co 8:1; Php 4:7). It is cast into a totally different realm where the normal faculties of rational apprehension are incapable of functioning.
The final item in Paul’s prayer is introduced in v.19b, though some regard it simply as a consequence of knowing Christ’s love. It seems preferable to treat it as the climax of Paul’s intercession. He makes the bold request that his readers may be filled up to “the measure of all the fullness of God,” meaning the fullness that God requires. The fulfillment that God intends for us is the maturity that is measured by the full stature of Christ (4:13).
20 The doxology is plainly the climax of the first half of Ephesians; it may be regarded as the climax of the whole letter, which rises to a spiritual peak at this point and then concentrates on practical outworkings in chs. 4–6. If chs. 1–3 are couched in the form of a traditional Jewish blessing (see comment on 1:3) and indeed contain echoes of some synagogue prayers, this parallelism extends to the doxology and Amen (cf. Ro 11:33–36).
The apostle has repeatedly insisted that the end of redemption is the glory of God (1:6, 12, 14, 18; 2:7; 3:10, 16). In the doxology he rehearses themes already touched on—the abundance of God’s gift (1:18, 19; 2:7; 3:19), the power made available to the Christian (1:19; 3:7, 16, 18), and the indissoluble link between Christ and the church (1:22–23; 3:10). “Immeasurably more” (GK 5655) appears only here and in 1Th 3:10; 5:13. God’s capacity to meet his people’s spiritual needs far exceeds anything they can either request in prayer or conceive by way of anticipation (Php 4:7). It is actualized through “his power,” which continually operates within the lives of believers.
21 This liturgical ascription of glory is a recognition rather than an augmentation of what belongs to God alone. The close juxtaposition of “the church” (put first!) and “Jesus Christ” is arresting. For Paul, body and members form a single entity. The honor of Jesus is in the hands of his church. Paul closes by combining two common liturgical expressions (cf. Da 7:18), producing a stronger phrase than usual to describe eternity. Once again, the fact that the church is included here is remarkable. In Christ, the Bride will live forever (1Th 4:17; Rev 22:17), to which the response of all God’s people must be “Amen” (i.e., “Yes indeed, Lord”).
III. Practice: The Application to Christian Life (4:1–6:20)
A. The Unity of the Church (4:1–16)
The opening of ch. 4 marks the principal transition of the entire letter. As in his other writings, Paul turns from doctrinal concerns to practical ones. It must not be imagined, however, that the break is complete. Theology continues to be interwoven with the moral exhortations that make up the bulk of chs. 4–6. Nor does the liturgical style, so apparent in chs. 1–3, disappear altogether. The predominant hortatory element may reflect the content and method of Paul’s sermons, set here in a context of praise and worship. Significantly, the first item on his agenda is the need for Christians to live together in love and unity.
1 Does the retrospective “then” connect only with 3:20–21 or with what precedes those verses? It is most probable that Paul has in mind certain references in chs. 1–3 to spiritual privileges and the Christian’s calling (3:6, 12, 14–19; cf. 1:18; 4:4).
It is “as a prisoner for the Lord” (cf. 3:1; 6:20) that Paul makes his appeal. The verb “urge” (GK 4151) here means “to exhort.” He urges the Ephesians to lead the sort of life that matches their Christian vocation. “Worthy” (GK 547; lit., “bringing up the other beam of the scales”) suggests that there must be a balance between one’s profession and one’s practice. So Paul provides a criterion by which possible courses of action can be weighed. Christians will always seek to do what is most in keeping with their “calling.” By definition this is a calling they have received, not one they have acquired by self-effort. Those who share such a divine call constitute the church (ekklesia; GK 1711), the “called-out company” of those who are in Christ.
2 The apostle now specifies four graces that evidence this essential proportion between calling and character: humility, gentleness, patience, and forbearance. These are all qualities necessary for good relations with others in the Christian community and beyond. “Humble” (GK 5425) occurs five times in Paul and only once elsewhere in the NT. In classical Greek this word was a derogatory term suggesting low-mindedness and groveling servility. The adjective was redeemed by the gospel to represent a distinctively Christian virtue and stands over against the admired high-mindedness of the heathen. Linked with being humble is being “gentle” (GK 4559) or considerate. The element of restraint is included so that it denotes controlled strength and not supine weakness.
Being “patient” (GK 3429) is a characteristic of God himself. It can mean steadfastness in the endurance of suffering, but more often in the NT it describes reluctance to avenge wrongs. It is to be displayed to other Christians and to everyone else (Ro 12:10, 18). Being patient finds its expression in “bearing with [lit., holding up] one another” (GK 462; cf. Col 3:18). Christians must put up with each other’s faults and idiosyncracies, knowing that all of us have our own. “Love” (GK 27) is a recurring theme in Ephesians. The four graces Paul recommends here are all aspects of love and are exemplified to perfection in Christ (Php 2:2, 5).
3 The absence of these qualities may jeopardize Christian unity. That is why Paul presses his readers to exert all their powers to maintain the oneness in Christ that binds all believers to each other because they are bound by him and to him. “Make every effort” (GK 5079) suggests difficulty and a resolute determination to overcome it. It is assumed that unity between Christians already exists as given in Christ (2:13–18) by the Spirit. The “one Spirit” (v.4) is the agent of unity. Through the Spirit, Christians can attain a profound oneness. “Peace” (see comment on 1:2) is the clasp that ensures that this God-given unity will not fall apart.
4 The reasons why those who belong to Christ should be eager to preserve their unity are now supplied in a crescendo of nouns. In three groups of three items each, Paul’s thought ascends from the realization of unity in the Spirit to the focus of unity in the Son and thence to the source of unity in the Father.
“One body” depicts the church as a single visible community. It is not simply a mystical concept; its unity is recognizable in that Jews and Gentiles are now seen to be reconciled in Christ (2:14–18). Christians are all members of the same body.
“One Spirit” indwells this body of Christ. By him the body lives and moves (1Co 12:13). The Spirit is its soul; apart from him it cannot exist. The same Spirit fell on the Jews at Pentecost and on the Gentiles in the house of Cornelius. This Spirit who has already spanned this widest of all gulfs will bring together all other diverse groups within the church.
The Holy Spirit, the pledge of our inheritance (1:14), is also the guarantor of the “one hope” (GK 1828) to which we are called (1:18; 2:12). This is not the hope that stems from the calling but the hope that belongs to the call (v.1). It is, of course, the hope of sharing Christ’s glory at the end of the age (1Jn 3:2), a hope shared by both Jewish and Gentile Christians.
5 The second trio of unities is related to the “one Lord” or master to whom all Christians owe their allegiance. The three expressions may well be intended to convey a single idea, i.e., one Lord in whom we all believe and in whose name we are baptized. Certainly Christ is central. He is the sole Head of his body, the church. The pagan world spawned many lords; Christianity has only one whose claim is absolute. That is why believers cannot call anyone else Lord, even to escape death.
“One faith” in the one Lord unites all true believers. Faith here is personal commitment to Christ, though it is not purely subjective. It involves a recognition of who he is as Son of God and Savior of humankind.
“One baptism [GK 967]” is the external seal of incorporation into the body of Christ. Falling as it does in the second triad (related to Christ) and not in the first (related to the Spirit), it appears to indicate water baptism and not primarily the baptism with the Spirit of which water baptism is the sign. Baptism is the sacrament of unity. In the Christian church baptisms are not multiplied as with the Jews (Heb 6:2). There are not even two baptisms—one of John and one of Jesus. There is “one baptism,” symbolizing identification with Christ in his death and resurrection, sealing with the Spirit, and incorporation into the body of Christ, so that all Christians become one in Christ Jesus (1:13; 2:5–6; 3:15). Baptism provides the evidence that all Christians, without discrimination as to color, race, sex, age, or class, share the grace of Christ.
6 The last in the ascending scale is the “Father.” He is not associated with other unities like the one Spirit and the one Lord. He stands alone. There is only “one God,” not many as in pagan culture (1Co 8:5–6). He is the “Father of all,” with particular reference to his redemptive paternity, though his creative fatherhood is not entirely ruled out in view of what follows. The triple note mentioned here divides up his modes of action. If the first “all” is exclusively personal, the rest are not necessarily so. God reigns “over” all in his transcendent sovereignty; he works “through” all in his creative activity; he dwells “in” all by reason of his immanent pervasiveness.
The trinitarian structure of vv.4–6 bears out the assumption that here we have an incipient creed. It was on the basis of such biblical passages that the historic affirmations of faith were developed.
7 The apostle has been considering the church as a totality. Now he focuses on the individual (“each one of us”). Within the body of Christ each member enjoys a share of God’s grace. As in 3:2, it is equipping rather than saving “grace” (GK 5921) that Paul describes. This word denotes the grace provided for and manifested in the gift. The distribution of grace, and so the distribution of grace-gifts, is in Christ’s own hands and apportioned as he decides.
8 Paul supplies biblical proof of the foregoing by a quotation from Ps 68:18. “It says” is not the apostle’s usual formula to introduce Scripture, and some expositors infer “he” (i.e., God, see NIV note) as the subject. Which is assumed is immaterial, because for Paul Scripture cannot be separated from its Author.
The quotation itself, though undoubtedly biblical, is not without its difficulties, since Paul does not cite either the Hebrew or Greek OT. His major change is from “received gifts for men” to “gave gifts to men.” Attempts have been made to account for the apparent discrepancy by conjecturing that Paul was quoting from memory and that his recollection was imperfect. With more plausibility some have claimed that, under the inspiration of the Spirit, Paul felt free to amplify the meaning of the Psalm, since the “giving” is implicit in the “receiving for.” But it seems most probable that the apostle was drawing on an ancient oral tradition reflected in the Aramaic Targum on Psalms and in the Syriac version of the OT, both of which read, “Thou hast given gifts to men.”
9 Ascension presupposes a prior descent, and Paul describes this as being made into “the lower, earthly regions.” The rendering of the NIV understands this phrase as referring to the incarnation of our Lord. It was from the earth that he ascended into heaven, and it had been to the earth that he came (Jn 3:13). Others link this verse with the belief that Christ descended to the underworld during the interval between his death and resurrection (see 1Pe 3:19–20; 4:6). The obscure expression in this verse may also simply signify death and burial.
10 The apostle affirms the identity of the incarnate Savior with the ascended Savior. His exaltation is “higher than all the heavens.” The Jews calculated seven heavens, but for Paul, higher than all of them is the rightful throne of Christ, to whom all things are one day to be subjugated (1:10; cf. 1Co 15:28). No one else is qualified thus to “fill the whole universe.” This is more than the fulfillment of prophetic predictions concerning Christ’s cosmic role or the accomplishment of every task entrusted to him by the Father. It is his filling all things with his presence.
11 The apostle now resumes the train of thought inaugurated in v.7 but interrupted by his excursus on the ascent and descent of Christ in vv.8–10. This diversion was necessary in order to stress that none other than the exalted Lord is the one who has endowed his church with gifts by grace, so that it may indeed be his body in the world (1:23; 4:4). Paul does not go on to list the grace-gifts, however, but only those who receive them. After “each one of us” in v.7 we might have expected him to include all the members of Christ’s body (as in 1Co 12:4–11). Instead, we read only of those who are appointed to leadership, whose ministry is exercised for the sake of the whole community (vv.12–13).
“Apostles” and “prophets” have already been paired as providing a foundation for the Christian temple (see comment on 2:20). “Evangelists” (GK 2296) were missionaries who pioneered outreach in areas where the faith had not as yet been proclaimed (e.g., Philip in Ac 21:8; cf. 8:6–40; Timothy in 2Ti 4:5). With “pastors and teachers,” Paul turns from itinerant to local ministry. These are grouped together, suggesting that the two roles were regarded as complementary and often coordinated in the same person. “Pastors” (or “shepherds”; GK 4478) probably included presbyters and bishops; they were entrusted with the nurture, protection, and supervision of the flock. “Teachers” (GK 1437) are linked with prophets in Ac 13:1 and follow them in the list in 1Co 12:28.
12 The aim of the ministries mentioned in v.11 is now disclosed: to equip all God’s people for service. “To prepare” (GK 2938) is “to put right.” In the NT this verb is used for the mending of nets (Mt 4:21) and the restoration of the lapsed (Gal 6:1). It may also signify the realization of purpose and the completion of what is already good as far as it goes (1Co 1:10; 1Th 3:10). Such preparation is needed to inspire God’s people to do the work “of service” (GK 1355). Service is what unites all the members of Christ’s body from the apostles to the most apparently insignificant disciple (1Co 12:22). Christ himself set the example (Mk 10:45; Lk 22:27). It is by this means that the body of Christ will be consolidated (cf. Eph 2:21).
13 The ultimate end in view is the attainment of completeness in Christ. “We all” clearly includes all believers, but not all people (3:9). In v.3 “the unity of the Spirit” is a gift to be guarded; here “unity in the faith” is a goal to be reached. Such a realization of unity will arise from an increasing knowledge of Christ as the Son of God in corporate as well as in personal experience.
In this way the church comes of age; it becomes “mature” (that is, “a perfect, full-grown man”). The singular is employed because the church as a whole is seen as “one new man” in Christ (2:15). Individualism is a mark of immaturity. This perfection or completeness is proportionate to the fullness of Christ himself. “Whole measure” or “perfection” can denote age (Mt 6:27; Jn 9:21) and may well be used here in this sense, since the context has to do with becoming adult. The meaning would be “attain to the measure of mature age” proper for Christians, who have left infancy behind (v.14). But the phrase may also refer to spiritual attainment (cf. Lk 2:52). “Fullness” (see comment on 1:23) is here related to Christ. Just as Christians may be “filled to the measure of all the fullness of God” (3:19), so together they are to aspire to “the full measure of perfection found in Christ.”
14 The metaphor of maturity is carried over from v.13. There must be no symptoms of arrested development among believers, who are to abandon childish attitudes and act their age (1Co 13:11). Paul switches metaphors as he depicts the features of spiritual infantilism. Its victims will be tossed to and fro like a cork in a surging sea (Jas 1:6) and whirled around by every chance gust of fashionable false teaching, which creates dizziness in the mind. The source of this dangerous teaching is to be traced in the cleverness of people who craftily seek to lead us astray. “Cunning” is cheating at dice and so, by extension, trickery of every kind. “Craftiness” is unscrupulousness that stops at nothing. Error is organized with a deliberate policy to undermine the truth of God. Paul may well be thinking of emergent Gnosticism (see Col 2:8).
15 Paul contrasts the deception of heresy with the integrity of the gospel. The church cannot allow falsehood to go uncorrected, yet the truth must always be vindicated in the accents of love. This fundamental concern for the truth is the secret of maturity in the church. It is into Christ as the Head that the body grows up.
16 Christ is at once the One into whom all Christians grow and out of whom the church consolidates itself in love. This process depends on the interrelationship of the various parts of the body. The whole is continually being integrated and kept firm by each separate ligament. The precision with which these medical terms are employed makes us wonder whether Paul checked the details with Luke. It is only when each part is working properly that the body receives the support it needs and will be able to grow as God intended it.
Ministry Gifts of the Holy Spirit
| Gift | Definition | General References | Specific Examples |
| Apostle (Specific) |
Those specifically commissioned by the resurrected Lord to establish the church and the original message of the gospel | Ac 4:33–37; 5:12, 18–42; 6:6; 8:14, 18; 9:27; 11:1; 15:1–6, 22–23; 16:4; 1Co 9:5; 12:28–29; Gal 1:17; Eph 2:20; 4:11; Jude 17 | 12 apostles: Mt 10:2; Mk 3:14; Lk 6:13; Ac 1:15–26; Rev 21:14 Paul: Ro 1:1; 11:13; 1Co 1:1; 9:1–2; 15:9–10; 2Co 1:1; Gal 1:1; 1Ti 2:7 Peter: 1Pe 1:1; 2Pe 1:1 |
| Apostle (General) |
Any messenger commissioned as a missionary or for other special responsibilities | Ac 13:1–3; 1Co 12:28–29; Eph 4:11 | Barnabas: Ac 14:4, 14 Andronicus and Junias: Ro 16:7 Titus and others: 2Co 8:23 Epaphroditus: Php 2:25 James, Jesus’ brother: Gal 1:19 |
| Prophet | Those who spoke under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, bringing a message from God to the church, and whose main motivation and concern were with the spiritual life and purity of the church | Ro 12:6; 1Co 12:10; 14:1–33; Eph 4:11; 1Th 5:20–21; 1Ti 1:18; 1Pe 4:11; 1Jn 4:1–3 | Peter: Ac 2:14–40; 3:12–26; 4:8–12; 10:34–44 Paul: Ac 13:1, 16–41 Various people: Ac 13:1 Judas ana Silas: Ac 15:32 John: Rev 1:1, 3; 10:8–11; 11:18 |
| Evangelist | Those gifted by God to proclaim the gospel to the unsaved | Eph 4:11 | Philip: Ac 8:5–8, 26–40; 21:8 Paul: Ac 26:16–18 |
| Pastor (Elder or Overseer) | Those chosen and gifted to oversee the church and care for its spiritual needs | Ac 14:23; 15:1–6, 22–23; 16:4; 20:17–38; Ro 12:8; Eph 4:11–12; Php 1:1; 1Ti 3:1–7; 5:17–20; Tit 1:5–9; Heb 13:17; 1Pe 5:1–5 | Timothy: 1Ti 1:1–4; 4:12–16; 2Ti 1:1–6; 4:2, 5 Titus: Tit 1:4–5 Peter: 1Pe 5:1 John: 1Jn 2:1, 12–14 Gaius: 3Jn 1–7 |
| Teacher | Those gifted to clarify and explain God’s Word in order to build up the church | Ro 12:7; Eph 4:11–12; Col 3:16; 1Ti 3:2, 5:17; 2Ti 2:2, 2 | Paul: Ac 15:35; 20:20; 28:31; Ro 12:19–21; 13:8–10; 1Co 4:17; 1Ti 1:5; 4:16; 2Ti 1:11 Barnabas: Ac 15:35 Apollos: Ac 18:25–28 Timothy: 1Co 4:17; 1Ti 1:3–5; 4:11–13; 6:2; 2Ti 4:2 Titus: Tit 2:1–3, 9–10 |
| Deacon | Those chosen and gifted to render practical assistance to members of the church | Ac 6:1–6; Ro 12:7; Php 1:1; 1Ti 3:8–13; 1Pe 4:11 | Seven deacons: Ac 6:5 Phoebe: Ro 16:1–2 |
| Helper | Those gifted for a variety of helpful deeds | 1Co 12:28 | Paul: Ac 20:35 Lydia: Ac 16:14–15 Gaius: 3Jn 5–8 |
| Administrator | Those gifted to guide and oversee the various activities of the church | Ro 12:8; 1Co 14:3; 1Th 5:11, 14–22; Heb 10:24–25 | Barnabas: Ac 11:23–24; 14:22 Paul: Ac 14:22; 16:40; 20:1; Ro 8:26–39; 12:1–2; 2Co 6:14–7:1; Gal 5:16–26 Judas and Silas: Ac 15:32; 16:40 Timothy: 1Th 3:2; 2Ti 4:2 Titus: Tit 2:6, 13 Peter: 1Pe 5:1–2 John: 1Jn 2:15–17; 3:1–3 |
| Giver | Those gifted to give freely of their resources to the needs of God’s people | Ac 2:44–45; 4:34–35; 11:29–30; 1Co 16:1–4; 2Co 8–9; Eph 4:28; 1Ti 6:17–19; Heb 13:16; 1Jn 3:16–18 | Barnabas: Ac 4:36–37 Christians in Macedonia: Ro 15:26–27; 2Co 8:1–5 Christians in Achaia: Ro 15:26–27; 2Co 9:2 |
| Comforter | Those gifted to give comfort by acts of mercy to people in distress | Ro 12:8; 2Co 1:3–7 | Paul: 2Co 1:4 Hebrew Christians: Heb 10:34 Various Christians: Col 4:10–11 Dorcas: Ac 9:36–39 |
B. The Changed Life (4:17–24)
The practical section of this letter opened with an appeal to maintain Christian unity. Paul substantiated it by enlarging on the way in which the body of Christ is being built up. Now, before dealing with specific moral injunctions, he reminds his readers about the kind of life they once lived and the need to make a clean break with the past (cf. 2:1–3, 11–13).
17 “So” resumes the exhortation in v.3. In a solemn declaration the apostle strongly implores the Ephesians to abandon all their former practices, because both he and they are “in the Lord.” In other letters Paul has not been slow to remind Hebrew Christians that they must not cling to Jewish legal practices. In similar vein he now urges Gentiles not to fall back into their old self-indulgent habits. Such permissive behavior springs from an aimless and futile attitude to life that cuts the nerve of moral endeavor.
18 This reprehensible attitude is traced to its source. Such people are impeded by a mental fog that blots out the divine light. They are cut off from contact with God (2:12) and the life he alone can impart. Such a condition arises in turn from deep-seated “ignorance.” Although inborn (cf. 2:2–3), it was not irreversible and might have been removed had they followed such light as came to them. Instead, they steeled their hearts against the truth until they grew altogether impervious to its impact. “Hardening” (GK 4801) describes a state of petrifaction. It is used medically to denote the callus formed when a bone has been fractured and reset. Such a callus is even harder than the bone itself. This dreadful situation has affected the hearts of the pagans. Their whole personality is incapable of appreciating what God offers.
19 People like these have “lost all sensitivity.” They can no longer respond to moral stimuli. Their consciences are so atrophied that sin registers no stab of pain. They have abandoned themselves to every sort of vice. From Ro 1:24–28 we learn that in such circumstances God leaves sinners to endure the full consequences of their tragic decision. “Sensuality” is license in the physical aspect of one’s being, especially sexual excesses. This fearful self-abandonment leads to all kinds of filthy practices, which are so absorbing as almost to become a total preoccupation.
All this is pursued “with a continual lust” (GK 4432). This term is not necessarily associated with sexual misconduct, though the context here suggests it. It means the determination to gratify self-interest at all costs, regardless of the rights of others.
20 “You” stands in contrast to the insensitive, passion-dominated pagans who exist only to satisfy their lower nature. That was not how the Gentile converts in Ephesus came to “know Christ” for themselves. The expression implies more than receiving catechetical instruction; it means to learn in such a way as to become a devotee or disciple. It was Christ they thus came to know—God’s anointed Son, no longer the prerogative of the Jews but shared by the Gentiles.
21 Paul now adds a note of certainty. In the preaching of the word Christ himself was present (2:17), and so those who heard were introduced to him and accepted him. They were also “taught in [Christ].” That is, as disciples remaining in him (Jn 15:4, 9–10), they received further instruction in the “truth” (GK 237), which is “in Jesus.” Paul does not often employ the historical name “Jesus”; when he does, it is invariably connected with our Lord’s death and resurrection. The truth in Jesus, then, has to do with the fact that the man from Nazareth was shown by his rising again to be the Son of God and the Savior of the world.
22 Paul now gives the content of the teaching his readers received. Their previous lifestyle was to be discarded completely. They must forsake their old behavioral haunts and indeed lay aside the costume of their unregenerate selves. The metaphor of doffing and donning garments is common in Scripture. There may also be an allusion here to the fact that baptismal candidates changed into white robes.
The old self is subject to an internal process of continuous disintegration. Moral degeneration has set in and the road to perdition lies ahead. “Deceitful desires” translates a phrase in which the treacherous duplicity of sin is almost personified.
23 In a contrasting positive statement, Paul reminds the Ephesians that instead of being subject to progressive deterioration, they were to be perpetually renovated in mind and spirit. “To be made new” (GK 391) possibly involves an element of restoration, since the image of God, impaired by the Fall, is fully reinstated in the new creation. As over against the futile thinking of the unregenerate Gentiles (v.17), Christian converts are to undergo a radical reorientation of their mental outlook. This can only take place under the influence of the Holy Spirit, acting on the human spirit as it affects the realm of thought.
24 The “new self” (3:16) assumed by the believer is the direct opposite of the worthless “old self” (v.22). It is not the former nature refurbished but a totally new creation (2:10; cf. 2Co 5:17). This is said to be “like God,” as Adam was at first (Ge 1:27; 5:1). God is both the author and the pattern of this changed life (see also Col 3:10). The characteristics of the divine image are “righteousness and holiness.” These are qualities in God that are reproduced in his genuine worshipers: his love of right and his aversion to sin. In the NT “righteousness” (GK 1466) often stands for the uprightness of those who are made right with God. “Holiness” (GK 4009) here is not the usual Greek word, but one that means “free from contamination” (also in Lk 1:25).
C. Christian Behavior Patterns (4:25–5:2)
In vv.17–24 the apostle contrasted the old life with the new without descending to particulars. Now he embarks on a series of detailed warnings against what “deceitful desires” (v.22) may produce. “Therefore” in v.25 makes the connection between principle and practice.
25 The first item included in the putting off of the “old self” (v.22) is “falsehood” (cf. Col 3:8–9). This is not lying in the abstract but “the lying”—falsehood in all its forms as over against “the truth that is in Jesus” (v.21) and “true righteousness and holiness” (v.24). All that belongs to “deceitful scheming” (v.14) and “deceitful desires” (v.22) must be left behind, for it has no place in the community of Christ. Because our Lord is himself the truth (Jn 14:6), his body must reflect the truth. Because each member belongs to the rest, the fellowship of the church must be marked by a refreshing openness; any kind of deception is a sin against the Spirit. The reference to the “body” makes it clear that fellow Christians are in view but, of course, the injunction has a universal application.
26 A quotation from Ps 4:4 introduces the next admonition: “In your anger do not sin.” The meaning is, “Do not let your anger be mixed with sin.” There is such a thing as righteous indignation, for anger is ascribed to God and to Jesus. Thus it is also legitimate for Christians to express anger. But it can easily degenerate into bitterness—hence, the appended prohibition. Under the Mosaic law all sureties were to be returned and all wages paid before sunset (Dt 24:13, 15). A Christian’s exasperation or provocation, however justifiable, must not be allowed to simmer overnight.
27 If this advice is followed, the devil will be afforded no leeway. He will have no room to move. Instead, we must leave a place for the wrath of God, because vindication is his prerogative (Ro 12:19).
28 In this warning against breaking the commandment against theft, Paul is thinking of some convert who had been in the habit of stealing before he became a Christian. Stealing covers every kind of misappropriation. For the new self in Christ all this must stop. Christians should not be afraid to exert themselves to the point of exhaustion in manual labor (1Co 4:12; 1Th 4:11). Hands that used to pilfer the property of others must now be hardened like Paul’s in honest toil (Ac 20:34–35). As a result believers should be in a position to help those worse off than they are. “To share” (GK 3556) means to distribute personally rather than through some agent or official.
29 Not only will Christians do “the good” (v.28); they will also speak “what is helpful.” No unhealthy language will pass through their lips. “Unwholesome” is that which is itself rotten and disseminates rottenness. When joined with “talk” (GK 3364), it may signify not simply bad language but malicious gossip and slander; anything that injures others and sparks dissension is covered by this expression. Christians, however, will only say what is calculated to build up the church (Eph 2:21–22; 4:12, 16) by encouraging its members. This is to be done whenever the need arises, so that those who hear may receive a blessing. The ultimate source of all blessing is God himself. The channel may be human, and so even the everyday conversation of Christians may become a means of grace to others.
30 “And” indicates that, while there are various ways of bringing sorrow to the Holy Spirit, it is doing so through “unwholesome talk” (v.29) that Paul is rebuking here. Since the Spirit lives within Christians, their experience of his fullness will have its effect, among other things, in speech (5:18–19). Any kind of careless, unbecoming talk pains the Spirit, since it is incompatible with the holiness he conveys to those who belong to Christ. The moving anthropomorphism implicit in “grieve,” combined with the full-length title “the Holy Spirit of God,” serves to underline the gravity of the prohibition.
The clause beginning with “with whom” provides the basis for this prohibition. The Holy Spirit has sealed believers (1:13–14) for the final “day of redemption” (GK 667). This word involves the payment of a ransom (see comment on 1:7–9): Christ’s death on the cross has purchased not only present but final liberation.
31 A condensed series of imperatives winds up this section about the Christian’s attitude to one’s neighbor. This verse is negative; v.32 is positive and leads into the next chapter. “Get rid of” (GK 149) is “let it be removed” and thus “have no more to do with it.” Every trace of these blemishes is to be forsaken. “Bitterness” (4394; cf. Col 3:19) is the opposite not only of sweetness but of kindness. It is the spite that harbors resentment and keeps a score of wrongs (1Co 13:5). “Rage” (GK 2596) is what flows from bitterness in an outburst of uncontrolled passion and frustration. “Anger” (GK 3973) describes the wrath of God in 5:6 and of people in v.26. It signifies an unjustifiable human emotion that manifests itself in noisy assertiveness and abuse (cf. Col 3:8). The poisonous source of all these regrettable reassertions of the “old self” (v.22) is “malice” (GK 2798).
32 Having put aside these malicious traits, Christians will instead display kindness, compassion, and forgiveness. “Be” is really “become,” for Paul realizes that his readers have not yet attained “the full measure of perfection found in Christ” (v.13). To be “kind” (GK 5982) is to show a sweet and generous disposition. “Compassionate” is a rare word, related to the intestines. The ancients located the seat of the emotions in the internal organs—liver, kidneys, and larger viscera.
Mutual forgiveness is a further mark of true Christian fellowship (Col 3:13); it requires a give and take. Paul sets forth the strongest possible motive: Christians must forgive one another because all of them have already been forgiven by God in Christ, when he became “the atoning sacrifice . . . for the sins of the whole world” (1Jn 2:2). “As” further implies that our forgiveness of others is to be like God’s forgiveness of us. It must flow from ungrudging love (cf. Mt 18:23–35).
5:1 The apostle carries these injunctions over from the previous chapter and closes this section on Christian behavior patterns at v.2. “Be” (“become”) confirms the close relation between this verse and the last where the same expression has been employed. Here it introduces a staggering conception: Paul invites his readers to imitate God! What follows elucidates his meaning. A child will show himself to be a true child by wanting to grow up like his father. In the same way, God’s precious children will be eager to copy him, as he enables them. This was the teaching of Jesus himself.
2 God is love (1Jn 4:8), and the life that is like the life of God will be a life of love. Love is the essential of the Christian character. Paul has repeatedly emphasized love in this letter (1:4, 15; 2:4; 3:17–19; 4:2, 15–16). The model of love is Christ himself. Because he laid down his life for us, we are to love others to the point of sacrifice (cf. Jn 13:14; 15:12–13).
Paul borrows two technical terms in Jewish sacrificial vocabulary without differentiation. “Offering” (GK 4714) is the word used in the LXX for the “grain offering” (GK 4966). On the cross, Christ presented himself to God as an offering; Paul adds that it was “fragrant”—a phrase that occurs in a sacrificial context over forty times in the Pentateuch. This metaphor suggests that our Lord’s self-sacrifice was pleasing to his Father and was thus accepted as a means of reconciliation. “Sacrifice” (GK 2602) indicates that the victim was slain; Paul has spoken of Christ’s death on the cross (2:16) and his sacrificial shedding of blood (1:7; 2:13). Because it is identified with Christ in his death, the Christian’s life will likewise prove an acceptable sacrifice to God.
D. Light in the Lord (5:3–20)
Paul has epitomized the Christian behavior pattern as “a life of love” (v.2). Now he turns to another theme: “Live as children of light” (v.8). But they can be “light in the Lord” only because Christ is the world’s true light (v.14).
3 The apostle begins by speaking about the effect of light in a life of purity. He resumes the prohibitive character of 4:26–31, taking it further by declaring that such aberrations should not only be avoided but not so much as mentioned (v.12), since they are altogether unsuitable for those who belong to the consecrated community of God.
“Sexual immorality” (GK 4518) was tolerated in the permissive pagan society of Paul’s day (Ro 1:24–32). “Impurity” (GK 174) has already been mentioned in 4:19 as a characteristic of secularized existence, along with “greed” (GK 4432). In Col 3:5 this word is conceived of as idolatry (cf. v.5), because it makes a god of what it seeks to possess.
4 Paul has already warned against “unwholesome talk” (4:29) because of the harm it does to those who are compelled to hear it. Now he attacks it from another angle, because it is unseemly for Christians and usurps the place of praise. “Obscenity” is broadly equivalent to “filthy language” (Col 3:8); “foolish talk” is stupid chatter or silly twaddle. Along with “coarse joking,” these things must be repudiated. Instead, the Christian’s mouth should be continually filled with thanks to God (2:7; 5:18; Col 2:7; 3:15).
5 The apostle warns his readers about the serious consequences of immorality. They must surely be aware that there is no room in the kingdom of God for those who blatantly continue in sensual sin. The three categories of v.3 are singled out again, with the rider that the greedy make an idol of their possessions. No such person has any place reserved in the eschatological kingdom. The “inheritance” (GK 3100) is a present title to a future position (1:14, 18); it cannot be acquired by the disobedient (v.6). In Col 1:13 Paul refers to “the kingdom of the Son” whom the Father loves (cf. Eph 1:6). But since it is God who “placed all things under his feet” (1:22), the kingdom is his as well as Christ’s.
6 There were those then as there are now who protest that Christian standards are too demanding and that people must be allowed to live as they like (1Co 15:32). In the name of a spurious freedom, they attempt to bring converts into bondage to sin once again. The Ephesians must not to fooled by such futile arguments (4:17). They are promoted by the arch-deceiver himself (2:2). Paul’s indictment includes all the propagandists of permissiveness.
It is on account of “such things”—the sins mentioned above rather than the deceptive teaching that encourages them—that divine retribution is already on its way. It will keep on coming till in the end it deals with the offenders.
7 An unambiguous admonition rounds off the paragraph begun at v.3. Christians are not to get mixed up with those who have excluded themselves from the kingdom by their impurity. The word “partners” (GK 5212) is the same one used in 3:6 to describe how Gentiles now share in the messianic promise.
8 Paul enlarges on the contrast between darkness and light. As in 2:1–3 and 3:17–24, he reminds his readers of what they once were. One word suffices by way of summary—“darkness.” Not only did they live in darkness: they were darkness (cf. 4:18). But now they have been rescued from the dominion of darkness and inherit the kingdom of light (Col 1:12–13). They not only live in the light: they are light. This is possible only in union with Christ, who is himself the light (cf. Jn 8:12). Henceforth believers must behave as those who live in the light.
9 A parenthesis explains the command at the end of v.8. Light is known by its effects. When the light of Christ shines in the lives of believers it produces benevolence, fairness, and integrity. These three qualities counteract the dark influence of malice (4:31), injustice, and falsehood (4:25). “Goodness” is the achievement of moral excellence combined with a generous spirit. “Righteousness” was understood by the Greeks as giving all their due. “Truth” stands for genuineness and honesty; it is not only something to be said but something to be done (see comment on 4:25; cf. 1Jn 1:6; 3:18). A life lived in the light is found not only in all these qualities held in balance, but in every aspect of each.
10 The exhortation in v.8 is further supplemented by an instruction to “find out what pleases the Lord” (cf. v.17). “To find out” (GK 1507) has to do with the testing of metals and so can mean to discover by examination, to verify, or to approve. Those who live as “children of light” (v.8) will be continually trying to ascertain what the will of God is in every situation so that all they do may satisfy him.
11 Another exhortation is added to that in v.8. Christians are not to be involved in “the fruitless deeds of darkness.” Paul is not advocating pharisaical separatism, for the “deeds” must be shunned, not the doers. Followers of Christ will go where their master went and meet those their master met. But though they do not withdraw from the world, they refuse to adopt its standards or fall in with its ways. They are concerned to produce “the fruit of the light” (v.9).
Far from participating in these practices, believers should “expose” (GK 1794) them. When the object of “expose” is a person, the verb means “to convince or reprove”; this is the distinctive work of the Spirit. But when the object is impersonal, the verb may signify “to bring to light or expose.” This exposure is not effected by what is actually said by way of rebuke (cf. vv.3, 12), but simply by letting the light of Christ shine through and show them up.
12 Paul reiterates the insistence of v.3 that the abominable things pagan profligates do under cover of secrecy must not be breathed among Christians. Sometimes sin can be publicized by a reaction against it. What has been done in the dark is best kept dark. Paul goes so far as to say that the shamefulness of these ugly vices may rub off on Christians if they are continually talking about them, even if it is to disapprove of them.
13 Paul appeals to the effect of light in the natural world. It penetrates wherever it shines, so that everything is lit up by it. In the same way, whenever the light of Christ appears, it shows up sin for what it is. Evil can no longer masquerade as anything else. Hidden wickedness thus revealed can no longer be obscured by darkness. It is also possible here to see a reference to the transformation brought about by light, so that the exposure and reproval of sin by the light of Christ lead to salvation, as it did for the Ephesians themselves (v.8).
14 The same introductory formula as in 4:8 prefaces a poetical quotation. The lines form a metrical triplet in a rhythm that was specially associated with religious initiation chants. This may well supply a clue in tracing their origin. They are not a direct quotation of OT Scripture (though they contain echoes of Isa 60:1 and possibly Isa 9:2; 26:19; 51:17; 52:1). Most likely this section is an early baptismal hymn based on Isa 60:1. Paul is soon to mention hymns in the context of worship (v.19), so that this may well have been a liturgical chant addressed to those about to be baptized (cf. 1Ti 3:16).
The exhortations “wake up” (GK 1586) and “rise [GK 482] from the dead” place the hymn firmly in the context of resurrection—possibly written for Easter day. The connection between resurrection and baptism is so close that there is no need to restrict the intention. Moreover, in the early church, baptism was described as an enlightenment (cf. Heb 6:4; 10:32). The verb translated “shine” (GK 2213) is applied to the rising of a heavenly body. Christ, as the morning star, has already risen and sheds his light on all who are raised to newness of life in him.
15 Further exhortations follow, backing up v.11. Because of their illumination, believers will pay scrupulous attention to their personal behavior (v.8b), in order that they may lead an irreproachable life. The metaphorical contrast between light and darkness is now replaced by that between wisdom and folly. Christians must no longer act like simpletons, since God’s own wisdom is always available to them (1:8–9; 3:10).
16 Christians should be “making the most [GK 1973] of every opportunity.” What is meant is simply to make the best possible use of all circumstances like prudent merchants and not waste opportunities as they present themselves. “The days are evil” in a moral sense, not necessarily by reason of hardship and distress, though this may accompany these sinful times.
17 “Therefore” resumes the thought of v.15 with its exhortation to be wise. “Foolish” (GK 933) here is a stronger word than “unwise” in v.15, alluding to stupid imprudence or senseless folly in action. To “understand” is to give the mind to something so as to get hold of or grasp it. The object of this determined attempt at apprehension is the Lord’s will (v.10). Paul recognizes the divine will as the regulative principle of the Christian life (1:1, 5, 9). Here he refers to the will of the Lord (i.e., of Jesus Christ), perhaps because Christ left us an example.
18 A specific instance of the foregoing generalization follows. Quoting Pr 23:30, Paul warns against the folly of overindulgence in strong drink. Drunkenness was all too common in the pagan world, and cautions in the NT show that it presented a serious temptation to Christians. The danger of drunkenness (Gal 5:21) lies not only in itself but in what it may induce. “Debauchery” (GK 861) in the NT means the type of wild living that characterized the prodigal son (Lk 15:13). In classical Greek it signified extravagant squandering both of money and of the physical appetites. Christians will avoid all such excess.
Instead of continuing in drunkenness, believers must go on being “filled with the Spirit.” That is a surprising alternative. We might have expected the apostle to plead for abstinence as over against intemperance. But he takes a more startling and positive line. He urges his readers to draw on the reinvigorating resources of the Holy Spirit. The Spirit produces a genuine exhilaration others vainly seek from alcohol. On the day of Pentecost the effect of such an experience was mistaken for drunkenness (Ac 2:13). “With the Spirit” is actually “in spirit”; the Greek text does not indicate whether the Holy Spirit is intended. However, it seems probable that Paul intended the Spirit, in view of the many other scriptural references to being filled with the Spirit.
The theological implications of “be filled” (GK 4444) are crucial for a biblical doctrine of the Holy Spirit. The imperative makes it clear that this is a command for all Christians. The Greek present tense used here rules out any once-for-all reception of the Spirit but points to a continuous replenishment (lit., “go on being filled”). Nor does it appear that Paul is urging his readers to enter into a new experience. Rather, he is inviting them to go on as they have already begun. Finally, the verb is passive: “Let yourselves be filled with the Spirit.” This is not a manufactured experience, though it can be rejected (cf. Gal 3:2, 5). There may, therefore, be successive fillings of the Spirit; indeed, the Christian life should be an uninterrupted filling. What this verse will not substantiate is the claim that after becoming a Christian, a single, additional, definitive filling is essential for completion.
19 The outcome of being filled with the Spirit is described in vv.19–20 in a series of four participles that virtually amount to imperatives. Each of these expressions of the Spirit’s fullness has to do with praise. The verb “to speak” (GK 3281) is not confined to normal conversation but covers utterance of any kind and so is perfectly applicable to the medium of psalms, hymns, and songs. Such communication is with “one another.” “Psalms” seems to refer to the OT Psalter, which was integrated with Christian worship from the first. Christian hymns exalted the name of Christ (v.19) or God (v.20). Such canticles appear in the NT itself (as at v.14). “Spiritual songs” may be so designated either to differentiate them from secular compositions or to represent spontaneous singing in the Spirit. Paul is describing the heart’s inner melody that keeps in tune with audible praise. If it is offered “to the Lord,” it does not need to be heard by others.
20 The perpetual accompaniment of all these outlets of the Spirit in the Christian life is “giving thanks.” The context is not restricted to that of the church’s liturgy (cf. “always”), for such gratitude to God should cover every circumstance. It is to be addressed to God the Father—the Father of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ (1:3, 17), who is also “our God and Father” (Gal 1:4)—in the name of the Son as the one who fully reveals him.
E. Christian Relationships: Marriage (5:21–33)
The basic principle of Christian submissiveness (v.21) that governs the community life of the church applies also to social relationships. Paul selects the most conspicuous of these and shows how they are transformed when controlled by a prior obedience to Christ. In 5:22–33 he deals with wives and husbands; in 6:1–4, with children and parents; and in 6:5–9, with slaves and masters (cf. Col 3:18–4:1 for a close parallel). The gospel places such relationships as these on a revolutionary new footing, since all are subjected to the lordship of Christ.
21 Does this verse represent the conclusion of the previous section or the start of a new one? While grammatically it may be attached to v.20, its content coincides more naturally with what follows. The verb “to submit” (GK 5718) occurs twenty-three times in Paul and denotes subordination to those considered worthy of respect, either because of their inherent qualities or more often because of the position they hold. Christians are to submit to civil authorities, to church leaders, to parents, and to masters. The whole structure of society as ordered by God depends on the readiness of its members to recognize these sanctions. Without them anarchy prevails.
The Christian, however, observes them not merely for their own sake, or even because they are imposed by God, but out of “reverence” for Christ (cf. v.17). Moreover, within the fellowship of the church (Paul has this more prominently in mind than the community at large), submission to others is reciprocal (“to one another”). No one is to coerce another, for all voluntarily accept the discipline. Hence, any delusions of superiority are banished.
22 “Submit” is assumed here from the previous verse, since no verb appears. The fact confirms that v.21 fits more with what follows than with what precedes. It is to their own husbands that wives are to be subject (Col 3:18). The legally binding exclusiveness of the marriage relationship is thus underlined. “As to the Lord” suggests that in obeying her husband, the Christian wife is obeying the Lord who has sanctioned the marriage contract. It should be noted that Paul is speaking here about Christian marriage. He is not implying that women are inferior to men or that all women should be subject to men. The subjection, moreover, is voluntary, not forced. The Christian wife who promises to submit does so because her vow is “as to the Lord.”
23 The marriage relationship is now set out as being a reflection of the relationship between Christ and his church. This raises it to an unimaginably lofty level. In 1Co 11:12 Paul had already marked out a hierarchy in which God is seen as the head of Christ, Christ as the head of the man, and the man as the head of the woman. Here he looks at it from another angle. If the head of the woman is the man and the head of the church is Christ (Eph 1:22; 4:12, 16), then it is permissible to draw an analogy between the wife’s relationship to her husband and the church’s relation to Christ. Marriage is thus interpreted in the sublimest terms; it is compared with the marriage of the Lamb to his bride.
Unless we take the next comment as an aside that bears no relation to the analogy Paul is presenting, it must be assumed that there is an intended parallelism. It remains true, of course, that Christ is the Savior of his body, the church, in a unique manner. The word “Savior” is never used in the NT except of Christ or God. But having recognized and safeguarded that vital truth, we may legitimately pursue the analogy and assume that Paul regards the husband, even if to an infinitely lesser degree, as the protector of his wife (cf. vv.28–29).
24 “Now” continues the same line of argument rather than reversing it. That is, Paul is pursuing a further likeness between the husband-wife relationship and the Christchurch relationship. Here the verb “submit” stands unambiguously in the text and does not have to be supplied (cf. v.22). The church as the bride of Christ readily acknowledges his authority and seeks to please him in every respect. When marriage is seen in the light of this higher relationship between Christ and his body, the wife finds no difficulty in submitting to her husband, for he too has obligations to her in the Lord (vv.25–33).
25 Paul turns to the reciprocal duties of the husband. Greco-Roman society held that wives had obligations to their husbands, but not vice versa. Christianity introduced a revolutionary approach to marriage that equalized the rights of wives and husbands and established the institution on a much firmer foundation than ever before. The word that sums up the role of the wife is “submit” (vv.22, 24); the word that does the same for the husband is “love” (GK 26). This is the highest and distinctively Christian word for loving. As over against words for “sexual passion” and “family affection,” Paul chooses a verb that insists that the love of a Christian man for his wife must be a response to and an expression of the love of God in Christ extended to the church (cf. vv.1–2; see also Col 3:19).
The apostle again draws a comparison between the marriage relationship and the relationship of Christ and the church (cf. vv.22–24), this time emphasizing our Lord’s sacrifice. On the cross Jesus gave himself up for the church, his bride. The analogy is all the more telling, since the word for “church” is feminine. This aspect of the atonement does not have much prominence in the NT. While Paul elsewhere declared that Christ laid down his life “for our sins” (Ro 4:25; Gal 1:4), or “for me” (Gal 2:20), or “for us all” (Ro 8:32), now he affirms that our Lord’s sacrificial death was “for her,” i.e., for the church.
26 In vv.26–27 Paul explains more fully the aim of Christ’s atonement for the church. It was “to make her holy” and “to present her to himself as a radiant church” (v.27). “To make holy” (GK 39) is to set apart; by his death on the cross, Christ intended to separate for himself a people for his own possession. From the beginning the church has been called out in this way, but the ethical demands of such privilege require a response in every age.
If the church is to attain the actual holiness that alone befits her status as the bride of Christ, then “cleansing” (GK 2751) is essential. A need for such cleansing before the church begins to be holy clearly indicates that Paul’s concept of holiness involves an immediate subjective change. While cleansing may assume a logical priority, however, the process is really simultaneous.
This essential cleansing is effected “by the washing [GK 3373] of water,” which is said to be accompanied by a spoken word. The term “washing” emphasizes the action of bathing, not the bath itself. Beyond doubt the reference here is to baptism, thus being equivalent to “the washing of rebirth” in Tit 3:5. There is, however, no hint of any mechanical view of the sacrament, as if the mere application of water could in itself bring about the purification it symbolizes. Nowhere does the NT countenance baptismal regeneration in an ex opere operato sense.
What is “the word” that accompanies baptism? It is likely the formula used at the moment of baptism. In principle, this word was trinitarian in shape (Mt 28:19), but on occasion it simply invoked the all-sufficient name of Jesus. Possibly the candidate for baptism confessed faith in Christ and called on the Savior’s name as he or she was being baptized.
27 The ultimate aim in view when Christ gave himself up for the church (v.25) was that at the end of the age he might be able to “present” her to himself in unsullied splendor as a bride adorned for her husband (Rev 21:2). The verb “present” (GK 4225) is used of the presentation of Christ in the temple (Lk 2:22). Paul himself applies it to the presentation of the church as a pure virgin to Christ her husband (2Co 11:2). Normally it was the friend of the bridegroom (Jn 3:29) who handed over the bride. But Christ dispenses with all intermediaries, and he alone introduces the bride to the bridegroom, who paradoxically is himself. As used here, this verb becomes almost equivalent to “make” or “render.” The eschatological church is transformed by Christ so as to be made “all glorious” (Ps 45:13). No ugly spots or lines of age disfigure the appearance of the bride. The church becomes what it was intended to be—“holy and blameless” (cf. 1:4). All this is possible only because Christ is the Savior of his body (v.23).
28 Paul returns to his analogy and declares that just as Christ loves the church, so husbands ought to love their wives as being one flesh with themselves. Christ loves the church—not simply as if it were his body, but because it is in fact his body. Husbands therefore are to love their wives, not simply as they love their own bodies, but as being one body with themselves, as indeed they are. Lest the staggering implication of what he has affirmed should fail to register with his readers, Paul puts it in another way to avoid ambiguity. So intimate is the relationship between man and wife that they are fused into a single entity. For a man to love his wife is to love himself. She is not to be treated as a piece of property, as was the custom in Paul’s day. She is to be regarded as an extension of a man’s own personality and so part of himself.
29 The apostle appeals to a self-evident fact. It will hardly be denied that no one ever hates his or her own body (Ge 2:23; Eph 5:30–31). Rather, one devotes oneself to looking after it and provides for it in every way, supplying it with food to promote its development and maintain its health. Everyone cares for his or her own body and cherishes it. This is how Christ loves his body, the church (v.25), argues Paul. He appeals to the same principle when addressing husbands as he did when addressing wives. Just as wives are to submit to their husbands as the church submits to Christ, so husbands are to love their wives as Christ loves the church.
30 The reason why Christ thus cares for the church is now made clear. It is because Christians are living parts of his body. In 4:25 Paul has dealt with the relationship of the members to one another individually. Here he is concerned with their relationship to the whole. Earlier in the letter he has spoken about the church as a body whose head is Christ (1:22–23; 4:12, 16). Here he stresses the closeness of the Christian’s communion with Christ as a part of himself, just as the branches are part of the vine.
31 Paul introduces Ge 2:24 at this point to substantiate his argument from Scripture, just as Jesus himself did (cf. Mk 10:7). “For this reason” is not a preface to the quotation but part of it. When Adam recognized that Eve was part of himself (Ge 2:23), the next verse adds: “For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and they will become one flesh.” That is, the marriage tie takes precedence over every other human relationship and for this reason is to be regarded as inviolable. At the same time, what is basically a divine ordinance is graciously designed for mutual satisfaction and delight. “United” means closely joined and, taken in conjunction with the reference to “one flesh,” can refer only to sexual intercourse, which is thus hallowed by the approval of God himself. It is because of this exalted biblical view of marital relations that the church has taken its stand on the indissolubility of the marital bond and the impermissibility of polygamy, adultery, or divorce.
32 This is a mystery of far-reaching importance. But what is meant by “mystery” here? Already we have seen that for Paul in this letter “mystery” means a secret of revelation made known through a special dispensation of grace (3:2–3). Usually it embraces the total sweep of God’s purposes in Christ (1:9; 3:3–4, 9; 6:19), but it may also refer to some specific truth within that wider revelation (cf. Ro 11:25; 1Co 15:51). With regard to Ge 2:24, the more profound truth now revealed is that in order for Christ, the husband, to win his bride, the church, he had to sacrifice himself for her on the cross (v.25).
Paul does not add the words “but I am talking about Christ and the church” as if he has been diverted from his theme. Rather, he is saying that so far as he is concerned, he refers the mystery to the relation between Christ and the church—a mystery into which he himself had been given unusual insight because of the revelation entrusted to him.
33 The final word in this section is a practical one. Whether or not Paul’s readers have fully understood his allusions to the “profound mystery” (v.32), they should at least get hold of the essential instructions he has been endeavoring to convey. Paul addresses every husband individually (lit., “you each, one by one”). Each one is to go on loving his wife as his very self (vv.25, 28–29). For her part, the wife is to give her husband the respect that is due him in the Lord (v.22)—a respect that is conditioned by and expressive of reverence for Christ. It also assumes that the husband will so love his wife as to be worthy of such deference.
F. Christian Relationships: Parenthood (6:1–4)
After dealing with husband-wife relationships, Paul considers the relationship between parents and children. He has the Christian family in mind; he assumes that both partners and their offspring recognize the lordship of Christ (vv.1, 4). He envisages no clash of loyalties in which God has to be obeyed rather than other people.
1 Paul addresses “children” directly, taking it for granted that they will be present in the congregations where the letter is being read. They belong to the total Christian family, the church. As in the previous paragraph on wives (5:22), the less-privileged and subordinate group in society of that time is given priority of treatment (cf. also slaves in vv.5–9). Social distinctions, rigidly observed in the Roman empire and even in Judaism, are transformed by the gospel so that those previously dispossessed acquire new rights.
Obedience by children consists in listening to the advice given by parents, an obligation supported by many passages in both OT and NT. In Col 3:20, Paul adds that this obedience is to be comprehensive in its scope. Isaac’s willingness to be offered as a sacrifice is a model of such submission. Disobedience to parents is a symptom of a disintegrating social structure (cf. 2Ti 3:2), and Christian families have a responsibility not to contribute to the collapse of an ordered community. Both parents are mentioned, though in v.4 only fathers are given instructions as to reciprocal behavior. As head of the family, the husband acts representatively for his wife (as mother) as well as on his own behalf.
All this is “in the Lord,” as are the other relationships (cf. 5:21–22; 6:5–9). Children are invited not simply to copy the example of Jesus when he was subject to his parents (Lk 2:51), but to realize that both they and their parents are under the authority of the living Christ. This is said to be the “right” thing for them to do, for such obedience “pleases the Lord” (Col 3:20). Obedience to parents is part of the divine law. Children need to recognize that some things have to be accepted even though at the time they themselves cannot understand them.
2 The fifth commandment is quoted as confirmation of v.1 (Ex 20:12; Dt 5:16). Paul appeals to what the children had already learned, for their Christian education began with the Decalogue. To “honor” (GK 5506) is more than to obey; it means to respect and esteem.
This is said to be “the first commandment with a promise.” If we connect “first” and “promise,” a difficulty arises because the fifth commandment is not the first of the ten to which a promise is attached. The second commandment against making idols also contains one. We should therefore separate “with a promise” from “first” and insert a comma after “commandment.” But in what sense can this commandment be regarded as “the first”? It seems most likely that “first” here means first in importance. The rabbis regarded this commandment as the weightiest of all. Perhaps Paul meant to convey the fact that this is the most important commandment for children. Another likely explanation is to note the absence of the article before “first,” suggesting that this is a primary commandment, i.e., one of foremost significance.
3 The promise attached to the fifth commandment in Dt 5:16 is not in itself appropriate to the church, so Paul stops short of the final clause, which speaks about the specific land God has given his people. What was originally a specific assurance to the Jews about Canaan becomes a generalization for Christians. The prospect of longevity is not held out elsewhere in the NT as part of the Christian hope, and commentators have tended to spiritualize the application by linking it with eternal life. “On the earth” rules out that interpretation. It is more likely that Paul wished to emphasize that by obeying their parents, children will live to prove that their true welfare depends on God (Dt 5:10).
4 The child-parent relationship is not one-sided. A standard feature of Paul’s treatment of these domestic categories is that the stronger have obligations to the weaker. The gospel introduced a fresh element into parental responsibility by insisting that the feelings of the child must be taken into consideration. In a society where the father’s authority was absolute, this was revolutionary.
Paul addresses “fathers” as the heads of their families, though the term could mean “parents.” Above all else, he warns them against goading their children into a state of perpetual resentment (cf. 4:26). He is not thinking of extreme instances like disinheritance, but the everyday tensions of family life. Fathers must not make unreasonable demands. Otherwise children, being overcorrected, may lose heart (cf. Col 3:21). Children should be treated with tenderness.
Children are a heritage from the Lord (Ps 127:4); they are to be reared for him. The verb “bring up” (GK 1763) has to do in the first place with bodily nourishment (5:29) and then with education in its entirety. Paul mentions two aspects of such domestic education. “Training” (GK 4082) in the Greco-Roman world meant strict discipline; what Paul is referring to here is training in righteousness. “Instruction” (GK 3804) is correction by word of mouth. Remonstration and reproof are implied, but also advice and encouragement. What we have here is the beginning of Christian education in the home.
G. Christian Relationships: Employment (6:5–9)
The apostle deals finally with the relationship between slaves and masters. He is still concerned with the Christian household, for the majority of slaves were employed in the home. It is estimated that there were over sixty million of them in the Roman empire—about one-third of the total population—and more and more were becoming Christians. Most of them would be in pagan employment, though a few may have had Christian masters, like Onesimus (a slave of Philemon).
The fact that Paul has more to say to slaves than to masters (cf. Col 3:22–4:1) may reflect the social structure of these Asian churches. He addresses them on an equality with their masters and assumes that they have a Christian vocation. In a society that regarded slaves as no more than living tools, this was a sufficiently radical change of attitude. It did not immediately lead to emancipation but clearly paved the way. It is significant that, whereas marriage and the family are presented as divine ordinances, no such claim is made for the institution of slavery.
5 Slaves are to obey their masters whether they are good or bad. They are only “earthly” masters. The Christian slave has a heavenly Lord to whom he owes supreme allegiance. Because of this overriding relationship slaves can bear the burden of their servitude with equanimity, for in reality, they are free in the Lord.
“Respect and fear” must not be confused with craven servility but represent a sense of one’s shortcomings and a desire not to make any mistake. “Sincerity” (GK 605) is the opposite of duplicity in thought or action. It implies openness and concentration of purpose, especially in the context of generosity. The Christian slave has one goal before him: to obey his human master as an expression of his commitment to the divine Lord.
6 Christian slaves were not merely to render eye-service by working hard when their master is watching them. They were under more temptation in this respect than paid workers, for they had nothing to gain materially from diligence. All the more reason, then, for Christian slaves to do their job well for its own sake and for Christ’s sake. Paul may also be suggesting that Christian slaves should do more than what lies immediately before them. By showing some initiative, they would be acting as free agents and so transcend their social status.
Slaves should not be out simply to win favor with people. Rather, they should seek to please God as they seek to “obey Christ” (v.5) and to function as “slaves of Christ.” The double reference to Christ is all the more relevant in the light of our Lord’s own servanthood. He himself took the form of a slave and performed the menial task of washing his disciples’ feet (Jn 13:1–11). As servants of the one who became the servant of humanity, Christian slaves will enthusiastically embrace the known will of God in this respect.
7 Such service must be rendered with genuine goodwill. Among papyrus letters found in Egypt was a will dated A.D. 157, in which the testator freed five slaves “because of their goodwill and affection.” If even pagan slaves could display such qualities, how much more should Christians do so, without expecting their freedom as a reward. “As if” implies no fiction: they actually do serve the Lord rather than mere human beings.
8 Even though Christian slaves will not bank on any material reward, they can be assured of eternal gain (cf. Col 3:24). This is something they fully appreciate because of the catechetical instruction they have been given; it is from the Lord himself that each one will receive back the equivalent of whatever good he or she has done. This principle applies to both the slave and the master. The future tense looks forward to the final judgment when this compensation will be awarded. Like Jesus, Paul does not shrink from referring to rewards (Mt 5:12; Lk 14:12–14), for they are all of grace. They are undeserved, since a Christian’s goodness is simply what God has enabled that person to do.
9 The idea that “everyone” will be rewarded for whatever good he or she has done provides a transition to dealing with the duties of “masters.” The church did not include in its membership many people of higher social rank, and presumably the number of slave-owners in a local congregation was not large. But there must have been some who were masters, or it would have been pointless for Paul to address them. In fact, Paul wrote a personal letter to Philemon at Colosse about reinstating his fugitive slave, Onesimus.
The golden rule is extended to this most controversial of all relationships within the society of the day. Masters were to treat their slaves as they themselves expected to be treated. Though they gave the orders, they were to do so as themselves being under the authority of a heavenly Master. The common factor is that both were seeking to do the will of God (v.6). Masters must therefore refrain from browbeating their slaves by the threat of severe reprisals for unsatisfactory work. Vicious cruelty was rife among pagan slave-owners. Since their victims had no legal redress, they could be kicked around at will. Christian masters were to show themselves different by not cracking the whip but treating their slaves kindly and fairly.
Christian masters as well as Christian slaves (v.8) know that they all serve a heavenly Lord to whom they equally belong. With him no “favoritism” (GK 4721) exists. This word means literally to look to see who someone is before deciding how to treat that person. God has no “teacher’s pets.” Slaves are as precious in his sight as masters, and more is expected from those who are entrusted with greater responsibilities.
H. Into Battle (6:10–20)
This ringing passage sounds a call to arms. What Paul writes here concerning Christian warfare is the external counterpart of his emphasis on the inward growth and edification of the church (4:12, 16). The body of Christ must be united and built up so as to be ready for the inevitable encounter with evil, and each believer needs to be prepared for the fight. This passage may represent a kind of baptismal charge. Its text is “Be on your guard; stand firm in the faith; be men of courage; be strong” (1Co 16:13). It is taken for granted that the victory is already assured through what Christ accomplished by his death and resurrection (Eph 1:20–23). Christ the Lord is the mighty victor who routed all the hosts of wickedness. The Christian is identified with the deliverer in his conquest (Ro 13:14).
10 Paul now begins his final instructions in this letter. His addressees are to let themselves be strengthened in Christ himself (Php 4:13). Even though victory is secure, it has to be won through battle. All the resources that the Christian soldier needs are drawn from Christ and “his mighty power.” Three of the four words for power in Eph 1:19 (see comment) are brought together again here. Paul’s readers will recall that this is the same power that raised Jesus from the dead (1:20) and brought them to life when they were dead in trespasses and sins (2:1). Its adequacy cannot possibly be in doubt.
11 The call to “put on” (GK 1907) God’s armor recalls a similar appeal in 1Th 5:8. This accoutrement is provided by God and modeled on what he wears himself (Isa 11:5; 59:17). It is a complete outfit (“full armor,” also v.13). The soldier must be protected from head to foot, and his armor is made up of all the various pieces, both defensive and offensive.
“Stand” is a key word in this passage (cf. vv.13–14). It is a military term for holding on to one’s position. The equipment enables the soldier to ward off the attacks of the enemy and to make a stand against him. Before any offensive can be launched, one must first of all maintain his own ground. The fourfold use of “against” stresses the determined hostility confronting the Christian soldier. The commander-in-chief of the opposing forces is the devil himself, the sworn enemy of the church. He is a master of ingenious stratagems and his tactics must not be allowed to catch us unawares. These stratagems probably reflect his deliberate attempts to destroy the unity of Christ’s body (3:14–22; 4:1–16, 21) through the invasion of false doctrine and the fomenting of dissension (4:2, 21, 31–32; 5:6).
12 In military strategy one must never underestimate the strength of the enemy. Paul is certainly not guilty of such fatal misjudgment but gives a realistic report of its potential. The “struggle” (lit., “wrestling”) is not merely against human foes but a war to the death against supernatural forces.
Four aspects of the corporate menace are presented here. The particular terms used are in themselves morally neutral, though in Paul they invariably indicate something sinister (1:21; 3:11). “Rulers” (GK 794) are “cosmic powers.” Until the end of this age these demonic forces, already defeated by Christ on the cross (4:9), exercise a certain limited authority (here “authorities”; GK 2026) in temporarily opposing the purposes of God. The title “powers” (GK 3179) denotes those who aspire to world control. It was attached to savior gods in the ethnic religions and identified with the sun. The expression “the spiritual forces of wickedness” suggests the heavenly bodies, which were regarded as the abode of demons who held human lives in their grip. Pagans had no option but to resign themselves to an unalterable destiny. But Christians can fight against such malign influences. “The heavenly realms” probably denotes the unseen world in general, including both good and evil forces.
13 Because the warfare in which Christians are engaged is on the scale described in v.12, the command to take advantage of the “full armor of God” is reiterated from v.11. The verb, though translated “put on,” is a different one from that in v.11; here it means “take up, assume” (GK 377). Thus, when the battle is at its fiercest, the soldiers of Christ will still be able to hold their line even against the most determined attack (i.e., “the day of evil”). When the emergency is over, it will be found that not an inch of territory has been yielded. Christians will “have done everything,” not only in preparing for the conflict but also in pursuing it.
14 The exhortation to “stand” repeats the emphasis in vv.11, 13 on the need for immovable steadfastness in the face of a ruthless foe. In v.13 Paul talked about standing firm in the midst of battle. Now he writes at greater length about standing ready in anticipation of it.
The several items of the soldier’s armor appear in the order in which they would be put on. Together they comprise “the whole armor” worn before taking the field. First, the “belt” tied tightly around the waist indicated that the soldier was prepared for action. A soldier slackened his belt only when he went off duty. It served to gather in the short tunic and helped keep the breastplate in place when the latter was fitted on. From it hung the scabbard in which the sword was sheathed (v.17).
In Isa 11:5 the Messiah is depicted as wearing the belt of righteousness around his waist and faithfulness as the sash around his body. Here “truth” (GK 237) is said to be the soldier’s belt. “Truth” is to be interpreted both objectively as the truth of the gospel (1:13; 4:15) and subjectively as truth in one’s inward being. Because Christians have accepted the truth of revelation and are now indwelt by the risen Lord, who is himself the truth, their lives have truth as its basis, and they display the consistency of character that springs from it.
The “breastplate” covered the body from the neck to the thighs. Usually it was made of bronze, though more affluent officers wore a coat of chain mail. The front piece was strictly the breastplate, but a back piece was commonly worn as well. In Isa 59:17 we are told that Yahweh himself put on righteousness like a breastplate. “Righteousness” (GK 1466) stands for uprightness and integrity of character—a moral rectitude and reputation for fair dealing that results directly from the appropriation of Christ’s righteousness (see comment on 5:9). Christians should not seek protection in any works of their own but only in what Christ has done for them and in them.
15 Once the breastplate has been fitted into position, the soldier puts on his strong army boots; these ensured a good grip. The military successes both of Alexander the Great and of Julius Caesar were due in large measure to their armies being well shod and thus able to undertake long marches at incredible speed over rough terrain. What does “readiness” suggest (GK 2288)? It signifies a prepared foundation; that is, “the gospel of peace” with God through which believers have already been reconciled to God (2:17) affords them a sure foothold in the spiritual campaign in which they are engaged.
16 “In addition to all this,” the Christian soldier is to “take up the shield of faith.” The shield is the large oblong or oval scutum that the Roman soldier held in front of him for protection. It consisted of two layers of wood glued together, covered with linen and hide, and bound with iron. Soldiers often fought side by side with a solid wall of shields. But even a single-handed combatant found himself sufficiently protected.
For the Christian this protective shield is “faith” (GK 4411). We should regard faith here both as our faith in action and as the objective content of faith. Believing cannot be divorced from what is believed, and no rigid line should be drawn between these two aspects. Here only does Paul indicate the effect of a particular piece of armor. With such a shield believers can extinguish all the incendiary devices flung by the devil (v.11). In ancient warfare cane darts were sometimes tipped with tow, dipped in pitch, and then ignited. The Christian’s shield effectively counteracts such diabolical missiles not merely by arresting or deflecting them, but by actually quenching the flames to prevent them from spreading.
17 Two more items remain. The “helmet” covered the head. It was made of bronze with leather attachments. In Isa 59:17 the Lord wears “the helmet of salvation” along with the “breastplate of righteousness.” Christians share that divine equipment. The verb “take” reflects that the helmet and sword were usually handed to a soldier by his armorbearer. This verb is appropriate to the “givenness” of salvation. In 1Th 5:8 the helmet is identified with the hope of full salvation; this may well be the inference here (Eph 1:18).
The final weapon is the “sword,” the short two-edged cut-and-thrust sword wielded by the heavily armed legionary. The “sword of the Spirit” is the Christian’s only weapon of offense—meaning either the sword that is supplied by the Spirit or that is used by the Spirit. “The word of God” is the divine utterance or speech. In Isa 11:4 the Messiah is portrayed as one who strikes the ruthless with the rod of his mouth (i.e., by the authoritative impact of what he says).
But what specifically is this utterance of God? Some suggestions are the recorded words of Scripture in the OT, the remembered sayings of Jesus, or apostolic sayings that were incorporated into the NT. Others regard it as words given by the Spirit to meet the critical need of the moment (cf. Mk 13:11), or as prayer in which the Spirit speaks through the Christian (v.18). The best interpretation is probably the most obvious; it refers to those words that the Spirit has inspired so that Christians may use them to drive away Satan. It is significant that in Matthew’s temptation narrative Jesus himself (quoting Dt 8:3) refers to “every word that comes from the mouth of God” (Mt 4:4) and employs relevant Scriptures to defeat the devil’s stratagems.
18 This verse effectively rounds off the preceding verses. It commands believers with their full armor on to “be alert” by praying. “On all occasions” suggests that they will be in constant prayer in preparation for the battle as well as in the engagement itself. But it is in the critical hour of encounter that such support is most required (cf. “the day of evil” in v.13). “In the Spirit” means in communion with the Spirit or in the power of the Spirit. “Prayers” represents the approach to God in general and “requests” a special form of such prayers (supplication). Every avenue of such praying is to be thoroughly explored.
19 In other letters Paul asks his readers to remember him in their prayers. He recognizes his own dependency upon their intercessions despite his apostolic calling. He knows that only through what God himself supplies can he hope to fulfill his appointed ministry. So he invites his readers to pray that the gift of ready speech may be bestowed on him. To “open [one’s] mouth” is a common phrase for making a public address or a long defense.
“Fearlessly” (GK 4244, repeated in a verbal form in v.20) is attached to “make known.” As a favorite word of Paul, it means frankness and uninhibited openness of speech. Being “an ambassador in chains” (v.20), the apostle no doubt is thinking especially of his upcoming appearance before the imperial authorities—perhaps even the emperor himself—when he would have the opportunity to reveal the secret of the gospel. He had been chosen to carry the name of Jesus “before the Gentiles and their kings” (Ac 9:15), and this defense in Rome was to be the climax of his distinctive ministry. Meanwhile, as he awaited his trial, he wanted to make the most of every occasion that could be capitalized in the interests of the kingdom (cf. Ac 28:31).
20 Because of his faithfulness in preaching the Good News, Paul has been placed under house arrest. He is an ambassador on behalf of Christ, and yet paradoxically he is in chains. Ambassadors normally enjoyed diplomatic immunity, but Paul would be compelled to appear in the imperial court as a prisoner. Instead of wearing a golden chain of office he would be shackled to his guard (Ac 28:20; 2Ti 1:16). Once again, Paul says that he is counting on the prayers of the church so that he might speak out boldly “the mystery of the gospel” (v.19). “As I should” (Col 4:4) is not only “as it is incumbent upon me” but “in the way I ought.”
IV. Conclusion (6:21–24)
21 This is almost a word-for-word parallel with Col 4:7–8. Nowhere is the connection between these two captivity letters closer than here. Paul had just completed Colossians, and Ephesians had been hurriedly concluded so that Tychicus could act as bearer of both letters. Since at this point he had exactly the same information to convey as to the Colossians, it is understandable that he employed the same terms.
Tychicus was the apostle’s personal representative to the churches in Colosse (Col 4:7–9), Ephesus, and, assuming Ephesians to be a circular letter, other Asian churches. Later we find him with Paul again and named along with Artemas as a possible relief for Titus in Crete (Tit 3:12). Soon afterward he was dispatched to Ephesus (2Ti 4:12). The fact that he was entrusted with these important commissions reflects his reliability. Paul describes Tychicus as a loyal Christian servant and a brother dearly loved, not only by Paul but by all who knew him. He would pass on news Paul did not have time to include at the end of his letter, so that the readers may be brought up to date with details about his affairs and what he was doing.
22 Paul had only one aim in view as he commissioned Tychicus to visit the churches in and around Ephesus. It was to let them know what was happening in relation to him and to encourage them. They could easily become discouraged because of his sufferings on their behalf (3:13). Thus it would comfort them to learn that Paul was being well treated and was free to preach to those who visited him (Ac 28:17–31).
23 Ephesians finishes with a truly apostolic benediction, but one different in form from others in Paul’s writings. Couched in the third person, not in the second, it has two parts instead of one. “Grace,” which usually comes first, stands last. The three blessings that figure most prominently throughout Ephesians—peace, love, and faith—occupy the first half of the benediction. This is more than a farewell greeting; it is a prayer for reconciliation. Paul longs to see the whole brotherhood of believers in Ephesus and its environs—Jews and Gentiles alike—at “peace” with each other in the one body of Christ (3:15, 19; 4:3). This will only be brought about through mutual “love” (1:15; 3:17–18; 4:2, 16) combined with “faith,” from which it is derived (1:15: 3:17; Gal 5:6). The ultimate source of these three essential features of Christian community life is God himself. The name of Christ the Son is associated with that of God the Father in perfect equality.
24 “Grace” is the hallmark of all Paul’s benedictions. It is a recurring theme throughout Ephesians (1:2, 7; 2:5, 7–8; 3:2, 8; 4:7). Paul uses the article here (“the grace”), perhaps in order to emphasize that this grace is from “the Lord Jesus Christ” (2Co 13:13; Gal 6:18; Php 4:23) or to refer to the grace he has already written so much about in this letter.
“All who love our Lord Jesus Christ” means all believers (cf. Ac 5:14; 1Ti 4:12), for love is a necessary corollary of belief. Those who fail to love the Lord are anathematized in 1Co 16:22 as having no place in the church. Finally, Paul invokes grace on all who love our Lord Jesus Christ “with an undying love.” That is the last and sealing word of the letter. The adjective in this phrase means “imperishable” or “unfading” and seems to indicate that Christian love will never die. An alternate meaning to this phrase signifies that lovers of the Lord are guaranteed, and indeed already enjoy, eternal life and immortality (cf. 1:13). As Christians put on the “new self” (4:24), they are recreated and assigned a seat in the heavenly realms (2:6).
This letter began with an ascription of praise “to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us in the heavenly realms with every spiritual blessing in Christ” (1:3). On this interpretation, it ends with a benediction invoking God’s grace on all who love our Lord Jesus Christ in incorruption, because they are sealed with the Holy Spirit for the day of redemption (1:13–14; 4:30).
The Old Testament in the New
| NT Text | OT Text | Subject |
| Eph 1:22 | Ps 8:6 | Everything subject to Christ |
| Eph 4:8 | Ps 68:18 | Ascension and gifts |
| Eph 4:25 | Zee 8:16 | Speaking the truth |
| Eph 4:26 | Ps 4:4 | Anger and sin |
| Eph 5:31 | Ge 2:24 | Institution of marriage |
| Eph 6:2–3 | Ex 20:12; Dt 5:16 | Fifth commandment |