Notes

Introduction

1.The oft-cited translation by A. D. Lindsay in The Republic of Plato, J. M. Dent & Co., 1908, p. 124; “changes in styles of music are always politically revolutionary,” in the recent translation by Tom Griffith: G. R. Ferrari, ed., Plato: The Republic, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 117.

2.Early accounts distinguished between Edison’s phonograph, which used cylinders, and Berliner’s gramophone, which used discs. However, by the 1920s, gramophone was the common term for all talking machines in the United Kingdom and phonograph served a similar role in the United States. To accent the transnational nature of talking machine culture, I will use them interchangeably.

3.William Maas, “Jazz Poetry,” Daily Chronicle, 1920, quoted in “From Education to Jazz,” The Living Age, October 16, 1920, pp. 158–9.

4.Theodor W. Adorno, “Farewell to Jazz,” in his Essays on Music, Richard Leppert, ed., University of California Press, 2002, p. 497.

5.Adorno, “The Curves of the Needle,” in Essays on Music, p. 273.

6.Theodor W. Adorno, Current of Music: Elements of a Radio Theory, Polity, 2009, p. 114.

7.Jacques Attali, Noise: The Political Economy of Music, University of Minnesota Press, 1985, p. 103.

8.Karl Marx, “Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844,” in Karl Marx Frederick Engels Collected Works, vol. 3, International Publishers, 1975, pp. 301–2.

9.Ranajit Guha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, Duke University Press, 1999, p. 39.

10.Mark Slobin, “Ensembles—Banding versus Bonding,” in his Subcultural Sounds: Micromusics of the West, Wesleyan University Press, 2000; Josh Kun, Audiotopia: Music, Race, and America, University of California Press, 2005.

11.Adorno, Current of Music, p. 65; Adorno, “On the Social Situation of Music,” in Essays on Music, p. 392.

12.Ernst Bloch, The Principle of Hope, MIT Press, 1986, p. 1103.

13.Attali, Noise, pp. 19, 27.

14.Ibid., pp. 35, 5.

15.Ibid., pp. 6, 143, 5.

16.Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The Holy Family, in Karl Marx Frederick Engels Collected Works, vol. 4, International Publishers, 1975, pp. 67–8. For “polkamania,” see Charles Henry Knox, The Spirit of the Polka, John Olliveir, 1845, p. 11; and Charles Keil, Angeliki V. Keil, and Dick Blau, Polka Happiness, Temple University Press, 1992, p. 13.

17.Bloch, Principle of Hope, p. 394.

18.Attali, Noise, pp. 117, 19.

1. Turnarounds

1.Michael Iván Avalos, liner notes to Sextetos Cubanos, Arhoolie CD 7003, 1992, p. 3.

2.Sexteto Habanero, “Maldita timidez,” Victor 78510, 1926, re-released on Sexteto y Septeto Habanero: Grabaciones Completas 1925–1931, Tumbao CD 300, 1998; Alejo Carpentier, Music in Cuba, University of Minnesota Press, 2001, p. 231.

3.Sextetos Cubanos Sones Vol. II, Arhoolie CD 7006, 1995; Sexteto Nacional 1927–1928 “Cubaneo” Primeras Grabaciones, Tumbao TCD 097, 1999.

4.Carpentier, Music in Cuba, p. 228.

5.Ibid., p. 232.

6.Louis Armstrong, “Heebie Jeebies,” OKeh 8300-A, 1926, re-released on Louis Armstrong: The Complete Hot Five and Hot Seven Recordings, Columbia/Legacy C4K 63527, 2000.

7.“How the ‘Heebie Jeebies’ Reached Apex of Popularity and Developed a New Dance,” Talking Machine World 22.11 (1926), p. 128.

8.Danny Barker, A Life in Jazz, Alyn Shipton, ed., Macmillan Press, 1986, p. 42.

9.Dave Peyton, “The Musical Bunch: Things in General,” Chicago Defender, July 2, 1927, p. 6.

10.See Hazel V. Carby, “Women, Migration, and the Formation of a Blues Culture,” in her Cultures in Babylon: Black Britain and African America, Verso, 1999.

11.Rosita Quiroga, “La Musa Mistonga,” Victor 79632, 1926; Donald S. Castro, The Argentine Tango as Social History, 1880–1955: The Soul of the People, Mellen Research University Press, 1990, pp. 189–91; Néstor Pinsón, “Rosita Quiroga,” Todo Tango, todotango.com; Matthew B. Karush, Culture of Class: Radio and Cinema in the Making of a Divided Argentina, 1920–1946, Duke University Press, 2012, p. 101. On Flores, see Robert Farris Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love, Pantheon Books, 2005, pp. 31–4.

12.Roberto Firpo, “La Cumparsita,” Odeon 483, 1916, re-released on Roberto Firpo—De la guardia vieja, EMI 83757723, 2002; Carlos Gardel, “Mi noche triste,” Odeon 18010-B, 1917, re-released on The Magic of Carlos Gardel, Harlequin HQ CD 145, 1999.

13.Castro, The Argentine Tango as Social History, p. 137.

14.Simon Collier, The Life, Music and Times of Carlos Gardel, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1986, p. 93.

15.Simon Collier, “The Tango Is Born: 1880s–1920s,” in Simon Collier et al., Tango! The Dance, the Song, the Story, Thames and Hudson, 1995, p. 62.

16.Quoted in Adriana J. Bergero, Intersecting Tango: Cultural Geographies of Buenos Aires, 1900–1930, University of Pittsburgh Press, 2008, p. 90.

17.Paul Vernon, “Odeon Records: Their ‘Ethnic’ Output,” Musical Traditions 3 (1997), mustrad.org.uk.

18.Virginia Danielson, The Voice of Egypt: Umm Kulthūm, Arabic Song, and Egyptian Society in the Twentieth Century, University of Chicago Press, 1997, pp. 54, 56, 58; Umm Kulthūm, “Akhadt Sootak min Ruuhi,” His Master’s Voice 72–2, 1926, re-released on Omme Kolsoum: La Diva 2, EMI CD 0964310953-2, 1996.

19.Quoted in Ali Jihad Racy, Musical Change and Commercial Recording in Egypt, 1904–1932, dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1977, p. 172.

20.Danielson, The Voice of Egypt, pp. 28–34.

21.Ibid., pp. 73, 85–7; Umm Kulthūm, “In Kunt Asaamih,” His Master’s Voice 72–12, 1928.

22.Gokhan Ara, liner notes to To Scratch Your Heart: Early Recordings from Istanbul, Honest Jon’s Records HJRCD 48, 2010, p. 2.

23.Hafiz Sadettin Kaynak, “Nâr-i Hicrane Düşüp,” Columbia 12554, c.1926–7; Hafiz Burhan Bey, “Nitschun Guerdum,” Columbia 12289, 1927; Martin Stokes, The Republic of Love: Cultural Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music, University of Chicago Press, 2010, p. 21 n. 53.

24.Harold G. Hagopian, liner notes to Women of Istanbul, Traditional Crossroads CD 4280, 1998, pp. 3, 17.

25.J. M. O’Connell, “Song Cycle: The Life and Death of the Turkish Gazel: A Review Essay,” Ethnomusicology 47.3 (2003), pp. 404–6.

26.Harold G. Hagopian, liner notes to Istanbul 1925, Traditional Crossroads CD 4266, 1994, pp. 2–3.

27.Dalgás, “Melemenio,” His Master’s Voice HMV AO166, 1926; Lisbet Torp, Salonikiós, “The Best Violin in the Balkans,” Museum Tusculanum Press, 1993, p. 25 n. 34, n. 36.

28.Edmund Michael Innes, “Report on Visit to Greece April–May 1930,” ed. Hugo Strötbaum, 2010, recordingpioneers.com, p. 64.

29.Ibid., p. 69.

30.Márkos Vamvakáris, “Karadouzéni,” Parlophon B21654, 1932, re-released on Márkos Vamvakáris Bouzouki Pioneer 1932–1940, Rounder CD 1139, 1998.

31.Quoted in Charles Howard, liner notes to Márkos Vamvakáris Bouzouki Pioneer 1932–1940. See also Gail Holst, Road to Rembetika: Music of a Greek Sub-Culture. Songs of Love, Sorrow and Hashish, Denise Harvey Publisher, 2006, pp. 44–7.

32.Fritna Darmon, “Aroubi Rasd Eddil, Pt. 1 & 2,” Pathé 59167/68, 1926, re-released on Secret Museum of Mankind: Music of North Africa, Yazoo 7011, 1997; Ahmed and Mohamed Elhabib Hachlaf, Anthologie de la musique arabe: 1906–1960, Publisud, 1993, pp. 163–73.

33.On Cheikh El-Afrit, see Jonathan Ward, liner notes to Opika Pende: Africa at 78rpm, Dust-to-Digital DTD-22, 2011, p. 14.

34.Paul Vernon, Ethnic and Vernacular Music, 1898–1960: A Resource and Guide to Recordings, Greenwood Press, 1995, p. 281. See also Hachlaf, Anthologie, pp. 302, 306; Hadj Miliani, “Le Cheikh et le phonographe: notes de recherche pour un corpus des phonogrammes et des vidéogrammes des musiques et des chansons Algériennes,” Turath 4 (2004), p. 43–67.

35.Ward, liner notes to Opika Pende, p. 30.

36.Cheikh Hamada, “Adjouadi hadi ouadjba,” Gramophone K 4216, 1930, on Gallica, gallica.bnf.fr. Hachlaf, p. 302. See also Angelica Maria DeAngelis, “Moi Aussi, Je Suis Musulman: Rai, Islam, and Masculinity in Maghrebi Transnational Identity,” Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics 23 (2003), pp. 284–5; Susana Asensio Llamas, “The Politics of Hybridization in Rai Music,” in Gerhard Steingress, ed., Songs of the Minotaur: Hybridity and Popular Music in the Era of Globalization, LIT Verlag, 2002, pp. 55–6.

37.Paul Vernon, A History of the Portuguese Fado, Ashgate, 1998, pp. 65, 23–5.

38.Adelina Fernandes, “Fado Penim,” HMV EQ220, 1928.

39.Rui Vieira Nery, quoted in Simon Broughton, “Secret History,” New Statesman, October 15, 2007, p. 43; Rodney Gallop, “Some Records of the Portuguese Fado,” The Gramophone (October 1931) p. 173.

40.Vernon, History of the Portuguese Fado, p. 48.

41.Nery, quoted in Broughton, “Secret History,” p. 43.

42.V. S. Pritchett, “Spring in Lisbon,” Fortnightly Review (June 1932), p. 711-2.

43.Hirabai Barodekar, “( Jilha) shantvaho manasa/(Durga) ananda mani gudha mani (Marathi drama–Patwardhan),” HMV Black Label P-8754, 1926; Suresh Chandvankar, “Records of Smt. Heerabai Barodekar,” Record News (2005), p. 53–79.

44.Janaki Bakhle, Two Men and Music: Nationalism and the Making of an Indian Classical Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp. 216–17.

45.Sushanta Kumar Chatterjee, “The Uncrowned King of the Legendary Bengali Songs: Mr. Krishna Chandra Dey,” Record News 25–26 (1997), p. 5–70; Jyoti Prakash Guha, “Life and Records of Indubala,” Record News (2008), p. 35–50.

46.Stephen Hughes, “The ‘Music Boom’ in Tamil South India: Gramophone, Radio and the Making of Mass Culture,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 22.4 (2002), p. 445–73.

47.Mariachi Coculense Rodríguez, “El Toro”* (The Bull)/“El Gavilancillo” (The Young Hawk), Victor 79173, 1927.

48.Chris Strachwitz, “A History of Commercial Recordings of Corridos,” liner booklet for The Mexican Revolution: Corridos about the Heroes and Events 1910–1920 and Beyond, Arhoolie Folkloric CD 7041-7044, 1996, 13. For a discussion of Los Hermanos Bañuelos, see Alicia Schmidt Camacho, Migrant Imaginaries: Latino Cultural Politics in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands, New York University Press, 2008, pp. 30–2.

49.Guty Cárdenas, “Flor”/“Rayito de Sol,” Columbia 3118-X, ca.1928. See also Guty Cárdenas: El Trovador Yucateco, Discos Corasón NM 15 892 CD, 2006. See Marco Velázquez and Mary Kay Vaughan, “Mestizaje and Musical Nationalism in Mexico,” in Rick A. Lopez, Desmond Rochfort, Mary Kay Vaughan, and Stephen Lewis, eds, The Eagle and the Virgin: Nation and Cultural Revolution in Mexico, 1920–1940, Duke University Press, 2006, pp. 106–7; Mark Pedelty, “The Bolero: the Birth, Life, and Decline of Mexican Modernity,” Latin American Music Review 20.1 (1999), p. 36–40.

50.Rodney Gallop, “Mexique Ho!,” The Gramophone (June 1937), p. 41.

51.Miss Riboet, “Krongtjong Moeritskoe,” Beka B 15104, 1926, transcribed and discussed in Philip Yampolsky, “Kroncong Revisited: New Evidence from Old Sources,” Archipel 79 (2010), pp. 37–9. The same recording session also produced Miss Riboet, “Dji Hong,”* Beka B 15107, 1926, re-released on Longing for the Past: The 78rpm Era in Southeast Asia, Dust-to-Digital DTD 28, 2013 (with accompanying book, p. 216).

52.Matthew Isaac Cohen, The Komedie Stamboel: Popular Theater in Colonial Indonesia, 1891–1903, Ohio University Press, 2006, p. 338.

53.Miss Riboet with Orkes Dengen Di Njanjiken Oleh, “Krontjong Dardanella,” Beka B15662-II, 1928, re-released on Kroncong: Early Indonesian Pop Music, Vol. 1, Rice ISR 3006, 2006.

54.E. V. Solomons, “The Krontjong—Java’s Ukelele,” The Lloyd Mail, October 1933, p. 238.

55.Liem Liang Hoo’s My Dream House is quoted in James T. Siegel, Fetish, Recognition, Revolution, Princeton University Press, 1997, p. 120.

56.D. J. H. Nyèssen, The Races of Java, G. Kolff & Co., 1929, p. 58.

57.Takonai Susumu, “Soeara NIROM and Musical Culture in Colonial Indonesia,” trans. Ishibashi Makoto, Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia 8–9 (2007), kyotoreviewsea.org.

58.Margaret Kartomi, “The Pan-East/Southeast Asian and National Indonesian Song Bengawan Solo and Its Javanese Composer,” Yearbook for Traditional Music 30 (1998), p. 85.

59.Wilmoth Houdini, “Caroline,” Victor 80078, 1927; Donald R. Hill, Calypso Calaloo: Early Carnival Music in Trinidad, University Press of Florida, 1993, pp. 125–6; The Classic Calypso Collective, West Indian Rhythm: Trinidad Calypsos on World and Local Events, Featuring the Censored Recordings 1938–1940, Bear Family Records BCD 16623 JM, 2006, p. 22. See also John Cowley, “West Indies Blues: An Historical Overview, 1920s–1950s: Blues and Music from the English-speaking West Indies,” in Robert Springer, ed., Nobody Knows Where the Blues Come From: Lyrics and History, University Press of Mississippi, 2006.

60.John Cowley, liner notes to Wilmoth Houdini: “Poor but Ambitious,” Arhoolie Folkloric CD 7010, 1993, p. 2.

61.West Indian Rhythm, p. 22.

62.John Cowley, Music and Migration: Aspects of Black Music in the British Caribbean, the United States, and Britain, Before the Independence of Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago, dissertation, University of Warwick, 1992, p. 444.

63.Patrick Huber, Linthead Stomp: The Creation of Country Music in the Piedmont South, University of North Carolina Press, 2008, pp. 19–20.

64.Charles K. Wolfe and Ted Olson, eds, The Bristol Sessions: Writings about the Big Bang of Country Music, McFarland & Company, 2005.

65.The Carter Family, “Single Girl, Married Girl,” Victor 20937, 1927. Mark Zwonitzer, Will You Miss Me When I’m Gone? The Carter Family and Their Legacy in American Music, Simon & Schuster, 2002.

66.Nolan Porterfield, Jimmie Rodgers: The Life and Times of America’s Blue Yodeler, University Press of Mississippi, 2007, pp. 46–63.

67.Jimmie Rodgers, “Blue Yodel,” Victor 21142, 1928; Abbe Niles, “Ballads, Songs and Snatches,” The Bookman: A Review of Books and Life 67 (July 1928), p. 566; ibid., 68 (September 1928), p. 77.

68.Richard A. Peterson, Creating Country Music: Fabricating Authenticity, University of Chicago Press, 1997; Barry Mazor, Meeting Jimmie Rodgers, Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 85–108.

69.The 1927 Regal recordings have been re-released on Niña de los Peines: Registros Sonoros, Fonotrón D.L., 2004, CD 9. Cristina Cruces Roldán, La Niña de los Peines: El mundo flamenco de Pastora Pavón, Almuzara, 2009, pp. 286–7.

70.Pedro Vaquero and Christopher Maurer, liner notes to El Concurso de Cante Jondo, Colección Manuel de Falla, Granada, Corpus de 1922/Colección Federico García Lorca: Discografía flamenca utilizada por el poeta, Sonifolk CD 20106, 1997. See also James Woodall, In Search of the Firedance: Spain through Flamenco, Sinclair-Stevenson, 1992, pp. 182, 217–19.

71.Irving Brown, Deep Song: Adventures with Gypsy Songs and Singers in Andalusia and other Lands, with Original Translations, Harper & Brothers, 1929, p. 25; Ian Nagoski, liner notes to Black Mirror: Reflections in Global Musics, Dust-to-Digital DTD 10, 2008, track 18.

72.Langston Hughes, I Wonder as I Wander: An Autobiographical Journey, Reinhart, 1956, pp. 332–3. See also Brent Hayes Edwards, “Langston Hughes and the Futures of Diaspora,” American Literary History 19.3 (Fall 2007), p. 689–711; and Nathaniel Mackey, “Cante Moro,” in Anne Waldman and Andrew Schelling, eds, Disembodied Poetics: Annals of the Jack Kerouac School, University of New Mexico Press, 1994.

73.Rodney Gallop, “Spanish Folk-Music Records,” The Gramophone (November 1930), p. 266.

74.Dào Nha, “Tả cảnh cô đầu thua bạc,” Victor 40027, 1928, re-released on Longing for the Past, p. 77.

75.Van Thanh Ban, “Khổng Minh—Mẫu Tầm Tử,” Beka 20137, ca.1929, re-released on Longing for the Past, pp. 45, 88–9.

76.Erich deWald, “Taking to the Waves: Vietnamese Society around the Radio in the 1930s,” Modern Asian Studies 46.1 (2012), p. 155.

77.Jason Gibbs, “Spoken Theater, La Scène Tonkinoise, and the First Modern Vietnamese Songs,” Asian Music 31.2 (2000), p. 6. Quoted in Jason Gibbs, “The West’s Songs, Our Songs: The Introduction and Adaptation of Western Popular Song in Vietnam Before 1940,” Asian Music 35.1 (2003/2004), p. 61.

78.Kalama’s Quartet, “Medley of Hulas”/“Inikiniki Malie,” OKeh 40957, 1928, and “He Manao Healoha,” OKeh 41023, 1928; T. Malcolm Rockwell, Hawaiian and Hawaiian Guitar Records 1891–1960, Mahina Piha Press, 2007, p. 575.

79.Niles, “Ballads, Songs, and Snatches,” The Bookman 67 (July 1928), p. 567. A month later he added a second notice: “A particularly lovely Hawaiian record for summer nights is ‘Ua Like No A Like’, by Kalama’s Quartet),” Niles, “Ballads, Songs, and Snatches,” The Bookman, 67 (August 1928), p. 688.

80.Sol Ho‘opi‘i, “Sweet Lei Lehua,”* Columbia 1250-D, 1927. In 1927 and 1928, Victor recorded Kane’s Hawaiians in San Francisco; Columbia recorded the South Sea Islanders in New York; Gennett recorded Francis Lei in Indiana; and Sam Ku West recorded for Gennett, Banner, Vocalion, and Victor. For the biography of Hanapi, see George S. Kanahele, ed., (revised and updated by John Berger), Hawaiian Music and Musicians: An Encyclopedic History, Mutual Publishing, 2012, pp. 242–4.

81.“Brunswick Sends Men to Honolulu to Make New Hawaiian Records,” Honolulu Advertiser, quoted in Ross Laird, Brunswick Records: A Discography of Recordings, 1916–1931, Greenwood Press, 2001, p. 22.

82.Kanahele, Hawaiian Music and Musicians, pp. 479, 679; Rockwell, Hawaiian Records, p. xiii; Gurre Ploner Noble, Hula Blues: The Story of Johnny Noble, Hawaii, Its Music and Musicians, Tongg Publishing, 1948, pp. 75–7.

83.Amy Ku‘uleialoha Stillman, “Published Hawaiian Songbooks,” Notes 44.2 (1987), p. 231.

84.Kanahele, Hawaiian Music and Musicians, pp. 352–3.

85.Rockwell, Hawaiian Records, pp. 988–9.

86.Steva Nikolič, “Arnautka,” Victor V-3049-B, 1928, available on Jonathan Ward, Excavated Shellac, excavatedshellac.com.

87.Sofka Nikolić, “Ali Pašina pesma,” HMV AM1073, ca. 1928; Sofka Nikolić, “Tri put ti čuknal,” HMV AM 1068, ca. 1928, both available digitally on Europeana, europeana.eu. See also Sofka Nikolić, “Čuješ Seko,”* Victor V-3097, available on Tamburitza and more … Tamburitza and Folk Music from America and Europe, tamburitza78s.blogspot.com. Her first recordings were apparently made for Edison Bell Penkala, a Zagreb company, about the same time: see Ventsislav Dimov, “Roma Music: Anthropological Interpretations, Roma Contribution to Media and Recorded Music,” Haceлeнue 3–4 (2012), p. 190.

88.Rodney Gallop, “Some Records of Serbian Folk Music,” The Gramophone (May 1931), p. 601.

89.Shay Loya, “Beyond ‘Gypsy’ Stereotypes: Harmony and Structure in the Verbunkos Idiom,” Journal of Musicological Research 27.3 (2008), p. 254 n. 1.

90.See Tziganes: Paris/Berlin/Budapest/1910–1935, Frémeaux FA006, 1993; Michael Dregni, Django: The Life and Music of a Gypsy Legend, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 63; Bálint Sárosi, Gypsy Music, Corvina Press, 1978, p. 208.

91.“Gypsy Music: Fiddling in Hungary,” The Times, April 15, 1933, p. 13.

92.Dregni, Django, pp. 31, 40, 87–95.

93.“EC’s gramophone notes,” West Africa (June 15, 1929), quoted in Paul Vernon, liner notes to Early Guitar Music from West Africa 1927–1929, Heritage HT CD 33, 2003.

94.John Cowley, “uBungca (Oxford Bags): Recordings in London of African and West Indian Music in the 1920s and 1930s,” Musical Traditions 12 (1994), p. 13–26, available at mustrad.org.uk.

95.West Africa (July 21, 1928), quoted in Paul Vernon, liner notes to Kumasi Trio 1928, Heritage HT CD 22, 1993.

96.John Collins, “One Hundred Years of Censorship in Ghanaian Popular Music Performance,” in Michael Drewett and Martin Cloonan, eds, Popular Music Censorship in Africa, Ashgate, 2006, p. 176.

97.Asare reported in David Coplan, “Go To My Town, Cape Coast! The Social History of Ghanaian Highlife,” in Bruno Nettl, ed., Eight Urban Musical Cultures: Tradition and Change, University of Illinois Press, 1978, p. 102.

98.Kumasi Trio, “Amponsah, Part One”/“Amponsah, Part Two,” Zonophone 1001, 1928.

99.W. E. Ward, “Music in the Gold Coast,” The Gold Coast Review 3.2 (1927), p. 205.

100.“Ephraim Amu and the Story of Yaa Amponsah,” Copyright News [Ghana] (March 1990), p. 5.

101.Collins, “One Hundred Years of Censorship,” in Drewett and Cloonan, eds., Popular Music Censorship in Africa, p. 177.

102.Harry E. Quashie, “Anadwofa,”* Zonophone, ca. 1929, re-released on Living Is Hard: West African Music in Britain, 1927–1929, Honest Jon’s Records HJRCD33, 2008.

103.Jolly Orchestra, “Abonsa,” Parlophone PO.531, ca. 1936, re-released on cassette tape accompanying Christopher Alan Waterman, Jùjú: A Social History and Ethnography of an African Popular Music, University of Chicago Press, 1990.

104.Maud Cuney-Hare, Negro Musicians and Their Music, Da Capo Press, 1974 [c. 1936], p. 259.

105.Waterman, Jùjú, pp. 47–8.

106.See “Ephraim Amu and the Story of Yaa Amponsah”; A. O. Amegatcher, “Protection of Folklore by Copyright: A Contradiction in Terms,” Copyright Bulletin 36.2 (2002), pp. 33–42; John Collins, “The ‘Folkloric Copyright Tax’ Problem in Ghana,” Media Development 50.1 (2003), pp. 10–14.

107.Janet Topp Fargion, liner notes to Poetry and Languid Charm: Swahili Music from Tanzania and Kenya from the 1920s to the 1950s, Topic TSCD 936, 2007, p. 2.

108.Werner Graebner, “Between Mainland and Sea: The Taarab Music of Zanzibar,” in Kevin Dawe, ed., Island Musics, Berg, 2004, pp. 173–4.

109.Quoted in Vernon, “Odeon Records.”

110.Graebner, “Between Mainland and Sea,” p. 174.

111.Laura Fair, Pastimes and Politics: Culture, Community, and Identity in Post-Abolition Urban Zanzibar, 1890–1945, Ohio University Press, 2001, p. 1.

112.Ibid., p. 3.

113.Ibid., p. 179.

114.Ibid. pp. 179–82. See also Gerry Farrell, “The Early Days of the Gramophone Industry in India: Historical, Social and Musical Perspectives,” British Journal of Ethnomusicology 2 (1993), p. 38.

115.Siti binti Saad, “Wewe Paka,” Columbia WE 46, ca. 1930; the lyrics in Swahili and English are in Fair, Pastimes and Politics, pp. 207–9.

116.Kelly M. Askew, Performing the Nation: Swahili Music and Cultural Politics in Tanzania, University of Chicago Press, 2002, pp. 109–12.

117.Francisco Alves, “Me Faz Carinhos,” Odeon 10100-B, 1928, and “A Malandragem,” Odeon 10113-B, 1928, re-released on Humberto M. Franceschi, A Casa Edison e Seu Tempo, Sarapuí, 2002; Carlos Sandroni, Feitiço decente: transformações do samba no Rio de Janeiro, 1917–1933, Editora UFRJ, 2001, p. 186.

118.Carlos Sandroni, “Transformations of the Carioca Samba in the Twentieth Century,” available at dc.itamaraty.gov.br, pp. 80–1.

119.Hermano Vianna, The Mystery of Samba: Popular Music and National Identity in Brazil, University of North Carolina Press, 1999, p. 87.

120.Almirante com O Bando de Tangaras, “Na Pavuna,” Parlophon 13.089-A, 1930; Carlos Sandroni, “Dois Sambas de 1930 ea Constituição do Gênero: ‘Na Pavuna’ e ‘Vou te Abandonar,’” Cadernos do Colóquio 1.4 (2001), pp. 8–21.

121.Ismael Silva, “Samba raiado”/“Louca,” Odeon 10835, 1931; and Ismael Silva, “Me Diga o Teu Nome”/“Me Deixa Sossegado,” Odeon 10858, 1931, available at O Instituto Moreira Salles, acervo.ims.com.br. The other recording of a samba school figure at the time was Brunswick’s 1930 recording of Paulo da Portela: Grupo Prazeres, “Vou te Abandonar,” Brunswick 10037-B, 1930, discussed by Sandroni, “Dois Sambas.”

122.Halpin Trio, “Rogha-An-Fhile”/“Over the Moor to Maggie,” Parlophone E3627, 1929. “Over the Moor to Maggie” is available at Irish Traditional Music Archive, itma.ie. See also Irish Traditional Music Archive, “Parlophone Irish 78s, 1929,” and Irish Traditional Music Archive, “Parlophone Irish 78s, 1930,” both at itma.ie.

123.Gearóid Ó hAllmhuráin, O’Brien Pocket History of Irish Traditional Music, The O’Brien Press, 1998, p. 121.

124.Reg Hall, liner notes to Irish Dance Music, Topic TSCD 602, 1995; Reg Hall, liner notes to Past Masters of Irish Dance Music, Topic TSCD 604, 2000; Reg Hall, liner notes to Past Masters of Irish Fiddle Music, Topic TSCD 605, 2001.

125.Harry Bradshaw, liner notes to Michael Coleman 1891–1945, Gael Linn/Viva Voce CEFCD 161, 1992.

126.Li Minghui, “Maomao yu,” Pathé 34278, 1929. Andrew F. Jones, Yellow Music: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age, Duke University Press, 2001, pp. 83–4, 90–1, 93, 113, 131, 134. Szu-Wei Chen, “The Rise and Generic Features of Shanghai Popular Songs in the 1930s and 1940s,” Popular Music 24.1 (2005), p. 108. Wong Kee Chee, The Age of Shanghainese Pops: 1930–1970, Joint Publishing, 2001, pp. 12–15.

127.Chen, “Shanghai Popular Songs,” p. 123 n. 2.

128.Though “yellow” is a literal translation, “‘blue music’ would be more suggestive of the associations the term huangse yinyue brings.” Jonathan Stock, “Reconsidering the Past: Zhou Xuan and the Rehabilitation of Early Twentieth-Century Popular Music,” Asian Music 26.2 (1995), p. 32 n. 4.

129.Andrew Field, Shanghai’s Dancing World: Cabaret Culture and Urban Politics, 1919–1954, Chinese University Press, 2010, p. 63.

130.Jones, Yellow Music, p. 113.

131.Wang Renmei, quoted in ibid., p. 91.

132.On Zhou Xuan, see Stock, “Reconsidering the Past”; Jones, Yellow Music; Field, Shanghai’s Dancing World, p. 183.

133.L’Orchestre Antillais, “Sêpent Maigre,” Odeon Ki 2655, 1929. See the discussion of “Sêpent Maigre” in Eric Prieto, “Alexandre Stellio and the Beginnings of the Biguine,” Nottingham French Studies 43.1 (2004), p. 36. See also Richard Spottswood, liner notes to Au Bal Antillais: Creole Biguines from Martinique, Arhoolie CD 7013, 1992; Jean-Pierre Meunier, “La Biguine à Paris: migration et mutation d’une musique métisse de la Caraïbe,” 2005, lameca.org.

134.Andrée Nardal, “Notes on the Biguine Créole,” La Revue Du Monde Noir 2 (1931), p. 51.

135.“In Europe with J. A. Rogers,” New York Amsterdam News, September 2, 1931, p. 10.

136.Gisèle Dubouillé, “New Records of Negro Music,” La Revue Du Monde Noir 3 (1932), p. 56.

137.Nardal, “Notes on the Biguine Créole,” p. 52.

138.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 47. They were re-released on Domingo Justus: Roots of Juju 1928, Heritage HT CD 18, 1993.

139.Ibid., p. 27.

140.Abibu Oluwa, “Orin Herbert Macaulay,” Odeon A248505; see Waterman, Jùjú, pp. 36, 234 n. 6, 235 n. 13, 40.

141.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 55; Jolly Orchestra, “Abonsa,” Parlophone PO.531, ca. 1936, re-released on cassette tape accompanying Waterman, Jùjú; “African Test Pressing, Number 4,” Excavated Shellac, excavatedshellac.com.

142.Irewolede Denge, “Orin Asape Eko,” HMV JZ3. For an analysis of the song, see Waterman, Jùjú, pp. 50–2.

143.Richard K. Spottswood, Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced in the United States, 1893 to 1942, University of Illinois Press, 1990, vol. 4, p. 2417. Laird, Brunswick Records, vol. 3, pp. 1366–72. On Ballecer, see E. San Juan, Jr., Introduction to Modern Pilipino Literature, Twayne Publishers, 1974, p. 17.

144.Urbano A. Zafra, “Danza Filipina,” Columbia 3910-X, 1929.

145.Tim Couzens, The New African: A Study of the Life and Work of H. I. E. Dhlomo, Ravan Press, 1985, p. 68. Zonophone had released a few earlier recordings of Zulu traditional songs, by James Stuart in 1927 and by Simon Sibiya and John Matthews Ngwane in 1929: Veit Erlmann, African Stars: Studies in Black South African Performance, University of Chicago Press, 1991, pp. 74, 188 n. 30.

146.Caluza’s Double Quartet, “uBangca”/“Ingoduso,” Zonophone 4276, 1930. See Erlmann, African Stars, p. 143; Couzens, The New African, p. 69.

147.Couzens, The New African, pp. 67–8.

148.Griffiths Motsieloa, “Aubuti Nkikho,” Singer GE 1, 1930, re-released on CD accompanying Christopher Ballantine, Marabi Nights: Jazz, “Race” and Society in Early Apartheid South Africa, University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2012. See Ballantine, pp. 207–8.

149.Couzens, The New African, p. 68; Griffiths Motsieloa, “Ndhiya eBhai,” Singer GE4, 1930, available on South African Music Archive Project, disa.ukzn.ac.za.

150.Griffiths Motsieloa, “Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika,” Singer GE13, re-released on Opika Pende: Africa at 78rpm, Dust-to-Digital, DTD 22, 2011.

151.Hugh Masekela and D. Michael Cheers, Still Grazing: The Musical Journey of Hugh Masekela, Crown Publishers, 2004, p. 15; Ballantine, Marabi Nights, pp. 68–9.

152.Amanzimtoti Players, “Sbhinono,” HMV GU 130, 1932, and Bantu Glee Singers, “Ndunduma,” HMV GU 94, 1932, both re-released on CD accompanying Ballantine, Marabi Nights. See also Erlmann, African Stars, pp. 92, 66. Ballantine notes that “as the quintessential music of the slumyards, marabi in its classic original form was—tragically—never recorded. What were recorded, however, were a number of performances which refracted the early music of the slumyards: in particular, these include marabi in imitations, recreations and arrangements—all of them typically performed by elite groups” (Marabi Nights, p. 209).

153.Caluza’s Double Quartet, “uTebetjana Ufana Ne’mfene,” HMV 4284. Griffiths Motsieloa and Company, “Sponono naMarabi,” Singer GE 67, 1931, re-released on CD accompanying Ballantine, Marabi Nights. David Coplan, In Township Tonight!: South Africa’s Black City Music and Theatre, Ravan Press, 1985, p. 105. Coplan says Tebetjane composed the song, and that it made “his name … synonymous with the marabi genre” (p. 97); Ballantine says it was written in “mocking tribute (Marabi Nights, pp. 203–4)” Quoted in Brett Pyper, “Sounds Like: [Todd] John Matshikiza’s Jazz Writing for Drum Magazine, 1951–1957,” Glendora Review: African Quarterly on the Arts 3.3–4 (2004), p. 19.

154.Pyper, “Sounds Like,” p. 19.

2. The Polyphony of Colonial Ports

1.Beatriz Sarlo, Una modernidad periférica: Buenos Aires 1920 y 1930, Ediciones Nueva Visión, 1988.

2.David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865–1925, Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp. 70–1.

3.Josef W. Konvitz, “The Crisis of Atlantic Port Cities, 1880 to 1920,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 36.2 (1994), pp. 297, 293.

4.Ibid., pp. 299–300.

5.Frank Thistlethwaite, “Migration from Europe Overseas in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” in International Congress of Historical Sciences, Rapports V: Historie Contemporaine, Almquist and Wiksell, 1960.

6.Konvitz, “Crisis of Atlantic Port Cities,” p. 318.

7.Urban population figures for the first half of the twentieth century are inexact; for a sense of the general magnitudes, these figures are drawn from the preeminent port directory of the period: Evan Rowland Jones, ed., The “Shipping World” Year Book 1910, “Shipping World” Offices, 1910; and Sir Archibald Hurd, ed., The “Shipping World” Year Book 1930, “Shipping World” Offices, 1930.

8.Christopher Alan: A Social History and Ethnography of an African Popular Music, University of Chicago Press, 1990, Waterman, Jùjú, pp. 35, 31.

9.Davianna Pomaika‘i McGregor, Kupa‘a I Ka ‘Aina: Persistence on the Land, dissertation, University of Hawaii, 1989, pp. 164–5.

10.B. S. Hoyle, “Maritime Perspective on Ports and Port Systems: The Case of East Africa,” in Frank Broeze, ed., Brides of the Sea: Port Cities of Asia from the 16th–20th Centuries, University of Hawaii Press, 1989, p. 196.

11.Donald Cohen, ed., Tango Voices: Songs from the Soul of Buenos Aires and Beyond, Wise Publications, 2007, p. 7.

12.Robin Moore, Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997, p. 64.

13.Rodney Gallop, “The Fado (The Portuguese Song of Fate),” Musical Quarterly 19.2 (1933), p. 204.

14.Tan Tai Yong, “Singapore’s Story: A Port City in Search of Hinterlands,” in Arndt Graf and Chua Beng Huat, eds, Port Cities in Asia and Europe, Routledge, 2009, pp. 211–12.

15.Faruk Tabak, “Imperial Rivalry and Port-Cities: a View From Above,” Mediterranean Historical Review 24.2 (2009), pp. 79–94. See also Henk Driessen, “Mediterranean Port Cities: Cosmopolitanism Reconsidered,” History and Anthropology 16.1 (2005), pp. 129–41.

16.Thomas Brothers, Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, W. W. Norton, 2006, p. 14; Donald R. Hill, Calypso Calaloo: Early Carnival Music in Trinidad, University Press of Florida, 1993, pp. 52–5; Virginia Danielson, The Voice of Egypt: Umm Kulthūm, Arabic Song, and Egyptian Society in the 20th Century, University of Chicago Press, 1998, pp. 30, 40; Gregory T. Cushman, “¿De Qué Color Es el Oro? Race, Environment, and the History of Cuban National Music, 1898–1958,” Latin American Music Review 26.2 (2005), p. 170; Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, pp. 29–30.

17.Perry Anderson, “Modernity and Revolution,” New Left Review 144 (1984), p. 104.

18.Brothers, Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, pp. 136–7.

19.Quoted in Ballantine, Marabi Nights, p. 37.

20.Dhlomo quoted in ibid., p. 36.

21.Canaro quoted in Simon Collier, “The Tango Is Born: 1880s–1920s,” in Simon Collier et al., Tango! The Dance, the Song, the Story, Thames and Hudson, 1995, p. 58.

22.Gurre Ploner Noble, Hula Blues: The Story of Johnny Noble, Hawaii, Its Music and Musicians, Tongg Publishing, 1948, p. 44. Jack London, In Hawaii with Jack London, Routledge, 2011, p. 82.

23.John Collins, “The Early History of West African Highlife Music,” Popular Music 8.3 (1989), p. 222.

24.Andrew Field, Shanghai’s Dancing World: Cabaret Culture and Urban Politics, 1919–1954, Chinese University Press, 2010, pp. 43 (quoting Smith), 36.

25.Isabelle Leymarie, Cuban Fire: The Saga of Salsa and Latin Jazz, Continuum, 2002, p. 46.

26.Matthew B. Karush, Culture of Class: Radio and Cinema in the Making of a Divided Argentina, 1920–1946, Duke University Press, 2012, p. 50.

27.Noble, Hula Blues, p. 52.

28.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, pp. 98–9.

29.Tan Sooi Beng, “The 78rpm Record Industry in Malaya Prior to World War II,” Asian Music 28.1 (1996), p. 17.

30.Rafael José de Menezes Bastos, “Brazil in France, 1922: An Anthropo logical Study of the Congenital International Nexus of Popular Music,” Latin American Music Review 29.1 (2008), p. 20.

31.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 38.

32.Gallop, “The Fado,” p. 199.

33.Afolabi Alaja-Browne, Juju Music: A Study of Its Social History and Style, dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1985, p. 43.

34.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, pp. 38–9.

35.Langston Hughes, I Wonder as I Wander: An Autobiographical Journey, Reinhart, 1956, p. 8.

36.Field, Shanghai’s Dancing World, pp. 19–82.

37.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, pp. 38–9.

38.William Howland Kenney, Chicago Jazz: A Cultural History, 1904–1930, Oxford University Press, 1993, pp. 16–24.

39.Matthew Isaac Cohen, The Komedie Stamboel: Popular Theater in Colonial Indonesia, 1891–1903, Ohio University Press, 2006, p. 338.

40.Khalid Amine and Marvin Carlson, The Theatres of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia: Performance Traditions of the Maghreb, Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, p. 92.

41.Stephen Hughes, “The ‘Music Boom’ in Tamil South India: Gramophone, Radio and the Making of Mass Culture,” Historial Journal of Film, Radio and Television 22.4 (2002), p. 460.

42.Cushman, “¿De Qué Color Es el Oro?,” p. 174. Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo, Chicago Press Review, 2004, pp. 383–7.

43.Claude McKay, Banjo: A Story without a Plot, Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1970, p. 67.

44.Ibid., pp. 257, 71, 243, 298.

45.Ibid., pp. 105, 166, 197.

46.Ibid., pp. 4, 47, 11–12, 3.

47.Ibid., pp. 19, 4–9, 14, 48, 54, 56.

48.Ibid., p. 89.

49.Ibid., p. 97.

50.Ibid., p. 109.

51.Paul Vernon, “Special Agents,” Vintage Jazz Mart 96 (1994).

52.T. Malcolm Rockwell, “Sol Hoopii: The Early Years,” liner notes to Sol Hoopii in Hollywood: His First Recordings, 1925, Grass Skirt Records, GSR 1002, 2007, p. 7.

53.Simon Collier, liner notes to Se Va La Vida: Tango Ladies 1923–1954, Harlequin HQ CD 52, 1995. Donald S. Castro, The Argentine Tango as Social History, 1880–1955: The Soul of the People, Mellen Research University Press, 1990, p. 189.

54.Collins, “Early History of West African Highlife Music,” p. 223.

55.Helio Orovio, Cuban Music from A to Z, Duke University Press, 2004, p. 165.

56.Ibid., p. 165. Holst, Road to Rembetika, p. 42. Harry Owens, Sweet Leilani: The Story behind the Song: An Autobiography, Hula House, 1970, p. 39.

57.Mark Ainley, liner notes to Living Is Hard: West African Music in Britain, 1927–1929, Honest Jon’s Records HJRCD33, 2008.

58.Hill, Calypso Calaloo, pp. 9, 100.

59.Gail Holst, Road to Rembetika: Music of a Greek Subculture. Songs of Love, Sorrow and Hashish, Denise Harvey Publisher, 2006, p. 43; Orovio, Cuban Music from A to Z, p. 165; quoted in Stephen Collier, The Life, Music and Times of Carlos Gardel, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1986, p. 11.

60.Patrick Huber, Linthead Stomp: The Creation of Country Music in the Piedmont South, University of North Carolina Press, 2008, p. 22.

61.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 9.

62.Danielson, The Voice of Egypt, pp. 23–4.

63.Martin Stokes, The Republic of Love: Cultural Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music, University of Chicago Press, 2010, p. 21 n. 53.

64.Veit Arlt, “The Union Trade Company and Its Recordings: An Unintentional Documentation of West African Popular Music, 1931–1957,” History in Africa 31 (2004), pp. 401–2.

65.George S. Kanahele, ed. Hawaiian Music and Musicians: An Encyclopedic History, Mutual Publishing, 2012, p. 303; Amy Ku‘uleialoha Stillman, “Prelude to a Comparative Investigation of Protestant Hymnody in Polynesia,” Yearbook for Traditional Music 25 (1993), p. 94.

66.Kanahele, Hawaiian Music and Musicians, pp. 55, 239–40.

67.Nate Plageman, Highlife Saturday Night: Popular Music and Social Change in Urban Ghana, Indiana University Press, 2013, pp. 48–9.

68.Philip Yampolsky, “Kroncong Revisited: New Evidence from Old Sources,” Archipel 79 (2010), p. 28.

69.David Coplan, In Township Tonight!: South Africa’s Black City Music and Theatre, Raven Press, 1985, p. 102; Ballantine, Marabi Nights, pp. 30–3.

70.Nate Plageman, Highlife Saturday Night: Popular Music and Social Change in Urban Ghana, Indiana University Press, 2012, p. 47.

71.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 43.

72.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 92.

73.George Bilainkin, Hail Penang: Being the Narrative of Comedies and Tragedies in a Tropical Outpost, Among Europeans, Chinese, Malays, and Indians, Areca Books, 2010, p. 195.

74.Isaac O. Delano, The Soul of Nigeria, T. W. Laurie, Ltd., 1937, pp. 155, 153–4, 157.

75.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 39.

76.Veit Erlmann, “‘Horses in the Race Course’: The Domestication of Ingoma Dance, 1929–1939,” in his African Stars: Studies in Black South African Performance, University of Chicago Press, 1991.

77.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, pp. 64, 67.

78.Quoted in Hill, Calypso Calaloo, p. 70.

79.Carlos Sandroni, “Transformations of the Carioca Samba in the Twentieth Century,” available at dc.itamaraty.gov.br, p. 80.

80.Bryan McCann, Hello, Hello Brazil: Popular Music in the Making of Modern Brazil, Duke University Press, 2004, pp. 47–8.

81.Sandroni, “Transformations of the Carioca Samba,” 81–2.

82.Erlmann, African Stars, p. 102.

83.Raymond Quevedo (Atilla the Hun), Atilla’s Kaiso: A Short History of Trinidad Calypso, University of the West Indies, 1983, p. 35.

84.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 75.

85.John Cowley, Carnival, Canboulay and Calypso: Traditions in the Making, Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 84, 100, 135, 140.

86.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 69.

87.Ibid., pp. 71, 72.

88.Erlmann, African Stars, p. 96.

89.Quevedo, Atilla’s Kaiso, pp. 36, 38–9, 43.

90.Angèle David-Guillou, “Early Musicians’ Unions in Britain, France, and the United States: On the Possibilities and Impossibilities of Transnational Militant Transfers in an International Industry,” Labour History Review 74.3 (2009); James P. Kraft, Stage to Studio: Musicians and the Sound Revolution, 1890–1950, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.

91.J. H. Nketia, “The Gramophone and Contemporary African Music in the Gold Coast,” Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference of the West African Institute of Social and Economic Research, 1956, p. 193.

92.Quoted in Danielson, The Voice of Egypt, p. 54.

93.John Collins, Musicmakers of West Africa, Three Continents Press, 1985, p. 15.

94.Lisbet Torp, Salonikiós, “The Best Vision in the Balkans,” Museum Tusculanum Press, 1993, p. 14.

95.Burnet Hershey, “Jazz Latitude,” New York Times, June 25, 1922, p. SM5. See also Lee Watkins, “Minstrelsy and Mimesis in the South China Sea: Filipino Migrant Musicians, Chinese Hosts, and the Disciplining of Relations in Hong Kong,” Asian Music 40.2 (2009), pp. 72–99. E. Taylor Atkins, Blue Nippon: Authenticating Jazz in Japan, Duke University Press, 2001, pp. 58–60, 289 n. 48. Peter Keppy, “Southeast Asia in the Age of Jazz: Locating Popular Culture in the Colonial Philippines and Indonesia,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 44.3 (2013), p. 457.

96.Ruth Glasser, My Music Is My Flag: Puerto Rican Musicians and their New York Communities, 1917–1940, University of California Press, 1995, pp. 85–6; Kanahele, Hawaiian Music and Musicians, pp. 172–7.

97.Brothers, Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, pp. 174, 181.

98.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, pp. 5–6.

99.Hill, Calypso Calaloo, chapters 3 and 4.

100.Coplan, In Township Tonight!, Chapter 2.

101.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 81.

102.Collins, “Early History of West African Highlife Music,” pp. 222, 225.

103.See Derek B. Scott, Sounds of the Metropolis: The Nineteenth-Century Popular Music Revolution in London, New York, Paris, and Vienna, Oxford University Press, 2008; and Peter Van der Merwe, Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music, Clarendon Press, 1989.

104.Hermano Vianna, The Mystery of Samba: Popular Music and National Identity in Brazil, University of North Carolina Press, 1999, pp. 1–2.

105.McCann, Hello, Hello Brazil, pp. 7, 60–2. See also Micol Seigel, Uneven Encounters: Making Race and Nation in Brazil and the United States, Duke University Press, 2009.

106.Paul Morand, East India and Company, A. & C. Boni, 1927, p. 28.

107.Brothers asks, “Why did a unique way of playing ragtime develop in New Orleans?” (Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, p. 133). See also Charles Hersch, Subversive Sounds: Race and the Birth of Jazz in New Orleans, University of Chicago Press, 2007.

3. Phonographing the Vernacular

1.Paul Vernon, “Cairo Practice,” Folk Roots 141 (1995), pp. 26–7. Vernon was one of the first scholars to recognize this “worldwide explosion of recording activity with the mass market as its target.”

2.Pekka Gronow, “The Record Industry: The Growth of a Mass Medium,” Popular Music 3 (1983), p. 62.

3.The difficulty with the term “world music”—which emerged in the early 1980s to designate a specific sector of the music market, specializing in the transnational trafficking of “ethnic” musics—lies in the implicit suggestion that, on the one hand, there is a relatively clear divide between the “music” of the West, whether “classical” or “popular,” and the “world music” of the rest, and, on the other hand, that “world music” is a single global music, a “world beat.”

4.“We can … speak of a music industry from the moment that music production and consumption severed ties with the context of the feudal court and church … The foundation of … the music industry only resulted from the interplay between a blossoming music publishing business and an emerging public music concert culture in the 18th century.” Peter Tschmuck, Creativity and Innovation in the Music Industry, Springer, 2006, p. 1.

5.David Suisman, Selling Sounds: The Commercial Revolution in American Music, Harvard University Press, 2009, p. 101.

6.Steve J. Wurtzler, Electric Sounds: Technological Change and the Rise of the Corporate Mass Media, Columbia University Press, 2007, p. 3.

7.Albin J. Zak III, The Poetics of Rock: Cutting Tracks, Making Records, University of California Press, 2001.

8.Greg Milner, Perfecting Sound Forever: An Aural History of Recorded Music, Faber and Faber, 2009, p. 301.

9.Michael E. Veal, Dub: Soundscapes and Shattered Songs in Jamaican Reggae, Wesleyan University Press, 2007; Mark Katz, Groove Music: The Art and Culture of the Hip-Hop DJ, Oxford University Press, 2012.

10.Peter Doyle, Echo and Reverb: Fabricating Space in Popular Music, 1900–1960, Wesleyan University Press, 2005, p. 55.

11.Doyle, Echo and Reverb, p. 57; Theodor W. Adorno, “The Curves of the Needle,” in Essays on Music, Richard Leppert, ed., University of California Press, 2002, p. 271.

12.Quoted in Milner, Perfecting Sound, p. 59.

13.“Louis Sterling, Columbia Head, Gives Interesting Views on Gramophone’s Future,” Talking Machine World 22.8 (August 1926): 140.

14.James P. Kraft, Stage to Studio: Musicians and the Sound Revolution, 1890–1950, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.

15.Pekka Gronow and Björn Englund, “Inventing Recorded Music: The Recorded Repertoire in Scandinavia 1899–1925,” Popular Music 26.2 (2007), p. 282.

16.Suisman, Selling Sounds, p. 231.

17.Ali Jihad Racy, Musical Change and Commercial Recording in Egypt, 1904–1932, dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1977, p. 111.

18.Robin Moore, Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997, p. 257 n. 22.

19.Rian Malan, In the Jungle, Cold Type Modern Classics, 2003, coldtype.net, p. 7–8.

20.See Paul Vernon, “Odeon Records: Their ‘Ethnic’ Output,” Musical Traditions 3 (1997), mustrad.org.uk.

21.Stephen Hughes, “The ‘Music Boom’ in Tamil South India: Gramophone, Radio and the Making of Mass Culture,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 22.4 (2002), p. 464

22.Quoted by Nicholas G. Pappas, “Concepts of Greekness: The Recorded Music of Anatolian Greeks after 1922,” Journal of Modern Greek Studies 17.2 (1999), p. 355.

23.UK figures from Statistical Office of the Customs and Excise Department, Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions [Countries, from 1925], vol. 3 (from 1923 to 1933); German figures from Statistischen Reichsamt, Monatliche Nachweise über den auswärtigen Handel Deutschlands (from December 1925 to December 1933); US figures from US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States (from 1922 to 1933). The French figures are my estimate based on the reported weight of exports in République Française, Direction Général des Douanes, Tableau Général du Commerce et de la Navigation, vol. 1 (from 1923 to 1927); and République Française, Direction Général des Douanes, Tableau Général du Commerce (from 1928 to 1933). Before 1929, the weight of exported discs was not distinguished from that of exported phonograph machines; I extrapolated the proportion between discs and machines over 1929–33 to get an estimate of the weight of discs from 1923 to 1928. I then used Gronow’s estimate of 4.5 discs per kilogram to get an estimate of discs (Pekka Gronow, The Recording Industry: An Ethnomusicological Approach, University of Tampere, 1996, p. 112).

24.Statistical Office of the Customs and Excise Department, Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Countries 1929 Compared with the Years 1925–1928, His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1930, vol. 3, pp. 340–1. Though it is not clear what his source is, John Collins has written that “the sales of these vernacular guitar songs from Ghana and elsewhere in West Africa were so profitable that the record company HMV/Zonophone sold 181,484 of them in 1930, whilst this British company and German Odeon sold eight hundred thousand of them before the Second World War.” Collins, “One Hundred Years of Censorship,” in Drewett and Cloonan, eds, Popular Music Censorship in Africa, Ashgate, 2006, p. 174.

25.Statistischen Reichsamt, Monatliche Nachweise über den auswärtigen Handel Deutschlands, December 1925, p. 159; ibid., December 1929, p. 177.

26.US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for the Calendar Year 1929, Government Printing Office, 1930, vol. 1, pp. 202–3.

27.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, pp. 3–4.

28.Indeed, the picture Andrew Jones gives in Yellow Music of the Shanghai recording industry in the 1920s has uncanny parallels to labor historian Elizabeth Perry’s description of the Shanghai tobacco and silk industries in the same period. Elizabeth J. Perry, Shanghai on Strike: The Politics of Chinese Labor, Stanford University Press, 1993.

29.Dane Yorke, “The Rise and Fall of the Phonograph,” American Mercury 27.105 (1932), p. 9.

30.Geoffrey Jones, “The Gramophone Company: An Anglo-American Multinational, 1898–1931,” Business History Review 59.1 (1985), pp. 81–96. Gramophone’s profits had quadrupled from 1925 (£296,385) to 1928 (£1,232,553).

31.Talking Machine World (March 1928), p. 20–1. Victor’s sales had more than doubled from 1925 (about $21 million) to 1927 (about $47 million). Victor’s disc sales had grown from 25 million discs in 1925 to almost 38 million discs in 1927 and 1928 (though they did not match 1921’s high of nearly 55 million discs sold, when Victor had little US competition). See “Victor Record Sales Statistics (1901–1941),” Mainspring Press, mainspringpress.com, 2009.

32.Pekka Gronow, “The Record Industry Comes to the Orient,” Ethnomusicology 25.2 (May 1981); Tschmuck, Creativity and Innovation, p. 27; Allan Sutton, Recording the ‘Twenties: The Evolution of the American Recording Industry, 1920–29, Mainspring Press, 2008, p. 257.

33.Herfrid Kier, “The Lindström AG between the world economic crisis and the merger with EMI Electrola,” in Pekka Gronow and Christiane Hofer, eds, The Lindström Project: Contributions to the History of the Record Industry, Volume 1, Gesellschaft für Historische Tontrāger, 2009, p. 27.

34.Tschmuck, Creativity and Innovation, p. 50. For a good account of the boom in the UK, see Peter Martland, Recording History: The British Record Industry, 1888–1931, Scarecrow Press, 2013, pp. 241–4.

35.“Phonograph Records,” Fortune (September 1939), pp. 92, 94. In a 1943 court case, Victor later reported figures that indicated an even greater drop, with a 1929 figure of almost 35 million discs. See “Victor Record Sales Statistics (1901–1941),” Mainspring Press, mainspringpress.com, 2009.

36.Martland, Recording History, p. 243.

37.Kier, “The Lindström AG,” in Gronow and Hofer, eds, The Lindström Project, p. 27.

38.Gronow, “The Record Industry: The Growth of a Mass Medium,” p. 63. Working from the dollar value of record sales in the US, Gronow shows a comparable drop from $75 million to $11 million; Jones shows that Gramophone’s world profits dropped from 1.2 million pounds in 1928 to .3 million pounds in 1930 (“The Gramophone Company,” p. 96).

39.On the complex history of Telefunken and Deutsche Grammophon, see Tschmuck, Creativity and Innovation, pp. 63–9.

40.Harry O. Sooy, “Memoirs of My Career at Victor Talking Machine Company 1898–1925,” n.d., The David Sarnoff Library, davidsarnoff.org.

41.Ross Laird and Brian Rust, Discography of OKeh Records, 1918–1934, Praeger, 2004, pp. 8–14. See also Paul Oliver, Barrelhouse Blues: Location Recording and the Early Traditions of the Blues, Basic Books, 2009.

42.Niles, “Ballads, Songs, and Snatches,” The Bookman (July 1928), p. 565.

43.Patrick Huber, Linthead Stomp: The Creation of Country Music in the Piedmont South, University of North Carolina Press, 2008, pp. 26–7.

44.John Lilienthal, “Selling Latin-American Field Successfully,” Talking Machine World 24:5 (1928), pp. 16, 19. See also “Will Represent Columbia Co. in Central America,” Talking Machine World 23.6 (1927), p. 98.

45.“Brunswick Export Manager Makes Extensive Visit to Latin America,” Talking Machine World 24.6 (1928), p. 86.

46.“Brunswick Sends Men to Honolulu to Make New Hawaiian Records,” Honolulu Advertiser, quoted in Ross Laird, Brunswick Records: A Discography of Recordings, 1916–1931, Greenwood Press, 2001, pp. 21–2. See also “Elmer Avery,” Recording Pioneers, recordingpioneers.com.

47.Fowler quoted in Vernon, “Cairo Practice,” pp. 26–7.

48.Paul Vernon, “A Look at the Engineers Who Made History Travelling the World Recording Its Music,” Vintage Jazz Mart 94 (1994). Vernon tracks the recording sessions of many of the Gramophone engineers in his Ethnic and Vernacular Music, 1898–1960: A Resource and Guide to Recordings, Greenwood Press, 1995.

49.Topp Fargion, liner notes to Poetry and Languid Charm, p. 2.

50.T. Malcolm Rockwell, Hawaiian and Hawaiian Guitar Records 1891–1960, Mahina Piha Press, 2007, p. xiii.

51.Ross Laird, Brunswick Records: A Discography of Recordings, 1916–1931, Greenwood Press, 2001, p. 24

52.Vernon, “Odeon Records.” Paul Vernon, “Ancient Greeks,” Folk Roots 133 (1994), pp. 32–3. Chris Waterman, liner notes to Jùjú Roots 1930s–1950s, Rounder CD5017, 1993.

53.Paul Vernon, “The Tango Trip,” Folk Roots 136 (1994), pp. 33–4.

54.Franceschi, A Casa Edison e Seu Tempo, Sarapui, 2002; Wander Nunes Frota, “The Enactment of the Field of Cultural and Artistic Production of Popular Music in Brazil: A Case Study of the ‘Noel Rosa Generation’ in the 1930s,” Popular Music 25.1 (2006), pp. 117–25.

55.Tschmuck, Creativity and Innovation, p. 24.

56.Suresh Chandvankar, “Odeon Label Discs in India,” The Record News (2010), p. 16.

57.Philip Yampolsky, “Kroncong Revisited: New Evidence from Old Sources,” Archipel 79 (2010), p. 13.

58.Sooy, “Memoir.”

59.Du Jun Min, “The Development of Chinese Records to 1911,” Antique Phonograph News (January–February 2008), capsnews.org.

60.Racy, Musical Change and Commercial Recording in Egypt, p. 97.

61.On pocketbook companies, see Andrew F. Jones, Yellow Music: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age, Duke University Press, 2001, p. 63.

62.For example, “Due to his position and responsibilities as recording director and as a result of his good ear and knowledge of music, Sémsis often transcribed the music of other composers and musicians who did not know how to write music themselves.” Lisbet Torp, Salonikiós, “The Best Violin in the Balkans,” Museum Tusculanum Press, 1993, p. 34.

63.Frota, “Enactment of the Field of Cultural and Artistic Production,” p. 118.

64.Ibid., pp. 118–19.

65.Karush, Culture of Class, p. 48.

66.Pappas, “Concepts of Greekness,” p. 358.

67.Quoted in Torp, Salonikiós, pp. 30 n. 52, 30 n. 51.

68.Harold G. Hagopian, liner notes to Istanbul 1925, Traditional Crossroads CD 4266, 1994, p. 3.

69.Mark Ainley, liner notes to Living Is Hard: West African Music in Britain, 1927–1929, Honest Jon’s Records HJRCD33, 2008.

70.Paul Vernon, liner notes to Early Guitar Music from West Africa 1927–1929, Heritage HT CD 33, 2003.

71.David Coplan, In Township Tonight!: South Africa’s Black City Music and Theatre, Ravan Press, 1985, p. 137.

72.Ahmed and Mohamed Elhabib Hachlaf, Anthologie de la musique arabe: 1906–1960, Publisud, 1993 , pp. 182–4.

73.Miliani, “Le Cheikh et le phonographe,” p. 48 n. 17; Jonathan Ward, liner notes to Opika Pende: Africa at 78rpm, Dust-to-Digital DTD-22, 2011, p. 27.

74.William Howland Kenney, Chicago Jazz: A Cultural History, 1904–1930, Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 48; Stephen Calt, “The Anatomy of a ‘Race’ Music Label: Mayo Williams and Paramount Records,” in Norman Kelley, ed., Rhythm & Business: The Political Economy of Black Music, Akashic Books, 2002.

75.Anne Key Simpson, “Those Everlasting Blues: The Best of Clarence Williams,” Louisiana History 40.2 (1999), p. 184; Lynn Abbott, “‘Brown Skin, Who You For?’ Another Look at Clarence Williams’s Early Career,” The Jazz Archivist 8.1–2 (1993), pp. 1–20; Tom Lord, Clarence Williams, Storyville Publications, 1976.

76.Quoted in Nat Shapiro and Nat Hentoff, eds, Hear Me Talkin’ to Ya: The Story of Jazz by the Men who Made It, Penguin, 1962, p. 180.

77.Quoted in Laird, Brunswick Records, p. 22.

78.Pascale Casanova, The World Republic of Letters, Harvard University Press, 2004, pp. 88, 83, 13.

79.“In musical contexts,” the Grove Music Dictionary notes, “the word ‘guild’—like the German words Zunft, Gilde, and Bruderschaft, the French confrérie, the Spanish corporación, the Italian arte or the Czechoslovakian cech—denotes the gathering of individual musicians into a professional society.” Heinrich W. Schwab, “Guilds,” Grove Music Online, oxfordmusiconline.com.

80.Matthew Gelbart, The Invention of “Folk Music” and “Art Music”: Emerging Categories from Ossian to Wagner, Cambridge University Press, 2007; Peter Van der Merwe, Roots of the Classical: The Popular Origins of Western Music, Oxford University Press, 2004, pp. 273–6.

81.Donald Sassoon, The Culture of the Europeans: From 1800 to the Present, HarperPress, 2006; David Gramit, Cultivating Music: The Aspirations, Interests, and Limits of German Musical Culture, 1770–1848, University of California Press, 2002; Scott, Sounds of the Metropolis.

82.Gerry Farrell, “The Early Days of the Gramophone Industry in India: Historical, Social and Musical Perspectives,” British Journal of Ethnomusicology 2 (1993); pp. 31–9.

83.Frederick W. Gaisberg, The Music Goes Round, Macmillan Co., 1942, p. 34.

84.Min, “The Development of Chinese Records.”

85.Vernon, “Cairo Practice.”

86.Vernon, “Empire State”; Gokhan Ara, liner notes to To Scratch Your Heart: Early Recordings from Istanbul, Honest Jon’s Records HJRCD 48, 2010.

87.Michael Kinnear, The Gramophone Company’s First Indian Recordings 1899–1908, Popular Prakashan, 1994.

88.Stephen Hughes, “The ‘Music Boom’ in Tamil South India: Gramo phone, Radio and the Making of Mass Culture,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 22.4 (2002), p. 449.

89.See Erika Brady, A Spiral Way: How the Phonograph Changed Ethnography, University Press of Mississippi, 1999.

90.Ernest Ansermet, “Sur un Orchestre Nègre,” Revue Romande (October 1919), translated in Robert Walser, ed., Keeping Time: Readings in Jazz History, Oxford University Press, 1999; Darius Milhaud, “The Jazz Band and Negro Music,” Living Age 323.4189 (1924), pp. 169–73.

91.There is an excellent literature on the mainstream reception of jazz in the 1920s, from Neil Leonard, Jazz and the White Americans: The Acceptance of a New Form, University of Chicago Press, 1962, and Kathy J. Ogren, The Jazz Revolution: Twenties America and the Meaning of Jazz, Oxford University Press, 1989, to Matthew F. Jordan, Le Jazz: Jazz and French Cultural Identity, University of Illinois Press, 2010.

92.“African Music: Where Is It?,” Ilanga Lase Natal, February 10, 1933, quoted in Tim Couzens, The New African: A Study of the Life and Work of H. I. E. Dhlomo, Ravan Press, 1985, p. 54.

93.Isaac O. Delano, The Soul of Nigeria, T. W. Laurie, Ltd., 1937, pp. 153, 157.

94.This is a tendency of some excellent recent scholarship, including a fine collection of essays: E. Taylor Atkins, ed., Jazz Planet, University Press of Mississippi, 2003.

95.Tamara Elena Livingston-Isenhour and Thomas George Caracas Garcia, Choro: A Social History of a Brazilian Popular Music, Indiana University Press, 2005, p. 94. See also Rafael José de Menezes Bastos, “Brazil in France, 1922: An Anthropological Study of the Congenital International Nexus of Popular Music,” Latin American Music Review 29:1 (2008), and Micol Seigel, Uneven Encounters: Making Race and Nation in Brazil and the United States, Duke University Press, 2009.

96.Noble, quoted in Elizabeth Tatar, Strains of Change: The Impact of Tourism on Hawaiian Music, Bishop Museum Press, 1987, p. 13.

97.Quoted in George S. Kanahele, ed., (revised and updated by John Berger), Hawaiian Music and Musicians: An Encyclopedic History, Mutual Publishing, 2012, p. 475.

98.Emilio Grenet, Popular Cuban Music: 80 Revised and Corrected Compositions, Together with an Essay on the Evolution of Music in Cuba, Carasa & Co., 1939, p. xxxiii.

99.Theodor W. Adorno, “On Jazz,” and “Farewell to Jazz,” in his Essays on Music, ed. Richard Leppert, University of California Press, 2002, pp. 470, 497, 472, 479, 483.

100.Burnet Hershey, “Jazz Latitude,” New York Times, June 25, 1922.

101.J. A. Rogers, “Jazz at Home,” in Alain Locke, ed., The New Negro, Simon & Schuster, 1997, p. 217.

102.Jeffrey H. Jackson, Making Jazz French: Music and Modern Life in Interwar Paris, Duke University Press, 2003, p. 23.

103.Michael Dregni, Django: The Life and Music of a Gypsy Legend, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 96.

104.Jackson, Making Jazz French, p. 107. Jackson does note the fluidity of the term “jazz,” pointing out that the title of the first French jazz periodical, Jazz-Tango, emphasized “that what united these two styles of dance music was more important than what distinguished them” (p. 42).

105.Dregni, Django, pp. 99–103.

106.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 8.

107.Jorge Luis Borges, “Genealogy of the Tango,” in Borges, On Argentina, ed. Alfred Mac Adam, Penguin, 2010, p. 68.

108.Simon Collier, “The Tango Is Born: 1880s–1920s,” in Simon Collier et al., Tango! The Dance, the Song, the Story, Thames and Hudson, 1995, pp. 41–2; Cohen, ed., Tango Voices: Songs from the Soul of Buenos Aires and Beyond, Wise Publications, 2007, p. 9.

109.Robert Farris Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love, Pantheon Books, 2005, p. 82.

110.Peter Fryer, Rhythms of Resistance: African Musical Heritage in Brazil, Wesleyan University Press, 2000, p. 103.

111.Janet Sarbanes, “Musicking and Communitas: The Aesthetic Mode of Sociality in Rebetika Subculture,” Popular Music and Society 29.1 (2006), p. 22; Stathis Gauntlett, “Mammon and the Greek Oriental Muse: Rebetika as a Marketing Construct,” in Elizabeth Close, Michael Tsianikas, and George Frazis, eds, Greek Research in Australia: Proceedings of the Biennial International Conference of Greek Studies, Flinders University, 2005, p. 183. See also Risto Pekka Pennanen, “The Development of Chordal Harmony in Greek Rebetika and Laika Music, 1930s to 1960s,” Ethnomusicology Forum 6.1 (1997), p. 65 n. 1.

112.Wong Kee Chee, The Age of Shanghainese Pops: 1930–1970, Joint Publishing, 2001; Jonathan Stock, “Reconsidering the Past: Zhou Xuan and the Rehabilitation of Early Twentieth Century Popular Music,” Asian Music 26.2 (1995), p. 32 n. 4.

113.Waterman, Jùjú, pp. 62–3, 75. See also Afolabi Alaja-Browne, Juju Music: A Study of Its Social History and Style, dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1985, p. 25.

114.Yampolsky, “Kroncong Revisited,” p. 8.

115.Coplan, In Township Tonight!, pp. 94–5.

116.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 180.

117.Grenet, Popular Cuban Music, p. xlvii.

118.Quevedo, Atilla’s Kaiso, pp. 3–4: “In my own experience of over a half-century’s association with kaiso, carnival, and kaiso tents, the first word which I heard used to describe this song and dance form was ‘kaiso.’” John Cowley, in Carnival, Canboulay and Calypso, pp. 138, 98, finds “calipso” first appearing in Trinidad’s newspapers about 1900, though the earliest use is an 1882 account of the “abominable dance called Calypso.”

119.Lawrence Gushee, Pioneers of Jazz: The Story of the Creole Band, Oxford University Press, 2005.

120.Brothers, Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, p. 133.

121.Ali Jihad Racy, Making Music in the Arab World: The Culture and Artistry of Ṭarab, Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 195–208.

122.Quevedo, Atilla’s Kaiso, p. 4.

123.Quoted in Shapiro and Hentoff, eds, Hear Me Talkin’ to Ya, p. 68. Brothers makes a similar argument about ragtime, distinguishing between ragtime as a “genre” and ragtime as “a set of performance practices” (Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, pp. 155–6).

124.E. V. Solomons, “The Krontjong—Java’s Ukelele,” The Lloyd Mail, October 1933, p. 238.

125.G. T., “Dancing,” Encyclopedia Britannica, 12th edition, 1922, vol. 30, p. 796.

126.Hershey, “Jazz Latitude.”

127.Dregni, Django, p. 40.

128.Jackson, Making Jazz French, p. 31.

129.E. Taylor Atkins, Blue Nippon: Authenticating Jazz in Japan, Duke University Press, 2001, pp. 108–9.

130.Quoted in Ballantine, Marabi Nights, p. 112.

131.Attali, Noise, p. 19.

132.Quoted in Jackson, Making Jazz French, p. 31.

133.Quoted in Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 33.

134.Marta E. Savigliano, Tango and the Political Economy of Passion, Westview Press, 1995, p. 159.

135.Flavia Camargo Toni, ed., A música popular brasileira na vitrola de Mário de Andrade, SENAC, 2004.

136.La Revue Du Monde Noir 2 (1931).

137.Musicalia ( January–February 1929).

138.Revista de la Habana, May 1930.

139.Alain Locke, “The Negro in American Culture,” in V. F. Calverton, ed., Anthology of American Negro Literature, The Modern Library, 1929; Sterling Brown, “The Blues as Folk Poetry,” Folk-Say, A Regional Miscellany 2 (1930).

140.Federico García Lorca, “Deep Song,” in In Search of Duende, New Directions, 2010; Blas Infante, Orígenes de lo Flamenco y Secreto del Cante Jondo (1929–1933), Consejería de Cultura de la Junta de Andalucía, 1980. Both García Lorca and Infante would be killed by Franco’s forces in the Spanish Civil War a few years later.

141.Ali Jihad Racy, “Historical Worldviews of Early Ethnomusicologists: An East-West Encounter in Cairo, 1932,” in Stephen Blum, Philip V. Bohlman, and Daniel M. Neuman, eds, Ethnomusicology and Modern Music History, University of Illinois Press, 1991; Danielson, The Voice of Egypt, pp. 77, 81.

142.Lakshmi Subramanian, From the Tanjore Court to the Madras Music Academy: A Social History of Music in South India, Oxford University Press, 2011; Amanda J. Weidman, Singing the Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postcolonial Politics of Music in South India, Duke University Press, 2006.

143.Jones, Yellow Music, pp. 35–52.

144.Mary Kawena Pukui, “Ancient Hulas of Kauai,” The Garden Island, February–March 1936, and Mary Kawena Pukui, “The Hula, Hawaii’s Own Dance,” Thrum’s Hawaiian Almanac and Annual (1942), both reprinted in Dorothy B. Barrère, Mary Kawena Pukui, and Marion Kelly, Hula: Historical Perspectives, Bishop Museum, 1980; Mary Kawena Pukui, “Songs (Meles) of Old Ka’u, Hawaii,” Journal of American Folklore 62 (1949), pp. 247–58.

145.Gelbart, The Invention of “Folk Music” and “Art Music.”

146.Rodney Gallop, “The Fado (The Portuguese Song of Fate),” Musical Quarterly 19.2 (1933), p. 211.

147.Quoted in Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 106.

148.Stephen Erdely, “Bartók and folk music,” in Amanda Bayley, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Bartók, Cambridge University Press, 2001.

149.Helen H. Roberts, Ancient Hawaiian Music, Bishop Museum, 1926.

150.Coplan, In Township Tonight!, p. 136.

151.Martin Stokes, The Republic of Love: Cultural Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music, University of Chicago Press, 2010, p. 17.

152.James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art, Harvard University Press, 1988.

153.John Szwed, Alan Lomax: The Man Who Recorded the World, Viking Penguin, 2010.

154.Sean Stroud, The Defence of Tradition in Brazilian Popular Music: Politics, Culture and the Creation of Música Popular Brasileira, Ashgate, 2008, p. 131–58.

155.Aaron Copland, “The World of the Phonograph,” “American Scholar 6.1 (1937), p. 33.

156.Voice of Victor, April 1923, quoted in Paul Vernon, “The World at 80 RPM,” Folk Roots 119 (1993).

157.Béla Bartók, “At the Congress for Arab Music—Cairo, 1932 [1933],” in Benjamin Suchoff, Béla Bartók Essays, Faber & Faber, 1976, p. 38.

158.Jaap Kunst, “Musicological Exploration in the Indian Archipelago,” Asiatic Review 32.112 (1936), p. 814.

159.“Musicus,” Umteteli wa Bantu, November 11, 1933, quoted in Coplan, In Township Tonight!, p. 109.

160.Umteteli wa Bantu, January 9, 1932, quoted in Veit Erlmann, African Stars: Studies in Black South African Performance, University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 145.

161.Umteteli wa Bantu, July 9, 1932, quoted in Ballantine, Marabi Nights, p. 31.

162.Quoted in Stroud, Defence of Tradition in Brazilian Popular Music, p. 13.

163.McCann, Hello, Hello Brazil, p. 16.

164.Quoted in Mark Pedelty, “The Bolero: the Birth, Life, and Decline of Mexican Modernity,” Latin American Music Review 20.1 (Spring–Summer 1999), p. 40.

165.Newman I. White, American Negro Folk-songs, Harvard University Press, 1928, pp. 389–90.

166.Locke, “The Negro in American Culture,” pp. 248–9.

167.José Maciel Ribeiro Fortes, quoted in Gallop, “The Fado,” p. 201.

168.Jorge Luis Borges, “A History of the Tango,” in Borges, On Argentina, ed. Alfred Mac Adam, Penguin, 2010, p. 102.

169.Pedelty, “The Bolero,” p. 36.

170.“Jazzmania,” Umteteli wa Bantu, February 11, 1933, quoted in Couzens, The New African, pp. 56–7.

171.Mary Kawena Pukui, “Games of My Hawaiian Childhood,” California Folklore Quarterly 2.3 (1943), p. 220.

172.Andrée Nardal, “Notes on the Biguine Créole,” La Revue Du Monde Noir 2 (1931), p. 51.

173.Amy Ku‘uleialoha Stillman, “Textualizing Hawaiian Music,” American Music 23.1 (2005), p. 76; Aiko Yamashiro, “Ethics in Song: Becoming Kama ‘Āina in Hapa-Haole Music,” Cultural Analysis 8 (2009), p. 17.

174.Quoted in Cushman, “¿De Qué Color Es el Oro?,” p. 173.

175.Borges, “Genealogy of the Tango,” p. 72.

176.Borges, “A History of the Tango,” p. 108.

177.E. M. von Hornbostel, “African Negro Music,” Africa 1.1 (1928), pp. 60 n. 2, 61.

178.Christopher A. Waterman, “The Uneven Development of Africanist Ethnomusicology: Three Issues and a Critique,” in Bruno Nettl and Philip V. Bohlman, eds, Comparative Musicology and Anthropology of Music: Essays on the History of Ethnomusicology, University of Chicago Press, 1990, p. 175.

179.Quoted in Coplan, In Township Tonight!, p. 136.

180.Bálint Sárosi, Gypsy Music, Corvina Press, 1978, p. 60.

181.Van der Merwe, Roots of the Classical, pp. 108–9. Franz Liszt, The Gipsy in Music: The Result of the Author’s Life-Long Experiences and Investigations of the Gipsies and Their Music, W. Reeves, 1926 (originally published in French in 1859). See Sárosi’s excellent account of the Liszt controversy, Gypsy Music, pp. 141–50.

182.Béla Bartók, “Gypsy Music or Hungarian Music?,” Musical Quarterly 33.2 (1947), pp. 240–1, 251. See also Julie Brown, “Bartók, the Gypsies and Hybridity in Music,” in Georgina Born and David Hesmondhalgh, eds, Western Music and Its Others: Difference, Representation, and Appropriation in Music, University of California Press, 2000; and Katie Trumpener, “Béla Bartók and the Rise of Comparative Ethnomusicology: Nationalism, Race Purity, and the Legacy of the Austro-Hungarian Empire,” in Ronald Radano and Philip V. Bohlman, eds, Music and the Racial Imagination, University of Chicago Press, 2000.

183.Ibid., p. 252.

184.For a fine history of the relation between the gypsy band and the popular sheet music, see Sárosi, Gypsy Music, Chapter 8.

185.Bartók, “Gypsy Music or Hungarian Music?,” p. 242.

186.George Pullen Jackson, “The Genesis of the Negro Spiritual,” The American Mercury 26.102 (1932), pp. 243–55.

187.Lee Watkins, “Minstrelsy and Mimesis in the South China Sea: Filipino Migrant Musicians, Chinese Hosts, and the Disciplining of Relations in Hong Kong,” Asian Music 40.2 (2009), p. 89.

188.Hugh Tracey, “The State of Folk Music in Bantu Africa: A Brief Survey Delivered to the International Folk Music Council, on Behalf of the African Music Society,” African Music 1.1 (1954), p. 11.

189.Van der Merwe, Roots of the Classical, pp. 461–2.

190.See, for example, “Light Music, Past and Present,” The Musical Standard 18.469 (1902), p. 403. Derek B. Scott, “Other Mainstreams: Light Music and Easy Listening, 1920–70,” in Nicholas Cook and Anthony Pople, eds, The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Music, Cambridge University Press, 2004; David Lelyveld, “Upon the Subdominant: Administering Music on All-India Radio,” Social Text 39 (1994), pp. 120–1.

191.Bartók, “Gypsy Music or Hungarian Music?,” pp. 241–2.

192.Quoted in Thomas Y. Levin and Michael von der Linn, “Elements of a Radio Theory: Adorno and the Princeton Radio Research Project,” Musical Quarterly 78.2 (1994), p. 317.

193.Adorno, “On the Social Situation of Music,” in Essays on Music, p. 425.

194.Rafael José de Menezes Bastos, “The ‘Origin of Samba’ as the Invention of Brazil (Why Do Songs Have Music?),” Ethnomusicology Forum 8.1 (1999), pp. 69–71. He argues that the first “musical universal of the West” was Gregorian chant, the motor of the Christianization of Europe, and the second was “Western music of the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, which defined Europe as a ‘concert of nations’ within the context of the relations between modern nation-states and the colonial world.” Another powerful account sees the popular style as a musical universal but argues that it is not new: Peter Van der Merwe, in Origins of the Popular Style, argues that the musical language that dominates twentieth-century popular music—the blues (“the worldwide influence of the blues in the twentieth century is comparable in influence with the influence of the Italian popular style in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,” p. 117)—was fully formed by 1900: “with the publication of the first blues the materials of the twentieth-century popular composer were complete … [Popular music] has come up with nothing that, fundamentally, cannot be traced back to 1900 or earlier” (p. 286).

195.There are a handful of early uses of the phrase in English in writings on folk musics: they range from an 1847 review of books of nursery rhymes that speaks of “what may be termed our vernacular music” (“Nursery Rhymes,” The Literary Gazette and Journal of the Belles Lettres [February 6, 1847], p. 106) to an 1881 discussion of song and dance as “the vernacular music of the human race” (“State of Music Before the Rise of the Opera,” Monthly Musical Record 11 [October 1, 1881], p. 185).

196.However, H. Evans’s 1931 internal EMI report, “Review of the Present Vernacular Record Trade,” still seems to refer to records made in the vernacular languages of Africa.

197.Charles Seeger, “Folk Music as a Source of Social History,” in Caroline Ware, ed., The Cultural Approach to History, Columbia University Press, 1940, p. 320. For a discussion of the early uses of vernacular as well as the Popular Front development of the concept, see Archie Green, “Vernacular Music: A Naming Compass,” Musical Quarterly 77.1 (1993), p. 35. The term entered musicology in the 1970s and 1980s with influential uses in H. Wiley Hitchcock, Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction, Prentice-Hall, 1969; and Christopher Small, Music of the Common Tongue: Survival and Celebration in Afro-American Music, Riverrun Press, 1987.

198.It thus draws on a long and contested tradition of thinking of music as a language, discussed in, for example, Kathleen Marie Higgins, The Music Between Us: Is Music a Universal Language?, University of Chicago Press, 2012.

4. Phonograph Culture

1.Theodor W. Adorno, “The Curves of the Needle,” in his Essays on Music, Richard Leppert, ed., University of California Press, 2002, p. 273.

2.Theodor W. Adorno, Current of Music: Elements of a Radio Theory, Polity, 2009, p. 76.

3.This separation in time and place between making a sound and listening to it was dubbed “schizophonia” by the pioneering theorist of the soundscape R. Murray Schafer, The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World, Destiny Books, 1994, pp. 88, 90.

4.Adorno, Current of Music, pp. 90, 65, 118.

5.Pekka Gronow, “The Record Industry: The Growth of a Mass Medium,” Popular Music 3 (1983), pp. 62–4.

6.“Louis S. Sterling, Chairman of Board of Columbia Co., Discusses World Trade,” Talking Machine World 23.3 (1927), p. 1.

7.Tan Sooi Beng, “The 78rpm Record Industry in Malaya Prior to World War II,” Asian Music 28.1 (1996), pp. 8–9.

8.S. Theodore Baskaran, The Message Bearers: The Nationalist Politics and the Entertainment Media in South India, 1880–1945, Cre-A, 1981, p. 56.

9.Stephen Hughes, “The ‘Music Boom’ in Tamil South India: Gramophone, Radio and the Making of Mass Culture,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 22.4 (2002), p. 452.

10.Rūz al-Yūsuf, September 29, 1926, quoted in Virginia Danielson, The Voice of Egypt: Umm Kulthūm, Arabic Song, and Egyptian Society in the Twentieth Century, University of Chicago Press, 1997, p. 210 n. 32.

11.Quoted in Paul Vernon, “Empire State,” Folk Roots 167 (1997), pp. 28–9.

12.Quoted in Rebecca P. Scales, “Subversive Sound: Transnational Radio, Arabic Recordings, and the Dangers of Listening in French Colonial Algeria, 1934–1939,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 52.2 (2010), p. 399.

13.Quoted in Paul Vernon, “Feast of East,” Folk Roots 145 (July 1995), pp. 26–7.

14.Christopher Ballantine, Marabi Nights: Jazz, “Race” and Society in Early Apartheid South Africa, University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2012, p. 24.

15.Ilanga Lase Natal, February 8, 1929, quoted in Tim Couzens, The New African: A Study of the Life and Work of H. I. E. Dhlomo, Ravan Press, 1985, p. 67.

16.Chris Waterman, liner notes to Jùjú Roots 1930s–1950s, Rounder CD5017, 1993.

17.John Collins, “One Hundred Years of Censorship in Ghanaian Popular Music Performance,” in Michael Drewett and Martin Cloonan, eds, Popular Music Censorship in Africa, Ashgate, 2006, p. 174. J. H. Nketia writes that “with increasing economic wealth offered by cocoa, many farmers in rural areas have been turning more and more to the products of industry and the gramophone is finding its way into many homes … Stories are told in Kumasi of farmers who come down from the rich cocoa area of Ahafo to buy gramophones for their wives” (“The Gramophone and Contemporary African Music in the Gold Coast,” Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference of the West African Institute of Social and Economic Research, 1956, p. 196.).

18.“Nation-wide Survey of Phonographs and Radios in Homes,” Talking Machine World 23.4 (1927), pp. 10–11. Overall, phonographs were found in 46.2 percent of homes, ranging from 60.3 percent in cities larger than 100,000 to 29.0 percent in towns under 1,000. Radios, on the other hand, were found in only about a quarter of households.

19.Sebok quoted in Talking Machine World 23.2 (1927), p. 18.

20.Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1956 [1929], p. 244 n. 35.

21.Quoted in Patrick Huber, Linthead Stomp: The Creation of Country Music in the Piedmont South, University of North Carolina Press, 2008, p. 15. A 1927 survey found that almost 40 percent of families in Gaston County, North Carolina owned phonographs, radios, or musical instruments; a 1935 survey of North Carolina mill families found that a third of them owned phonographs (Huber, p. 36).

22.Marybeth Hamilton, In Search of the Blues, Basic Books, 2008, p. 14.

23.Charles Hiroshi Garrett, Struggling to Define a Nation: American Music and the Twentieth Century, University of California Press, 2008, p. 91.

24.Ruth Glasser, My Music Is My Flag: Puerto Rican Musicians and their New York Communities, 1917–1940, University of California Press, 1995, p. 129.

25.Manuel Gamio, Mexican Immigration to the United States: A Study of Human Migration and Adjustment, University of Chicago Press, 1930, pp. 146–7, 70, 226.

26.Donald S. Castro, The Argentine Tango as Social History, 1880–1955: The Soul of the People, Mellen Research University Press, 1990, p. 137.

27.Oscar Chamosa, “Indigenous or Criollo: The Myth of White Argentina in Tucuman’s Calchaqui Valley,” Hispanic American Historical Review 88.1 (2008), p. 90.

28.Quoted in Gokhan Ara, liner notes to To Scratch Your Heart: Early Recordings from Istanbul, Honest Jon’s Records HJRCD48 2010, p. 1.

29.Mark Ainley and Yeheskel Kojaman, liner notes, Give Me Love: Songs of the Brokenhearted—Baghdad, 1925–1929, Honest Jon’s Records HJRCD35, 2008.

30.Glasser, My Music Is My Flag, p. 30.

31.Ali Jihad Racy, Musical Change and Commercial Recording in Egypt, 1904–1932, dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1977, p. 169.

32.Nicholas G. Pappas, “Concepts of Greekness: The Recorded Music of Anatolian Greeks after 1922,” Journal of Modern Greek Studies 17.2 (1999), p. 368 n. 13.

33.Jonathan Stock, “Reconsidering the Past: Zhou Xuan and the Rehabilitation of Early Twentieth Century Popular Music,” Asian Music 26.2 (1995), p. 123.

34.Yokomitsu Riichi, Shanghai, University of Michigan Press, 2001, p. 7.

35.Beng, “The 78rpm Record Industry in Malaya,” p. 14.

36.Waterman, liner notes to Jùjú Roots 1930s-1950s.

37.Nketia, “The Gramophone and Contemporary African Music,” p. 196.

38.Ibid., p. 200.

39.Quoted in Danielson, The Voice of Egypt, p. 54.

40.Andrée Nardal, “Notes on the Biguine Créole,” La Revue Du Monde Noir 2 (1931), p. 53.

41.Harold G. Hagopian, liner notes to Women of Istanbul, Traditional Crossroads CD 4280, 1998, p. 4.

42.Straits Times, quoted in Beng, “The 78rpm Record Industry in Malaya,” p. 15.

43.Evans quoted in Janet Topp Fargion, liner notes to Poetry and Languid Charm: Swahili Music from Tanzania and Kenya from the 1920s to the 1950s, Topic TSCD 936, 2007, p. 3.

44.Paul Bowles, Paul Bowles on Music, eds Timothy Mangan and Irene Herrmann, University of California Press, 2003, pp. 75–6, orginally published in 1943.

45.Quoted in Rodney Gallop, “Some Records of the Portuguese Fado,” The Gramophone (October 1931), p. 173.

46.Bryan McCann, Hello, Hello Brazil: Popular Music in the Making of Modern Brazil, Duke University Press, 2004, p. 26.

47.Robin Moore, Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997, p. 168.

48.Couzens, The New African, p. 67.

49.See McCann, Hello, Hello Brazil, pp. 12, 57, 87, for details on Afro-Brazilians and the music industry.

50.Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness, Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 4.

51.Sunil Amrith, “Tamil Diasporas across the Bay of Bengal,” American Historical Review 114.3 (2009), pp. 561–3; Stephen Hughes, “The Sound of RMRL,” Maatruveli Aayvitazh 4 (2010), pp. 77–8; Peter Manuel, East Indian Music in the West Indies: Tān-Singing, Chutney, and the Making of Indo-Caribbean Culture, Temple University Press, 2000, p. 46.

52.Maud Cuney-Hare, Negro Musicians and Their Music, Da Capo Press, 1974, [ca. 1936], pp. 29, 259.

53.Vernon, liner notes to West African Instrumental Quintet 1929, Heritage HT CD 16, 1992.

54.Parlophon: Discos Publicados, Junho 1928–Junho 1929, p. 33.

55.Ballantine, Marabi Nights, p. 23.

56.Waterman, Jùjú, pp. 46–7; Bob W. White, Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu’s Zaire, Duke University Press, 2008, p. 39; Veit Erlmann, African Stars: Studies in Black South African Performance, University of Chicago Press, 1991, p. 94.

57.Hugh Tracey, “Recording Tour, May to November 1950 East Africa,” Newsletter, African Music Society, 1951, p 41.

58.Rita Montaner, “El Manisero,” Columbia 2965x, 1928; Trio Matamoros, “El Manicero,” Victor 46401, 1929; Havana Casino Orchestra, “The Peanut Vendor,” Victor 224830, 1930. For the recording history, see Discography of American Historical Recordings, adp.library.ucsb.

59.Takonai Susumu, “Soeara NIROM and Musical Culture in Colonial Indonesia,” trans. Ishibashi Makoto, Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia 8–9 (2007), kyotoreviewsea.org.

60.The Don Apiazu version was GV1 and the Trio Matamoros version was GV3; see Out of Cuba: Latin American Music Takes Africa By Storm, Topic Records TSCD 927, 2004. See also John Cowley, “uBungca (Oxford Bags): Recordings in London of African and West Indian Music in the 1920s and 1930s,” Musical Traditions 12 (1994), mustrad.org.uk.

61.Richard M. Shain, “Roots in Reverse: Cubanismo in Twentieth-Century Senegalese Music,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 35.1 (2002), p. 87.

62.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 47.

63.Quoted in Gary Stewart, Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos, Verso, 2004, p. 13.

64.Bob W. White, Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu’s Zaire, Duke University Press, 2008, p. 40.

65.See Adria L. Imada, Aloha America: Hula Circuits Through the U.S. Empire, Duke University Press, 2012; Cyril LeFebvre, “Hawaiian Music in France,” and John D. Marsden, “Hawaiian Music in Great Britain,” in George S. Kanahele, ed., (revised and updated by John Berger), Hawaiian Music and Musicians: An Encyclopedic History, Mutual Publishing, 2012, pp. 156–82, 222–35; Shuhei Hosokawa, “East of Honolulu: Hawaiian Music in Japan from the 1920s to the 1940s,” Perfect Beat 2.1 (1994), pp. 51–67.

66.Kanahele, Hawaiian Music and Musicians, pp. 352–5. Jim Tranquada and John King, The ‘Ukulele: A History, University of Hawaii Press, 2012, pp. 130–1.

67.Bob Brozman, “The Tau Moe Family,” bobbrozman.com. See also The Tau Moe Family with Bob Brozman, Ho’Omana’o I Na Mele O Ka Wa U’i (Remembering the Songs of Our Youth), Rounder CD 6028, 2002.

68.Kanahele, Hawaiian Music and Musicians, pp. 348–51. Martin Clayton, “The Many Lives of the Indian Guitar,” in Andy Bennett and Kevin Dawe, eds, Guitar Cultures, Berg, 2001, pp. 187–8.

69.Kanahele, Hawaiian Music and Musicians, pp. 352–5. Philip Yampolsky, Music and Media in the Dutch East Indies: Gramophone Records and Radio in the Late Colonial Era, 1903–1942, dissertation, University of Washington, 2013, p. 38.

70.Miss Ninja, “Terang Beolan”/“Gitaar Berboenji,” Columbia DB30192, 1937, the first track re-released on Rhythm of the Islands: Music of Hawaii 1913–1952, Harlequin HQ CD 92, 1996, and the second on Steeling Around the World Hawaiian Style, Harlequin HQ CD 182, 2003. See Rockwell, Hawaiian Records, pp. 872–3; Beng, “The 78rpm Record Industry in Malaya,” 15.

71.Parlophon, p. 33.

72.Rockwell, Hawaiian Records, pp. 50–2.

73.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 47.

74.Motsieloa, “Aubuti Nkikho,” 1930, re-released on CD accompanying Ballantine, Marabi Nights; see Ballantine, pp. 207–8.

75.Clayton, “The Many Lives of the Indian Guitar,” in Bennett and Dawe, eds, Guitar Cultures, p. 206 n. 19.

76.E. V. Solomons, “The Krontjong—Java’s Ukelele,” The Lloyd Mail, October 1933, p. 236.

77.“The term ‘rumba’ was used more loosely in the Congos—nearly anything with a clave-type rhythm was labeled a rumba.” Jonathan Ward, liner notes to Opika Pende: Africa at 78rpm, Dust-to-Digital DTD 22, 2011, p. 64.

78.Danielson, The Voice of Egypt, pp. 27–8; Racy, Musical Change and Commercial Recording in Egypt, p. 169.

79.Brothers, Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, p. 246.

80.Danny Barker, A Life in Jazz, Alyn Shipton, ed., Macmillan Press, 1986, p. 42.; Rex Stewart, Boy Meets Horn, Claire P. Gordon, ed., University of Michigan Press, 1991, p. 72.

81.Gerald Howson, The Flamencos of Cádiz Bay, Bold Strummer, 1994, p. 13. The story has its origin in Fernando el de Triana, Arte y Artistas Flamencos, Madrid, 1935, pp. 216–20.

82.Nketia, “The Gramophone and Contemporary African Music,” p. 201.

83.Shain, “Roots in Reverse,” pp. 87–8.

84.Michael Dregni, Django: The Life and Music of a Gypsy Legend, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 53.

85.Kanahele, Hawaiian Music and Musicians, p. 560.

86.Ibid., pp. 321–4, 746–8.

87.Kumasi Trio, “Asin Asin Part Two,” Zonophone EZ, re-released on Living Is Hard: West African Music in Britain, 1927–1929, Honest Jon’s Records HJRCD33, 2008.

88.Lyrics translated from Fante in liner notes to Living Is Hard.

89.Solomons, “The Krontjong,” p. 238.

90.Quoted in Vernon, “Feast of East,” 26–7.

91.Quoted in Vernon, “Odeon Records.”

92.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 77.

93.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 108.

94.G. N. Joshi, “A Concise History of the Phonograph Industry in India,” Popular Music 7.2 (1988), pp. 151–2.

95.Nat Shapiro and Nat Hentoff, eds, Hear Me Talkin’ to Ya: The Story of Jazz by the Men who Made It, Penguin, 1962, p. 240. Dorsey quoted in Sandra Lieb, Mother of the Blues: A Study of Ma Rainey, University of Massachusetts Press, 1983, p. 29.

96.Niles, “Ballads, Songs, and Snatches” (February 1928), p. 652.

97.Niles, “Ballads, Songs, and Snatches” (January 1929), p. 570.

98.The best account of Niles is Elliott S. Hurwitt, “Abbe Niles, Blues Advocate,” in David Evans, ed., Ramblin’ on My Mind: New Perspectives on the Blues, University of Illinois Press, 2008.

99.Rodney Gallop, “Basque Songs,” The Gramophone (June 1928), p. 44.

100.Rodney Gallop, “The New H.M.V. Greek Records,” The Gramophone (June 1928), p. 27. The best account of Gallop is Paul Vernon, “Strange Music: Rodney Gallop,” fRoots 305 (2008), pp. 51–3.

101.Gallop, “Spanish Folk-Music Records,” p. 266.

102.Niles, “Ballads, Songs, and Snatches” (June 1928), p. 423.

103.Gallop, “Some Records of the Portuguese Fado,” p. 173.

104.Gallop, “The New H.M.V. Greek Records,” p. 27.

105.Niles, “Ballads, Songs, and Snatches” (June 1928), p. 422.

106.Niles, “Ballads, Songs, and Snatches” (July 1928), p. 565.

107.Niles, “Ballads, Songs, and Snatches” (September 1928), p. 76.

108.Rodney Gallop, “The Parlophone Music of All Nations Series,” The Gramophone (March 1935), p. 405.

109.Rodney Gallop, “In Praise of the Gramophone,” The Gramophone (July 1934), p. 47.

110.As the Oxford English Dictionary puts it, “a piece or collection of music issued on record, cassette, CD, etc.,” citing an early instance in 1919.

111.The use of the standard phrase “78 rpm” obscured much variation in actual recording and playing speeds, an issue that has engaged subsequent recording engineers and music transcribers as they analyze and remaster the recordings, often uncertain about the original key of a work.

112.Howson, The Flamencos of Cádiz Bay, p. 185. Occasionally, a single song was divided into two parts, one on each side of the disc (the Kumasi Trio’s “Yaa Amponsah” and Charley Patton’s “High Water Everywhere” are examples). Radio and film tempered this tendency: for example, in Egypt, Umm Kulthūm’s radio broadcasts from 1934 allowed her to perform longer works than did the 78 rpm disc, and became much more central to the electrical circulation of her music.

113.Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technical Reproducibility: Third Version,” in Walter Benjamin: Selected Writings, Volume 4, 1938–1940, eds. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, Harvard University Press, 2003, pp. 266–9. It was this character that was a fundamental basis of Adorno’s critique of gramophone music: “They show, instead, a tendency to mingle in his everyday life because they can appear at practically every moment, and because he can accompany brushing his teeth with the Allegretto of the Seventh” (Adorno, Current of Music, p. 91).

114.Michael E. Veal, Fela: The Life and Times of an African Musical Icon, Temple University Press, 2000, p. 35.

115.Simon Collier, “The Tango Is Born: 1880s–1920s,” in Simon Collier et al., Tango! The Dance, the Song, the Story, Thames and Hudson, 1995, pp. 62–4.

116.Gallop, “The Fado,” p. 211; Virgil Thomson, “The Cult of Jazz,” Vanity Fair (June 1925).

117.Robert Sprigge, “The Ghanaian Highlife: Notation and Sources,” Music in Ghana 2 (1961), pp. 89–94.

118.Solomons, “The Krontjong,” p. 236.

119.Kenneth Burke, “Literature as Equipment for Living,” in his The Philosophy of Literary Form, University of California Press, 1974.

120.W. C. Handy, ed., Blues: An Anthology, Albert & Charles Boni, 1926; Johnny Noble’s Collection of Ancient and Modern Hulas, Miller Music, 1935; see Amy Ku‘uleialoha Stillman, “‘Aloha Aina’: New Perspectives on ‘Kaulana Nā Pua’,” Hawaiian Journal of History 33 (1999), pp. 91–2.

121.Quoted in Alison Raphael, Samba and Social Control: Popular Culture and Racial Democracy in Rio de Janeiro, dissertation, Columbia University, 1980, pp. 80–1. Instances of popular crooners buying samba songs from vernacular musicians was such a common occurrence that the story became part of samba’s folklore; a film depiction of such a scene from the early 1930s is included in the documentary film Cartola, directed by Lírio Ferreira and Hilton Lacerda, Europa Filmes, 2007.

122.For the US case, see Karl Hagstrom Miller, Segregating Sound: Inventing Folk and Pop Music in the Age of Jim Crow, Duke University Press, 2010, pp. 235–7.

123.Béla Bartók, “Gypsy Music or Hungarian Music?,” Musical Quarterly 33.2 (1947): 240–1, p. 252.

124.Curt Sachs, World History of the Dance, W. W. Norton, 1937, pp. 444–5.

125.Quoted in Timothy Brennan, “Introduction” to Alejo Carpentier, Music in Cuba, University of Minnesota Press, 2001, p. 50.

126.Nathaniel Bright Emerson, Unwritten Literature of Hawaii: The Sacred Songs of the Hula, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 38, 1909, pp. 250–1.

127.Elijah Wald, “What the Records Missed,” in his Escaping the Delta: Robert Johnson and the Invention of the Blues, Amistad, 2004, pp. 43–69; Miller, Segregating Sound, pp. 216–17.

128.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 235 n. 6.

129.Gisèle Dubouillé, “New Records of Negro Music,” La Revue Du Monde Noir 3 (1932): p. 57.

130.William Washabaugh, Flamenco: Passion, Politics, and Popular Culture, Berg Publishers, 1996, pp. 63–4.

131.Peter Doyle, Echo and Reverb: Fabricating Space in Popular Music, 1900–1960, Wesleyan University Press, 2005, pp. 8, 36, 68–70.

5. Decolonizing the Ear

1.Vijay Prashad, The Darker Nations: A People’s History of the Third World, The New Press, 2007, pp. 16–30; Ricardo Melgar Bao, “The Anti-Imperialist League of the Americas Between the East and Latin America,” Latin American Perspectives 35.2 (March 2008), pp. 9–24; Cemil Aydin, The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia: Visions of World Order in Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian Thought, Columbia University Press, 2007, p. 156.

2.Martin Shipway, Decolonization and Its Impact: A Comparative Approach to the End of the Colonial Empires, Blackwell Publishing, 2008, p. 2.

3.Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History, University of California Press, 2005, pp. 200, 24.

4.Shipway, Decolonization and Its Impact, p. 11.

5.Brent Hayes Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism, Harvard University Press, 2003, p. 243.

6.For the idea of the Third World as a political project, see Prashad, The Darker Nations.

7.Kofi Agawu, “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa Tonally,” in Tejumola Olaniyan and Ronald Radano, eds, Audible Empire: Music, Global Politics, Critique, Duke University Press, forthcoming.

8.On Caluza, see Veit Erlmann, African Stars: Studies in Black South African Performance, University of Chicago Press, 1991; on Amu, see Kofi Agawu, “The Amu Legacy,” Africa 66.2 (1996): 274–9.

9.E. M. von Hornbostel, “African Negro Music,” Africa 1.1 (1928), p. 62.

10.Rob Boonzajer Fleas, Brass Unbound: Secret Children of the Colonial Brass Band, Royal Tropical Institute, 2000. Andrew Jones argues that, in China, “by the 1860s, choral singing and brass bands, introduced by foreign military advisors, had become a standard means of drill instruction and morale-building in the Qing army. These practices were later adopted by warlord armies, nationalist military units, and Communist guerillas in the 1920s and 1930s” (Yellow Music: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age, Duke University Press, 2001, p. 25).

11.Trevor Herbert and Margaret Sarkissian, “Victorian Bands and Their Dissemination in the Colonies,” Popular Music 16.2 (1997), p. 172.

12.For Egypt, see Virginia Danielson, The Voice of Egypt: Umm Kulthūm, Arabic Song, and Egyptian Society in the Twentieth Century, University of Chicago Press, 1997, p. 27; for Cuba, see Robin Moore, Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997, p. 19; for East Africa, see Stephen H. Martin, “Brass Bands and the Beni Phenomenon in Urban East Africa,” African Music 7.1 (1991), pp. 72–81; for Vietnam, see Jason Gibbs, “Spoken Theater, La Scène Tonkinoise, and the First Modern Vietnamese Songs,” Asian Music 31.2 (2000), pp. 1–33.

13.Askari Wa K.A.R. Ya Sita (6th K.A.R.), “Kofia Nyekundu,” Columbia WE 10, 1930, re-released on Echoes of Africa: Early Recordings, Wergo SM 1624 2, 2002.

14.Agawu, “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa Tonally,” in Olaniyan and Radano, eds, Audible Empire.

15.Mohandas K. Gandhi, An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth, Beacon Press, 1993, pp. 50–1, 172–3.

16.David Lelyveld, “Upon the Subdominant: Administering Music on All-India Radio,” Social Text 39 (Summer 1994), p. 113.

17.Theodor W. Adorno, “On Jazz,” in his Essays on Music, Richard Leppert, ed., University of California Press, 2002, pp. 477–8.

18.Quoted in Joshua H. Howard, “The Making of a National Icon: Commemorating Nie Er, 1935–1949,” Twentieth-Century China 37.1 (2012), pp. 8–9.

19.Claude McKay, Banjo: A Story without a Plot, Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1970, pp. 311, 315–16.

20.Ibid., p. 316.

21.David Macey, Frantz Fanon: A Biography, Picador, 2000, pp. 123–4.

22.Frantz Fanon, Toward the African Revolution, Grove Press, 1967, p. 19.

23.Frantz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism, Grove Press, 1967, p. 74.

24.Macey, Frantz Fanon, p. 124.

25.Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, Grove Press, 2008, pp. 183–4, 200–1.

26.Fanon, Toward the African Revolution, p. 37.

27.Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, Grove, 2005, pp. 175–6.

28.Édouard Glissant, Caribbean Discourse: Selected Essays, University Press of Virginia, 1989, pp.110–12.

29.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, pp. 166–7.

30.Marta E. Savigliano, Tango and the Political Economy of Passion, Westview Press, 1995, pp. 1–2.

31.Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora, p. 146. In Edwards’s account of beguine in the music halls of Paris, he distinguishes between dance venues, noting that the second Bal Nègre “became a means for the Antillean community to evade the throngs of European spectators who were overwhelming the first Bal Nègre.”

32.Haunani-Kay Trask, “‘Lovely Hula Hands’: Corporate Tourism and the Prostitution of Hawaiian Culture,” in her From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawai‘i, University of Hawaii Press, 1999, pp.144–5.

33.Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, p. 176.

34.Danielson, The Voice of Egypt, pp. 47, 49, 213, 83; see also Amira Mitchell, liner notes to Women of Egypt, 1924–1931, Topic TSCD931, 2006, 9–10.

35.Quoted in Jones, Yellow Music, p. 91.

36.S. Theodore Baskaran, The Message Bearers: The Nationalist Politics and the Entertainment Media in South India, 1880–1945, Cre-A, 1981, p. 57.

37.Ibid., pp. 38, 57; see also the documentary film K. B. Sundarambal: The Legend, Central Institute of Indian Languages.

38.Christopher Ballantine, Marabi Nights: Jazz, “Race” and Society in Early Apartheid South Africa, University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2012, pp. 68–70; David Coplan, In Township Tonight!: South Africa’s Black City Music and Theatre, Ravan Press, 1985, pp. 134–5, 142 n. 84; Erlmann, African Stars, p. 171.

39.Ballantine, Marabi Nights, pp. 71–2.

40.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 78.

41.Ibid., p. 97.

42.Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo, Chicago Press Review, 2004, pp. 408, 455, 495, 508, 492.

43.Savigliano, Tango and the Political Economy of Passion, p. 159.

44.Quoted in Savigliano, Tango and the Political Economy of Passion, p. 143.

45.Robert Farris Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love, Pantheon Books, 2005, pp. 199–204; María Susana Azzi, “The Tango, Peronism, and Astor Piazzolla during the 1940s and ’50s,” in Walter Aaron Clark, ed., From Tejano to Tango: Latin American Popular Music, Routledge, 2002, p. 29.

46.Matthew B. Karush, Culture of Class: Radio and Cinema in the Making of a Divided Argentina, 1920–1946, Duke University Press, 2012, pp. 152–6, 188, 199–200.

47.Waterman, Jùjú, pp. 80, 75.

48.Ballantine, Marabi Nights, p. 68; see also Erlmann, African Stars, pp. 87–91.

49.Quoted in Stephen Hughes, “The ‘Music Boom’ in Tamil South India: Gramophone, Radio and the Making of Mass Culture,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 22.4 (2002), p. 468. See S. Theodore Baskaran, “Satyamurthi: the Link That Snapped,” Economic and Political Weekly 29.38 (September 17, 1994), pp. 2482–5; and S. Theodore Baskaran, “Music for the Masses: Film Songs of Tamil Nadu,” Economic and Political Weekly 26.11/12 (March 1991), pp. 755–8.

50.Jonathan Derrick, Africa’s “Agitators”: Militant Anticolonialism in Africa and the West, 1918–1939, Columbia University Press, 2008, p. 277.

51.Quoted in ibid., p. 229.

52.Mark Ainley, liner notes to Living Is Hard: West African Music in Britain, 1927–1929, Honest Jon’s Records HJRCD33, 2008.

53.John Cowley, “Cultural ‘Fusions’: Aspects of British West Indian Music in the USA and Britain 1918–51,” Popular Music 5 (1985), pp. 81–96.

54.Raymond Quevedo (Atilla the Hun), Atilla’s Kaiso: A Short History of Trinidad Calypso, University of the West Indies, 1983, pp. 37–8. The date is not stated, but seems to coincide with the visit of Calthorpe’s cricket team to Trinidad, January 21–23, 1926. Gordon Rohlehr, however, dates it at 1920 (Calypso and Society in Pre-Independence Trinidad, G. Rohlehr, 1990, pp. 105, 546 n. 45).

55.Baskaran, The Message Bearers, p. 54.

56.The Mexican Revolution: Corridos about the Heroes and Events 1910–1920 and Beyond, Arhoolie Folkloric CD7041-7044, 1996.

57.Lawrence P. Frank, “Ideological Competition in Nigeria: Urban Populism Versus Elite Nationalism,” Journal of Modern African Studies 17.3 (1979), p. 442.

58.Oluwa, “Orin Herbert Macaulay,”* Parlophone PO. 508, 1936 Tunde King and His Group, “Aronke Macaulay,”* Waterman, Jùjú, p. 234 n. 6, 56–7.

59.Caluza’s Double Quartet, “Vul’indhlela mnta ka Dube,”* Zonophone 4280, 1930. Tim Couzens writes of the published version of Caluza’s “directly political songs such as ‘Vulindlela Mtaka Dube’ and ‘Bashuka Ndabazine,’” in which “he exhorted his listeners to unite behind [ANC leader John] Dube and the other representatives of the 1914 delegation to England because ‘We are taxed heavily—we have to pay poll-tax, carry passes for which we must pay, we have to pay dipping fees and even dog tax—we have no parliamentary representative—we want Africans to represent us’” (The New African: A Study of the Life and Work of H. I. E. Dhlomo, Ravan Press, 1985, p. 56). See also Erlmann, African Stars, p. 120.

60.Jolly Orchestra, “Wallace Johnson,” Parlophone PO.570, 1936, re-released on cassette accompanying Waterman, Jùjú; see Waterman, p. 50. On Wallace Johnson, see Derrick, Africa’s “Agitators,” pp. 202–5, 294.

61.For a detailed account, see Dick Spottswood, “Who Was Butler?” in The Classic Calypso Collective, West Indian Rhythm, p. 53. See also Donald R. Hill, Calypso Calaloo: Early Carnival Music in Trinidad, University Press of Florida, 1993, pp. 197–203; and Rohlehr, Calypso and Society in Pre-Independence Trinidad, pp. 200–12.

62.Atilla the Hun, “The Commission’s Report,” Decca De 17350, 1938, re-released on Calypsos from Trinidad: Politics, Intrigue & Violence in the 1930s, Arhoolie CD 7004, 1991, and on West Indian Rhythm.

63.Quevedo, Atilla’s Kaiso, pp. 58–9.

64.Atilla the Hun, “Mr Nankivell’s Speech,” Decca De 17394, 1938; Atilla the Hun, “The Governor’s Resignation,” Decca De 17363, 1938, both re-released on Calypsos from Trinidad and on West Indian Rhythm.

65.Atilla the Hun, “The Strike,” Decca De 17371, 1938, and Atilla the Hun, “Where Was Butler?” Decca De 17385, 1938, both re-released on Calypsos from Trinidad and on West Indian Rhythm.

66.Sexteto Nacional, “Incitadora Región,” Brunswick 41092, 1930; Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 123.

67.Jones, Yellow Music, pp. 69, 111.

68.Gibbs, “The West’s Songs, Our Songs,” pp. 62–3. Gibbs, “Spoken Theater, La Scène Tonkinoise, and the First Modern Vietnamese Songs,” p. 28 n. 27.

69.Umm Kulthūm, “Ljmay Ya Misr!” Odeon FA 224 639, 1936.

70.Couzens, The New African, p. 56. See also Coplan, In Township Tonight!, p. 75.

71.Akropong Singing Band, “Yen Ara Asase Ni,” Parlophone UTC89, 1931. Arlt, “The Union Trade Company and Its Recordings,” 401 n. 17. See also Agawu, “The Amu Legacy,” pp. 274–5.

72.Gibbs, “The West’s Songs, Our Songs,” p. 63; The West African Instrumental Quintet, “Bea Tsin No. 2,” Zonophone EZ 494, 1929, re-released on West African Instrumental Quintet 1929, Heritage HT CD 16.

73.Ranajit Guha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, Duke University Press, 1999, p. 39.

74.Bronia Kornhauser, “In Defence of Kroncong,” in Margaret Kartomi, ed., Studies in Indonesian Music, Center of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1978, pp. 104–83.

75.Quoted in Rudolf Mrázek, Engineers of a Happy Land: Technology and Nationalism in a Colony, Princeton University Press, 2002, p. 196.

76.Tan Sooi Beng, “The 78rpm Record Industry in Malaya Prior to World War II,” Asian Music 28.1 (1996), pp. 14–15.

77.Quevedo, Atilla’s Kaiso, p. 55.

78.Collins, “One Hundred Years of Censorship,” in Drewett and Cloonan, eds, Popular Music Censorship in Africa, pp. 172, 173.

79.Noenoe K. Silva, “He Kānāwai E Ho‘opau I Na Hula Kuolo Hawai‘i: The Political Economy of Banning the Hula,” Hawaiian Journal of History 34 (2000), p. 46.

80.Quevedo, Atilla’s Kaiso, p. 55.

81.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 96.

82.Ibid., pp. 31, 170.

83.Isabelle Leymarie, Cuban Fire: The Saga of Salsa and Latin Jazz, Continuum, 2002, pp. 54–6, 44–5.

84.Marc A. Hertzman, Making Samba: A New History of Race and Music in Brazil, Duke University Press, 2013, pp. 31–65.

85.Ballantine, Marabi Nights, p. 88.

86.Thomas Brothers, Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, W. W. Norton, 2006, p. 14; Gregory T. Cushman, “¿De Qué Color Es el Oro? Race, Environment, and the History of Cuban National Music, 1898–1958,” Latin American Music Review 26.2 (2005), p. 170; Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, pp. 29–30.

87.Gisèle Dubouillé, “New Records of Negro Music,” La Revue Du Monde Noir, 3, 1932, 55.

88.Jorge Luis Borges, “Genealogy of the Tango,” in Borges, On Argentina, edited by Albert Mac Adam, Penguin, 2010, p. 68. See also Matthew Karush, “Blackness in Argentina: Jazz, Tango and Race before Perón,” Past and Present 216 (2012), pp. 215–45.

89.Sánchez de Fuentes quoted in Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 25; Carpentier, Music in Cuba, pp. 256, 266–7. See also Gema R. Guevara, “Narratives of Racial Authority in Cuban Popular Music,” Journal of Popular Music Studies 17.3 (2005), pp. 255–74.

90.Frederick W. Gaisberg, “The Gramophone Goes East,” in his The Music Goes Round, Macmillan Co., 1942.

91.Jones, Yellow Music, pp. 11–12.

92.Nketia, “The Gramophone and Contemporary African Music,” p. 200.

93.Baskaran, The Message Bearers, pp. 57, 60.

94.Rebecca P. Scales, “Subversive Sound: Transnational Radio, Arabic Recordings, and the Dangers of Listening in French Colonial Algeria, 1934–1939,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 52.2 (2010), pp. 402, 403–4.

95.Quevedo, Atilla’s Kaiso, pp. 57–8.

96.Scales, “Subversive Sound,” p. 400.

97.Susumu, “Soeara NIROM and Musical Culture in Colonial Indonesia,” kyotoreviewsea.org.

98.Margaret Kartomi, “The Pan-East/Southeast Asian and National Indonesian Song Bengawan Solo and Its Javanese Composer,” Yearbook for Traditional Music 30 (1998), pp. 90, 86.

99.See Patrick Huber, Linthead Stomp: The Creation of Country Music in the Piedmont South, University of North Carolina Press, 2008, p. 245, for a discussion of the steel guitar in “hillbilly music” by Jimmie Tarlton.

100.The major exceptions are the essays of Amy Ku‘uleialoha Stillman, and Adria L. Imada, Aloha America: Hula Circuits Through the U.S. Empire, Duke University Press, 2012, which have deeply influenced my argument.

101.Quoted in Albertine Loomis, For Whom Are the Stars?, University Press of Hawaii, 1976, p. 86.

102.Eleanor C. Nordyke and Martha H. Noyes, “Kaulana Nā Pua: A Voice for Sovereignty,” Hawaiian Journal of History 27 (1993), p. 29. For the history of the song see also Amy Ku‘uleialoha Stillman, “‘Aloha Aina’: New Perspectives on ‘Kaulana Nā Pua’,” Hawaiian Journal of History 33 (1999), pp. 83–99. Stillman discovered that Johnny Noble registered an arrangement of the song as “Na Pua O Hawaii” in 1934, but it was not included in his 1935 collection of hulas.

103.Samuel H. Elbert and Noelani Mahoe, eds, Nā Mele o Hawai‘i Nei: 101 Hawaiian Songs, University of Hawaii Press, 1970, p. 5.

104.Mary Kawena Pukui, “Songs (Meles) of Old Ka’u, Hawaii,” Journal of American Folklore 62 (1949), p. 162.

105.Waikiki Hawaiian Trio, “The Four Islands,” Sunset 1053, 1925; Kalama’s Quartet, “Na Moku Eha,” OKeh 41048, 1928; William Ewaliko, “Na Moku Eha,” Columbia 1510-D, 1928.

106.Lyrics and translation in liner notes to Nā Leo Hawai‘i Kahiko: The Master Chanters of Hawai‘i/Songs of Old Hawai‘i, Mountain Apple MACD 2043, 1997.

107.Lyrics and translation in Elbert and Mahoe, eds, Nā Mele o Hawai‘i Nei, pp. 63–4.

108.Amy Ku‘uleialoha Stillman, “Of the People Who Love the Land: Vernacular History in the Poetry of Modern Hawaiian Hula,” Amerasia Journal 28.3 (2002), p. 96. See also Noenoe K. Silva, Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism, Duke University Press, 2004.

109.Adria L. Imada, Aloha America: Hula Circuits Through the U.S. Empire, Duke University Press, 2012, pp. 63–4, 123.

110.Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Its Technical Reproducibility: Third Version,” in Walter Benjamin: Selected Writings, Volume 4, 1938–1940, eds. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings, Harvard University Press, 2003, p. 262.

111.Quoted in Danielson, The Voice of Egypt, p. 4.

112.Quoted in Leymarie, Cuban Fire, p. 33.

113.Quevedo, Atilla’s Kaiso, p. 28.

114.Nardal, “Notes on the Biguine Créole,” p. 53.

115.Borges, “A History of the Tango,” pp. 108, 106. Citing a classic debate over the politics of tango, Marta Savigliano argued that tango lyrics were not songs of protest, they were about the “miseries of everyday life” (Tango and the Political Economy of Passion, p. 13).

116.Caluza’s Double Quartet, “Ixegwana Ricksha Song,” Zonophone 4280, 1930; Veit Erlmann, liner notes to Caluza’s Double Quartet 1930.

117.Carlos Gardel, “Organito de la Tarde,” Disco National 18128A, 1925.

118.Zhou Xuan, “Tianya Genü,” 1937. See Jones, Yellow Music, pp. 134–6; and Antique Shanghai Pop Music 1930–1949, Podcast 2: “Gold and Silver,” antiquepopmusic.com.

119.Bessie Smith, “Mean Old Bed Bug Blues,”* Columbia 14250-D, 1928. Niles, “Ballads, Songs, and Snatches” (February 1928), p. 653.

120.Trio Matamoros, “Mamá, Son de la Loma,” Victor V81378, 1928. See Sublette, Cuba and Its Music, p. 368.

121.Caluza’s Double Quartet, “Ingoduso,” Zonophone 4276, 1930.

122.George Williams Aingo, “Akuko Nu Bonto,” Zonophone, ca. 1928; lyrics translated in liner notes to Living Is Hard.

123.Rosita Quiroga, “La Musa Mistonga,” Victor 79632, 1926. Eduardo Romano, ed., Las Letras del Tango: Antología Cronológica 1900–1980, Editorial Fundación Ross, 1990, pp. 97–8. Lyrics translated in Thompson, Tango, p. 34. Flores quoted in Castro, The Argentine Tango as Social History, p. 190. See also Carlos Gardel, “Mi Buenos Aires Querido,” 1934; Carlos Gardel, “Arrabalero,” 1927, both re-released on The Magic of Carlos Gardel, Harlequin HQCD 145, 1999.

124.Borges, “The Language of the Argentines,” in Borges, On Argentina, p. 80.

125.Ibid., p. 82.

126.Carlos Sandroni, “Dois Sambas de 1930 ea Constituição do Gênero: ‘Na Pavuna’ e ‘Vou te Abandonar,’” Cadernos do Colóquio 1.4 (2001).

127.“The Peanut Vendor,” Edward B. Marks Music, 1930, Wolfsonian FIU, wolfsonian.org. See also Sublette, Cuba and Its Music, pp. 385–6, 395–9.

128.Lyrics translated in Leymarie, Cuban Fire, p. 89.

129.Rodney Gallop, “The Folk Music of Portugal: II,” Music and Letters 14.4 (1933), p. 343.

130.Andrew Field, Shanghai’s Dancing World: Cabaret Culture and Urban Politics, 1919–1954, Chinese University Press, 2010, p. 164.

131.Leymarie, Cuban Fire, p. 4.

132.Carmen Miranda, “A Preta do Aracajé,” Odeon M710, 1939. McCann, Hello, Hello Brazil, p. 110.

133.Ronald Radano, Lying Up a Nation: Race and Black Music, University of Chicago Press, 2003, p. 11.

134.Albin J. Zak III, The Poetics of Rock: Cutting Tracks, Making Records, University of California Press, 2001, p. 76.

135.Philip Yampolsky, Music and Media in the Dutch East Indies: Gramophone Records and Radio in the Late Colonial Era, 1903–1942, dissertation, University of Washington, 2013, pp. 305–313.

6. “A Noisy Heaven and a Syncopated Earth”

1.Karl Marx, “Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844,” in Karl Marx Frederick Engels Collected Works, International Publishers, 1975, volume 3, pp. 301–2.

2.For this conception of cultural revolution, I am indebted to the work of Fredric Jameson, including, but by no means limited to, “Cultural Revolution,” in his Valences of the Dialectic, Verso, 2009.

3.Fredric Jameson, “Beyond the Cave: Demystifying the Ideology of Modernism,” Bulletin of the Midwest Modern Language Association 8.1 (1975), pp. 4–7.

4.Theodor W. Adorno, “On Jazz,” in his Essays on Music, Richard Leppert, ed., University of California Press, 2002, p. 491.

5.Adorno, “On the Fetish-Character in Music and the Regression of Listening,” in Adorno, Essays on Music, p. 307.

6.Adorno, “On Jazz,” p. 485.

7.The Oxford English Dictionary cites a first use in Melody Maker in 1927. The n-gram for “dance band” shows the phrase skyrocketing from nothing in 1920 to a peak in 1940; see also G. T., “Dancing,” Encyclopedia Britannica, 12th Edition, 1922, vol. 30, p. 796: “The music of the modern ballroom is almost entirely supplied by the United States. The music used in the American dances is no longer a string band and piano, but consists of various combinations, the most common of which perhaps is: piano, violin, alto or tenor saxophone, banjo, and jazz-drum … There is as much variety in the method of playing dance music today as in the dances themselves. Dance bands therefore vary considerably in skill, as might be expected, and the best known command very high salaries. The skill of a modern dance band lies in two essentials: first good rhythm; and secondly cleverness in extemporising on the tune by the different executors.”

8.William Maas, “Jazz Poetry,” Daily Chronicle, 1920, quoted in “From Education to Jazz,” The Living Age, October 16, 1920.

9.Ronald Radano, Lying Up a Nation: Race and Black Music, University of Chicago Press, 2003, p. 187; Albin J. Zak III, The Poetics of Rock: Cutting Tracks, Making Records, University of California Press, 2001, p. 127.

10.Ali Jihad Racy, Making Music in the Arab World: The Culture and Artistry of Tarab, Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 76–7.

11.J. Bradford Robinson, “V. Jazz Bands,” in “Band,” Grove Music Online.

12.Virgil Thomson, “Jazz,” American Mercury 2.8 (1924), p. 466.

13.Jim Tranquada and John King, The ‘Ukulele: A History, University of Hawaii Press, 2012, p. 76.

14.Jason Gibbs, “The West’s Songs, Our Songs: The Introduction and Adaptation of Western Popular Song in Vietnam Before 1940,” Asian Music 35.1 (2003/2004), p. 58.

15.John Collins, “The Early History of West African Highlife Music,” Popular Music 8.3 (1989), p. 222.

16.J. H. Nketia, “The Gramophone and Contemporary African Music in the Gold Coast,” Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference of the West African Institute of Social and Economic Research, 1956, p. 193.

17.Keith Chandler, liner notes to Echoes of Africa: Early Recordings, Wergo SM1624 2, 2002, 21.

18.Andrew F. Jones, Yellow Music: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age, Duke University Press, 2001, p. 41.

19.George S. Kanahele, ed., (revised and updated by John Berger), Hawaiian Music and Musicians: An Encyclopedic History, Mutual Publishing, 2012, pp. 787–801; Lorene Ruymar, ed., The Hawaiian Steel Guitar and Its Great Hawaiian Musicians, Centerstream Publishing, 1996. For a selection of such recordings around the world, see Steeling Round the World Hawaiian Style, Harlequin HQ CD 182, 2003.

20.William Washabaugh, Flamenco: Passion, Politics, and Popular Culture, Berg Publishers, 1996, pp. 63–4.

21.Kofi Agawu, Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions, Routledge, 2003, p. 148.

22.Christopher Alan Waterman, Jùjú: A Social History and Ethnography of an African Popular Music, University of Chicago Press, 1990, p. 45.

23.Hugh Tracey, “The State of Folk Music in Bantu Africa: A Brief Survey Delivered to the International Folk Music Council, on Behalf of the African Music Society,” African Music 1.1 (1954), p. 11.

24.Quoted in Collins, “Kwaa Mensah,” in Musicmakers of West Africa, p. 15.

25.Michael E. Veal, Fela: The Life and Times of an African Musical Icon, Temple University Press, 2000, pp. 92–3.

26.Asare reported in David Coplan, “Go To My Town, Cape Coast! The Social History of Ghanaian highlife,” in Bruno Nettl, ed., Eight Urban Musical Cultures: Tradition and Change, University of Illinois Press, 1978, p. 102.

27.Waterman, Jùjú, p. 47.

28.Christoph Wagner, liner notes to Global Accordion: Early Recordings, Wergo SM 1623 2, 2001.

29.Ibid., p. 13.

30.Stuart Eydmann, “As Common as Blackberries: The First Hundred Years of the Accordion in Scotland, 1830–1930,” Folk Music Journal 7.5 (1999), p. 598.

31.María Susana Azzi, “The Golden Age and After: 1920s to 1990s,” in Simon Collier et al., Tango! The Dance, the Song, the Story, Thames and Hudson, 1995, p. 138.

32.Wagner, liner notes to Global Accordion, pp. 13, 16.

33.Chandler, liner notes to Echoes of Africa, p. 22.

34.George Williams Aingo, “Tarkwa Na Abosu,”* Zonophone EZ 4, 1927.

35.Matt Rahaim, “That Ban(e) of Indian Music: Hearing Politics in the Harmonium,” Journal of Asian Studies 70.3 (2011), p. 662.

36.Azzi, “The Golden Age and After,” p. 138.

37.Rahaim, “That Ban(e),” p. 662.

38.Ibid., pp. 658, 664 n. 5.

39.David Coplan, In Township Tonight!: South Africa’s Black City Music and Theatre, Ravan Press, 1985, pp. 23–4.

40.Wagner, liner notes to Global Accordion, 15.

41.Theodor W. Adorno, Current of Music: Elements of a Radio Theory, Polity, 2009, p. 97.

42.Quoted in Michael Dregni, Django: The Life and Music of a Gypsy Legend, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 21.

43.Rahaim, “That Ban(e),” 658.

44.Dregni, Django, p. 29.

45.Emilio Grenet, Popular Cuban Music: 80 Revised and Corrected Compositions, Together with an Essay on the Evolution of Music in Cuba, Carasa & Co., 1939, p. xxxiii.

46.Adorno “On Jazz,” p. 471.

47.Micol Seigel, Uneven Encounters: Making Race and Nation in Brazil and the United States, Duke University Press, 2009, p. 106; Sol Ho‘opi‘i, “Hano Hano Hawaii,”* Columbia 1370-D, 1928, Ramón Montoya, “Flor de Petenera,”* Gramófono AE 4148, 1933.

48.Roland Barthes, “The Grain of the Voice,” in Barthes, Image-Music-Text, Hill and Wang, 1977.

49.E. M. von Hornbostel, “African Negro Music,” Africa 1.1 (1928), p. 32.

50.Rodney Gallop, “Some Records of the Portuguese Fado,” The Gramophone (October 1931), p. 173.

51.Allan Sutton, Recording the ‘Twenties: The Evolution of the American Recording Industry, 1920–29, Mainspring Press, 2008, pp. 228–30.

52.Abbe Niles, “Ballads, Songs and Snatches,” The Bookman: A Review of Books and Life 67 (July 1928), p. 566; ibid., 68 (September 1928), p. 77; ibid., 66 (February 1928), p. 653.

53.Brent Hayes Edwards, “Louis Armstrong and the Syntax of Scat,” Critical Inquiry 28.3 (2002), pp. 618–49; Kanahele, Hawaiian Music and Musicians, pp. 134–45.

54.Helen Roberts, “Hawaiian Music,” in Thos. G. Thrum, ed., The Hawaiian Annual for 1926, Thos. G. Thrum, 1925, p. 76.

55.Hornbostel, “African Negro Music,” p. 32.

56.Solomons, “The Krontjong,” p. 238.

57.Niles, “Ballads, Songs, and Snatches,” Bookman (January 1929), p. 572; ibid, (September 1928), p. 77.

58.Danielson, The Voice of Egypt, pp. 92–6, 138.

59.Ling Tai Kor, “2. Gold and Silver,” Antique Shanghai Pop Music, 1930–1949, antiquepopmusic.com.

60.Mantle Hood, “Musical Ornamentation as History: The Hawaiian Steel Guitar,” Yearbook for Traditional Music 15 (1983), pp. 141–2.

61.Lakshmi Subramanian, “A Language for Music: Revisiting the Tamil Isai Iyakkam,” Indian Economic and Social History Review 44.1 (2007), pp. 36–7.

62.Gallop, “The Fado,” p. 200.

63.“Jass and Jassism,” New Orleans Times-Picayune, reprinted in Robert Walser, ed., Keeping Time: Readings in Jazz History, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 8.

64.Adorno, “Farewell to Jazz,” in Essays on Music, p. 498.

65.Agawu, Representing African Music, p. 56. See also John Blacking, “Some Notes on a Theory of African Rhythm Advanced by Erich von Hornbostel,” African Music 1.2 (1955), pp. 12–20; and Christopher A. Waterman, “The Uneven Development of Africanist Ethnomusicology: Three Issues and a Critique,” in Bruno Nettl and Philip V. Bohlman, eds, Comparative Musicology and Anthropology of Music: Essays on the History of Ethnomusicology, University of Chicago Press, 1990.

66.Hornbostel, “African Negro Music,” p. 61.

67.W. E. Ward, “Music in the Gold Coast,” The Gold Coast Review 3.2 (1927), pp. 223, 222.

68.Radano, Lying Up a Nation, pp. 246, 247, 234.

69.Rogers, “Jazz at Home,” in Locke, ed., The New Negro, p. 220.

70.Franz Liszt, The Gipsy in Music: The Result of the Author’s Life-Long Experiences and Investigations of the Gipsies and Their Music, W. Reeves, 1926 (originally published in French in 1859), p. 304.

71.Nathaniel Bright Emerson, Unwritten Literature of Hawaii: The Sacred Songs of the Hula, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 38, 1909, p. 171.

72.Roberts, “Hawaiian Music,” in Thrum, ed., Hawaiian Annual for 1926, p. 74.

73.Orme Johnson, “Musical Instruments of Ancient Hawaii,” Musical Quarterly 25.4 (1939), p. 503.

74.Sigmund Spaeth, “Hawaii Likes Music,” Harper’s Monthly Magazine (March 1938), p. 423; “Paradise,” Time (July 8, 1929), p. 13.

75.Ward, “Music in the Gold Coast,” pp. 216, 215. Hornbostel argues that “The plantation songs and spirituals, and also the blues and rag-times which have launched or helped to launch our modern dance-music are the only remarkable kinds of music brought forth in America by immigrants” (African Negro Music,” p. 60).

76.“Syncopation,” in H. C. Colles, ed., Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 3rd ed., The Macmillan Company, 1928, vol. 5, p. 243.

77.Andrée Nardal, “Notes on the Biguine Créole,” La Revue Du Monde Noir 2 (1931), p. 52.

78.Nathaniel Bright Emerson, Unwritten Literature of Hawaii: The Sacred Songs of the Hula, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 38, 1909, p. 171.

79.Anne Shaw Faulkner, “Does Jazz Put the Sin in Syncopation?,” Ladies Home Journal (1921), reprinted in Robert Walser, ed., Keeping Time: Readings in Jazz History, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 34.

80.“Musicus” [Mark Radebe], “Jazzmania,” quoted by Couzens, The New African, pp. 56–7.

81.Shaw Faulkner, “Does Jazz Put the Sin in Syncopation?,” p. 34.

82.Adorno, “Farewell to Jazz,” p. 498.

83.Carlos Sandroni, Feitiço decente: transformações do samba no Rio de Janeiro, 1917–1933, Editora UFRJ, 2001, pp. 20, 21, 27.

84.The earliest use of “rhythm section” that I have found is in Paul Specht, “American Popular Music and Its Progress,” Melody: A Magazine for Lovers of Popular Music (July 1924), reprinted in Karl Koenig, Jazz in Print (1856–1929): An Anthology of Selected Early Readings in Jazz History, Pendragon Press, 2002, p. 326. Specht wrote that “when making up a modern jazz orchestra, particular care must be exercised in combining the rhythm section, so that all tempos and the complex, alternating syncopated beats shall be uniform and precise.” The Oxford English Dictionary cites the first use in 1926.

85.Su Zheng, Claiming Diaspora: Music, Transnationalism, and Cultural Politics in Asian/Chinese America, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 122.

86.Carlos Sandroni writes that “This word—and not the much more recent ‘percussionists’—was used to refer to the popular musicians coming from the samba schools, specialists in surdos, cuícas, tamborins, and pandeiros” (Carlos Sandroni, “Transformations of the Carioca Samba in the Twentieth Century,” dc.itamaraty.gov.br, pp. 80–1).

87.Alejo Carpentier, Music in Cuba, University of Minnesota Press, 2001, p. 228.

88.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 89.

89.Leymarie, Cuban Fire, pp. 44–5.

90.Carpentier, Music in Cuba, p. 228.

91.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 78.

92.Sandroni, “Transformations of the Carioca Samba,” p. 81. Sandroni notes that he is “not aware of any recordings including the cuíca at the time: the instrument was considered too bizarre, exotic, strange, as numerous accounts confirm.” See also Sandroni, “Dois Sambas de 1930,” pp. 8–21.

93.Kalama’s Quartet, “Heeia (Ancient Hula),”* OKeh 41414, 1930; Kalama’s Quartet, “Kawika/Liliu E,” OKeh 41455, 1930, re-released on Kalama’s Quartet, Early Hawaiian Classics; Kalama’s Quartet, “Pehea Hoi Au?” OKeh 41456, 1930, re-released on It’s Hotter in Hawaii. Malcolm Rockwell identifies this as the “earliest commercially recorded example of the ‘ancient chant’ style” (T. Malcolm Rockwell, Hawaiian and Hawaiian Guitar Records 1891–1960, Mahina Piha Press, 2007, p. 579). There are at least two other lesser-known early commercial recordings of Hawaiian percussion: the remarkable track from Columbia’s May 1928 Honolulu sessions with ipu, pahu, and uli‘uli, released as The Honolulu Players, “Leilehua,” Columbia 1666-D, 1928, re-released on Hawaiian Steel Guitar Classics 1927–1938, Arhoolie Folkloric CD 7027, 1993, and the uli‘uli on Rose Tribe’s “Pu Ana Kamakani,” Brunswick 55038, 1929. The kala‘au (Hawaiian rhythm sticks) do not seem to have been used in commercial recording in this period.

94.Royal Hartigan, “The Heritage of the Drumset,” African American Review 29.2 (1995), p. 234. In his account of early New Orleans jazz, Lawrence Gushee notes that “only after 1905 did the drum set gradually become a normal if not indispensable member of a dance band” (Pioneers of Jazz: The Story of the Creole Band, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 17).

95.James Blades, Percussion Instruments and Their History, Bold Strummer, 1992, p. 458.

96.G. T., “Dancing,” Encyclopedia Britannica, p. 796.

97.Dregni, Django, p. 23.

98.Burnet Hershey, “Jazz Latitude,” New York Times, June 25, 1922, p. SM5.

99.Hartigan, “Heritage of the Drumset,” p. 234.

100.Blades, Percussion Instruments, pp. 170–1.

101.Hershey, “Jazz Latitude.”

102.Blades, Percussion Instruments, p. 458.

103.Karush, Culture of Class, p. 9.

104.Sublette, Cuba and Its Music, pp. 442, 124.

105.Sandroni, “Transformations of the Carioca Samba,” p. 81.

106.Carpentier, Music in Cuba, pp. 229–30.

107.Peter Manuel, “Improvisation in Latin American Dance Music: History and Style,” in Bruno Nettl and Melinda Russell, eds, In the Course of Performance: Studies in the World of Musical Improvisation, University of Chicago Press, 1998, p. 133.

108.Tony Lombardozzi, personal communication. See Christiane Gerischer, “O Suingue Baiano: Rhythmic Feeling and Microrhythmic Phenomena in Brazilian Percussion,” Ethnomusicology 50.1 (2006), p. 99, which opens with a discussion of “different rhythmic dialects.”

109.Brothers, Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, p. 145.

110.Sandroni, Feitiço decente, p. 25.

111.Brothers, Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, p. 145.

112.Agawu, Representing African Music, p. 85, see also pp. 78–9.

113.Jeff Pressing, “Black Atlantic Rhythm: Its Computational and Transcultural Foundations,” Music Perception 19.3 (2002), pp. 288, 290.

114.Louise Meintjes, Sound of Africa! Making Music Zulu in a South African Studio, Duke University Press, 2003, p. 149.

115.Adorno, “Farewell to Jazz,” p. 498.

116.Ibid.

117.Here I am particularly indebted to David Schiff’s illuminating discussion of the clave and the continuo: David Schiff, The Ellington Century, University of California Press, 2012, pp. 59–62.

118.The term was first used by Kwabena Nketia in 1963: Kofi Agawu, “Structural Analysis or Cultural Analysis? Competing Perspectives on the ‘Standard Pattern’ of West African Rhythm,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 59.1 (2006), pp. 3.

119.Ibid., p. 1.

120.The “standard” timeline is a bell pattern of southern Ewe music often notated as 2+2+1+2+2+2+1; the kpanlogo is a pattern associated with a Ga dance notated as 3+3+4+2+4; and the Gahu is played on the gankogui bell in a Southern Ewe dance and notated as 3+3+4+4+2. Agawu, Representing African Music, pp. 73–9; Royal Hartigan, West African Rhythms for Drumset, Manhattan Music, 1995, p. 63–4.

121.See Godfried T. Toussaint, The Geometry of Musical Rhythm: What Makes a “Good” Rhythm Good?, CRC Press, 2013, p. 16; Schiff, The Ellington Century, p. 60; Martin Clayton, Time in Indian Music: Rhythm, Metre, and Form in North Indian Rāg Performance, Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 40, discusses the tala and the timeline. The tresillo is usually notated as 3+3+2, the cinquillo as 2+1+2+1+2, the son clave as 3+3+2+(2)+2+2+(2), the habanera or tango rhythm as 3+1+2+2, and the bossa nova as 3+3+2+(2)+3+3. Manuel, “Improvisation in Latin American Dance Music,” pp. 128–9; Sandroni, Feitiço decente, pp. 28–32.

122.Agawu, Representing African Music, p. 73.

123.Toussaint, Geometry of Musical Rhythm, p. 13.

124.Agawu, Representing African Music, p. 131.

125.Ballantine, Marabi Nights, pp. 33–5; Coplan, In Township Tonight!, pp. 106, 258–63.

126.Eric Prieto, “Alexandre Stellio and the Beginnings of the Biguine,” Nottingham French Studies 43.1 (2004), p. 35.

127.Peter Manuel, “Flamenco in Focus: An Analysis of a Performance of Soleares,” in Michael Tenzer, ed., Analytical Studies in World Music, Oxford University Press, 2006, pp. 97, 104–5.

128.Pennanen, “Development of Chordal Harmony in Greek Rebetika and Laika Music,” pp. 65–116.

129.Amy Ku‘uleialoha Stillman, “Not All Hula Songs Are Created Equal: Reading the Historical Nature of Repertoire in Polynesia,” Yearbook for Traditional Music 27 (1995), pp. 6–7.

130.Yampolsky, “Kroncong Revisited,” pp. 11, 15.

131.Curiously, one of the roots of these chord cycles was an earlier appropriation of New World dances by Europeans. In the late 1500s and early 1600s, forms of improvised chordal accompaniment to melodies—basso continuo— emerged when Spanish dance ensembles adopted the disreputable and “licentious” dances from the Americas, particularly the zarabanda. As played on the Spanish five-string guitar, in rasgueado manner, the zarabanda denoted not only a dance rhythm but a particular chord cycle, what one musicologist has called a “chord row.” Richard Hudson, “The ‘Zarabanda’ and ‘Zarabanda Francese’ in Italian Guitar Music of the Early 17th Century,” Musica Disciplina 24 (1970), pp. 125–49. See also Craig H. Russell, “Radical Innovations, Social Revolution, and the Baroque Guitar,” in Victor Anand Coelho, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Guitar, Cambridge University Press, 2003.

132.Grenet, Popular Cuban Music, p. xvii.

133.Blues scholars like Paul Oliver and Gerhard Kubik have used the absence of timelines to suggest connections between the blues and the musics of the African savannah of the West and Central Sudanic belt. Paul Oliver, “Savannah Syncopators: African Retentions in the Blues,” in Paul Oliver et al., Yonder Come the Blues: The Evolution of a Genre, Cambridge University Press, 2001; Gerhard Kubik, Africa and the Blues, University Press of Mississippi, 2008, pp. 51–62.

134.Christopher Washburne, “The Clave of Jazz: A Caribbean Contribution to the Rhythmic Foundation of an African-American Music,” Black Music Research Journal 17.1 (1997), pp. 59–80.

135.Schiff, The Ellington Century, p. 62.

136.Agawu, “Structural Analysis,” 28.

137.Robert Sprigge, “The Ghanaian Highlife: Notation and Sources,” Music in Ghana 2 (1961), pp. 89–94.

138.Abbe Niles, “Introduction” in W. C. Handy, ed., Blues: An Anthology, Albert & Charles Boni, 1926, p. 14.

139.Agawu, Representing African Music, p. 145.

140.Liszt, The Gipsy in Music, pp. 299, 301, 300–3. Shay Loya, Liszt’s Transcultural Modernism and the Hungarian-Gypsy Tradition, University of Rochester Press, 2011, pp. 9–10, 51–2.

141.Van der Merwe, Roots of the Classical, p. 278.

142.Rahaim, “That Ban(e),” p. 667. Similarly, Risto Pekka Pennanen argues that “ever since the nineteenth century, folk music researchers in the Balkans have concentrated on intervals, tetrachords, pentachords, and scales” (“Lost in Scales: Balkan Folk Music Research and the Ottoman Legacy,” Muzikologija 8.8 [2008], p. 130).

143.“‘Honey Boy’ Minstrels Please Large Audience at Atlanta,” Atlanta Constitution, March 12, 1915, p. 12.

144.Dramatic Mirror, February 8, 1919; W. C. Handy, Father of the Blues: An Autobiography, Da Capo Press, 1985, ca. 1941, p. 74. There is a long debate over the meaning and existence of blue notes: see Hans Weisethaunet, “Is There Such a Thing as the ‘Blue Note’?” Popular Music 20.1 (2001), pp. 99–116; Kubik, Africa and the Blues, pp. 118–45.

145.Bálint Sárosi, Gypsy Music, Corvina Press, 1978, p. 27; Shay Loya, “Beyond ‘Gypsy’ Stereotypes: Harmony and Structure in the Verbunkos Idiom,” Journal of Musicological Research 27.3 (2008), p. 258.

146.Sárosi, Gypsy Music, p. 142.

147.Niles, “Introduction” in Handy, Blues: An Anthology, p. 14.

148.Kofi Agawu, “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa Tonally,” in Olaniyan and Radano, eds, Audible Empire.

149.Brothers, Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, pp. 67, 294.

150.Ibid., pp. 299, 300, 302.

151.Agawu, “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa Tonally.”

152.Agawu, Representing African Music, p. 131.

153.Roberts, “Hawaiian Music,” in Thrum, ed., Hawaiian Annual for 1926, p. 76.

154.Rodney Gallop, “The Development of Folk-Song in Portugal and the Basque Country,” Proceedings of the Musical Association 61 (1934-5), p. 70.

155.Peter Manuel, “From Scarlatti to ‘Guantanamera’: Dual Tonicity in Spanish and Latin American Musics,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 55.2 (2002), p. 314.

156.Peter Manuel, “Modal Harmony in Andalusian, Eastern European, and Turkish Syncretic Musics,” Yearbook for Traditional Music 21 (1989), pp. 70, 71.

157.Manuel, “Modal Harmony,” pp. 90, 74, 76–7.

158.Manuel, “From Scarlatti to ‘Guantanamera,’” p. 314; Manuel, “Modal Harmony,” p. 70. See also Peter Manuel and Orlando Fiol, “Mode, Melody, and Harmony in Traditional Afro-Cuban Music: From Africa to Cuba,” Black Music Research Journal 27 (2007), pp. 62–8; Peter Manuel, “Flamenco in Focus: An Analysis of a Performance of Soleares,” in Michael Tenzer, ed., Analytical Studies in World Music, Oxford University Press, 2006; and Peter Manuel, “Flamenco Guitar: History, Style, Status,” in Victor Anand Coelho, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Guitar, Cambridge University Press, 2003.

159.Manuel, “From Scarlatti to ‘Guantanamera,’” pp. 329, 330, 331–2, 333–4. The most detailed development of Manuel’s framework is Pennanen, “The Development of Chordal Harmony in Greek Rebetika and Laika Music,” pp. 65–116.

160.Roberts, “Hawaiian Music,” in Thrum, ed., Hawaiian Annual for 1926, p. 78.

161.Agawu, Representing African Music, p. 131.

162.Kwadwo Adum-Attah, Nana Ampadu: Master of Highlife Music, thesis, University of Cape Coast, 1997, pp. 13–14.

163.Robin Moore, “The Decline of Improvisation in Western Art Music: An Interpretation of Change,” International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 23.1 (1992), pp. 61–84; Christopher Small, “On Improvisation,” in his Music of the Common Tongue: Survival and Celebration in Afro-American Music, Riverrun Press, 1987.

164.Anna G. Piotrowska, “Expressing the Inexpressible: The Issue of Improvisation and the European Fascination with Gypsy Music in the 19th Century,” International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 43.2 (2012), pp. 326–7.

165.“Extemporisation,” in Colles, ed., Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 3rd Edition, vol. 2, p. 184.

166.See David Malvinni, The Gypsy Caravan: From Real Roma to Imaginary Gypsies in Western Music and Film, Routledge, 2004, pp. 43–62.

167.Liszt, The Gipsy in Music, pp. 319, 307–8.

168.Walter Starkie, “The Gipsy in Andalusian Folk-Lore and Folk-Music,” Proceedings of the Musical Association 62 (1935–1936), p. 8.

169.Carl Engel, “Jazz: A Musical Discussion,” Atlantic Monthly (August 1922), p. 187.

170.Darius Milhaud, “The Jazz Band and Negro Music,” Living Age 323 (October 18, 1924), p. 172.

171.Sárosi, Gypsy Music, p. 106. See also Malvinni, The Gypsy Caravan, p. 91.

172.Bartók, “Gypsy Music or Hungarian Music?,” p. 252. Adorno, “On Jazz,” in Essays on Music, p. 477.

173.Derek Bailey, Improvisation: Its Nature and Practice in Music, Da Capo Press, 1993, p. xi.

174.Small, Music of the Common Tongue, p. 290.

175.Emerson, Unwritten Literature of Hawaii, p. 254.

176.Racy, Making Music in the Arab World, p. 93.

177.Starkie, “The Gipsy in Andalusian Folk-Lore,” pp. 10–11.

178.Quoted in Ballantine, Marabi Nights, p. 30.

179.Cohen, ed., Tango Voices, p. 10.

180.Tadeu Coelho and Julie Koidin, “The Brazilian Choro: Historical Perspectives and Performance Practices,” The Flutist Quarterly (Fall 2005), p. 17.

181.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 89. Manuel, “Improvisation in Latin American Dance Music,” in Nettl with Russell, eds, In the Course of Performance, p. 130. Manuel notes that “the improvisational styles of the early son … are fairly well documented in recordings of the 1920s and 1930s.”

182.Louis Armstrong, Swing That Music, Da Capo Press, 1993, pp. 104–5.

183.Bailey, Improvisation, p. xii. Small, Music of the Common Tongue, p. 309.

184.Tamara Elena Livingston-Isenhour and Thomas George Caracas Garcia, Choro: A Social History of a Brazilian Popular Music, Indiana University Press, 2005, pp. 43–7. Gushee suggests that “jam session” emerged between 1925 and 1935: Lawrence Gushee, “Improvisation and Related Terms in Middle-Period Jazz,” in Gabriel Solis and Bruno Nettl, eds, Musical Improvisation: Art, Education, and Society, University of Illinois Press, 2009, pp. 276–7.

185.Yampolsky, “Kroncong Revisited,” pp. 23–7.

186.James Woodall, In Search of the Firedance: Spain through Flamenco, Sinclair-Stevenson, 1992, pp. 179–85.

187.James Robbins, “The Cuban ‘Son’ as Form, Genre, and Symbol,” Latin American Music Review 11.2 (1990), p. 186.

188.Azzi, “The Golden Age and After,” in Collier et al., Tango!, p. 120.

189.Wayne W. Daniel, Pickin’ on Peachtree: A History of Country Music in Atlanta, Georgia, University of Illinois Press, 1990, pp. 15–44; Gavin James Campbell, “The Georgia Old-Time Fiddling Contest,” in his Music and the Making of a New South, University of North Carolina Press, 2004.

190.Rohlehr, Calypso and Society, p. 118.

191.Brothers, Louis Armstrong’s New Orleans, pp. 207–9.

192.H. O. Osgood, “First He Played the Viola—And Now He’s Paul Whiteman,” Musical Courier (May 22, 1924), reprinted in Koenig, Jazz in Print, p. 307.

193.John L. Clark, Jr., “Archie Bleyer and the Lost Influence of Stock Arrangements in Jazz,” American Music 27.2 (Summer 2009), pp. 138–79.

194.Manuel, “Flamenco Guitar,” in Coelho, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Guitar, p. 16.

195.Yampolsky, “Kroncong Revisited,” p. 26.

196.See Barry Kernfeld, The Story of Fake Books: Bootlegging Songs to Musicians, Scarecrow Press, 2006; and, for a more comprehensive account, Barry Kernfeld, Pop Song Piracy: Disobedient Music Distribution since 1929, University of Chicago Press, 2011.

197.“Louis has penned in book form some of his eccentric styles of playing,” wrote Dave Peyton in the Chicago Defender (“The Musical Bunch,” April 16, 1927, p. 6); actually, Armstrong had made special recordings of the breaks and choruses that were then transcribed by the publisher’s arranger. Lawrence Gushee, “The Improvisation of Louis Armstrong,” in Nettl and Russell, eds, In the Course of Performance, pp. 270–2; Harker, Louis Armstrong’s Hot Five and Hot Seven Recordings, p. 76; Gene H. Anderson, The Original Hot Five Recordings of Louis Armstrong, Pendragon Press, 2007, p. 135.

198.Milhaud, “The Jazz Band and Negro Music,” pp. 171–2.

199.McCann, Hello, Hello Brazil, p. 164; see also Livingston-Isenhour and Garcia, Choro: A Social History, pp. 87–98.

200.Danielson, The Voice of Egypt, pp. 146, 145, 149.

201.Louis Armstrong, “Potato Head Blues,” OKeh 8503, 1927. See Harker, Louis Armstrong’s Hot Five and Hot Seven Recordings, chapter 3; Gushee, “Improvisation and Related Terms,” in Solis and Nettl, eds, Musical Improvisation, pp. 305–7.

202.Rick Davies, Trompeta: Chappottín, Chocolate, and the Afro-Cuban Trumpet Style, Scarecrow Press, 2003, p. 205, see also pp. 35–48; Septeto Habanero, “Coralia,” Victor 81751, 1928.

203.Sol Ho‘opi‘i, “Hilo March,” Sunset 1086, 1925; Kalama’s Quartet, “Hilo March,” OKeh 41082, 1928; Johnny Noble’s Hawaiians featuring M. K. Moke, “Hilo March,” Brunswick 55011, 1928, re-released on History of Hawaiian Steel Guitar, Hana Ola Records HOCD 34000, 1999.

204.The early solo guitar discs include Ramón Montoya, “Soleares en Mi”*/“La Caña,” Gramófono AE2153, 1928; and Niño Ricardo, “Alegrías”*/“Variaciones por Granadina,” Regal RS-732, 1928.

205.Rodney Gallop, “Spanish Folk-Music Records,” The Gramophone (November 1930), p. 266.

206.Julia Banzi, Flamenco Guitar Innovation and the Circumscription of Tradition, dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara, 2007, p. 234.

207.Coplan, In Township Tonight!, p. 106. Prieto, “Alexandre Stellio and the Beginnings of the Biguine,” p. 35.

208.For example, Peter Manuel notes that “Latin improvisation has evolved as a form parallel to jazz rather than derivative from it; indeed since the beginnings of jazz history, the influences between the two genres have been mutual rather than unidirectional” (“Improvisation in Latin American Dance Music,” in Nettl and Russell, eds, In the Course of Performance, p. 128).

7. Remastering the 78s

1.Dane Yorke, “The Rise and Fall of the Phonograph,” American Mercury 27 (September 1932), p. 12.

2.“Phonograph Records,” Fortune (September 1939), p. 72.

3.Ibid., p. 94.

4.Ibid.

5.Yorke, “Rise and Fall of the Phonograph,” p. 12.

6.Tschmuck, Creativity and Innovation, pp. 48, 50, 66; “Phonograph Records,” 94.

7.Peter Tschmuck, Creativity and Innovation in the Music Industry, Springer, 2006, p. 68.

8.George S. Kanahele, ed., (revised and updated by John Berger), Hawaiian Music and Musicians: An Encyclopedic History, Mutual Publishing, 2012, p. 679.

9.Paul Vernon, “A Quick Cantor: The Early Days of Recording Jewish Music,” Folk Roots 127–8 (1994), p. 19.

10.Robert M. W. Dixon, John Godrich, and Howard Rye, Blues and Gospel Records 1890–1943, Clarendon Press, 1997, p. xxiii.

11.Michael H. Kater, “Forbidden Fruit? Jazz in the Third Reich,” American Historical Review 94.1 (1989), pp. 14–15.

12.Theodor W. Adorno, “Farewell to Jazz,” in his Essays on Music, Richard Leppert, ed., University of California Press, 2002, p. 496.

13.Paul Vernon, “Odeon Records: Their ‘Ethnic’ Output,” Musical Traditions 3 (1997), mustrad.org.uk; Tschmuck, Creativity and Innovation, pp. 71–4; Pekka Gronow and Christiane Hofer, eds, The Lindström Project: Contributions to the History of the Record Industry, Volume 1, Gesellschaft für Historische Tontrāger, 2009, pp. 19, 28–9.

14.Robin Moore, Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997, p. 170.

15.Béla Bartók, “Mechanical Music [1937],” in Benjamin Suchoff, Béla Bartók Essays, Faber & Faber, 1976, pp. 294–5.

16.Joseph Horowitz, Understanding Toscanini: How He Became an American Culture-god and Helped Create a New Audience for Old Music, Knopf, 1987.

17.Theodor W. Adorno, Current of Music: Elements of a Radio Theory, Polity, 2009, p. 103.

18.Peter Manuel, Popular Musics of the Non-Western World: An Introductory Survey, Oxford University Press, 1988, p. 18.

19.Hermano Vianna, The Mystery of Samba: Popular Music and National Identity in Brazil, University of North Carolina Press, 1999, p. 10.

20.Adria L. Imada, Aloha America: Hula Circuits Through the U.S. Empire, Duke University Press, 2012, p. 153.

21.Yiannis Zaimakis, “‘Forbidden Fruits’ and the Communist Paradise: Marxist Thinking on Greekness and Class in Rebetika,” Music & Politics 4.1 (2010), p. 2.

22.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. ix.

23.Raymond Williams, “Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory,” Problems in Materialism and Culture, Verso, 1980, p. 39.

24.Fredric Jameson, “Reification and Utopia in Mass Culture,” Social Text 1 (1979), p. 144.

25.Quoted in Vianna, The Mystery of Samba, p. 11.

26.Quoted in Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, p. 5.

27.Alain Locke, The Negro and His Music, Ayer Co. Publishing, 1969, p. 80.

28.Emilio Grenet, Popular Cuban Music: 80 Revised and Corrected Compositions, Together with an Essay on the Evolution of Music in Cuba, Carasa & Co., 1939, pp. ix, xxxvii.

29.Quoted in John Szwed, Alan Lomax: The Man Who Recorded the World, Viking Penguin, 2010, pp. 143, 146.

30.Desmond Rochfort, Mexican Muralists: Orozco, Rivera, Siqueiros, Chronicle Books, 1998, pp. 63–7.

31.Marco Velázquez and Mary Kay Vaughan, “Mestizaje and Musical Nationalism in Mexico,” in Rick A. Lopez, Desmond Rochfort, Mary Kay Vaughan, and Stephen Lewis, eds, The Eagle and the Virgin: Nation and Cultural Revolution in Mexico, 1920–1940, Duke University Press, 2006, p. 104, p. 266.

32.Rodney Gallop, “Spanish Folk-Music Records,” The Gramophone (November 1930), p. 266.

33.Native Brazilian Music, Columbia C 83-C 84/36503-36510, 1942; Bryan McCann, Hello, Hello Brazil: Popular Music in the Making of Modern Brazil, Duke University Press, 2004, p. 152; Daniella Thompson, “Stalking Stokowski,” Brazzil (February 2000), reprinted on Musica Brasiliensis, daniellathompson. com.

34.Bryan McCann, “Inventing the Old Guard of Brazilian Popular Music,” in his Hello, Hello Brazil, pp. 160–80.

35.Bruce Boyd Raeburn, New Orleans Style and the Writing of American Jazz History, University of Michigan Press, 2009, pp. 111–41.

36.Henry Nxumalo (“Mr. DRUM”) unearthed the history of the 1930 London recordings of Caluza and Motsieloa recordings in a 1949 article: Tim Couzens, The New African: A Study of the Life and Work of H. I. E. Dhlomo, Ravan Press, 1985, p. 68; on Matshikiza’s essays in Drum, see Brett Pyper, “Sounds Like: [Todd] John Matshikiza’s Jazz Writing for Drum Magazine, 1951–1957,” Glendora Review: African Quarterly on the Arts 3.3-4 (2004), pp. 13–22.

37.James Woodall, In Search of the Firedance: Spain through Flamenco, Sinclair-Stevenson, 1992, pp. 225, 248; Anthologie du Cante Flamenco, Ducretet-Thomson LA 1051-1052-1053, 3 LP set, 1954, re-released as Antología del Cante Flamenco, Hispavox CD 7-91456-2, 1988.

38.Gerald Howson, The Flamencos of Cádiz Bay, Bold Strummer, 1994, pp. 50, 247–8. See “Flamenco Singer Aurelio Sellés (Aurelio de Cádiz) speaks—1962 interview by Anselmo González Climent,” at Brook Zern, The Flamenco Experience, flamencoexperience.com.

39.Liner notes to Furry Lewis, Recorded in Memphis Tennessee, October 3, 1959, by Samuel B. Charters, Folkways Records FS 3823, 1959.

40.Barry Pearson, “I Once Was Lost, But Now I’m Found: The Blues Revival of the 1960s,” in Lawrence Cohn et al., Nothing But the Blues: The Music and the Musicians, Abbeville Press, 1993; Jeff Todd Titon, “Reconstructing the Blues: Reflections on the 1960s Blues Revival,” in Neil V. Rosenberg, ed., Transforming Tradition, University of Illinois Press, 1993, pp. 220–40.

41.Cartola, directed by Lírio Ferreira and Hilton Lacerda, Europa Filmes, 2007. See also Sean Stroud, “Marcus Pereira’s Música Popular Do Brasil: Beyond Folklore?,” Popular Music 25.2 (2006), pp. 310, 316 n. 16.

42.Ruy Castro, Bossa Nova: The Story of the Brazilian Music that Seduced the World, A Cappella, 2000, pp. 265–7; Roberto Schwarz, Misplaced Ideas: Essays on Brazilian Culture, Verso, 1992.

43.Liner notes to Hawaiian Song Bird: Lena Machado, Hana-Ola Records HOCD 29000, 2007; The Tau Moe Family with Bob Brozman, Ho’Omana’o I Na Mele O Ka Wa U’i (Remembering the Songs of Our Youth), Rounder CD 6028, 2002. On the Hawaiian Renaissance, see George H. Lewis, “Da Kine Sounds: The Function of Music as Social Protest in the New Hawaiian Renaissance,” American Music 2.2 (1984), pp. 38–52; and Amy Ku‘uleialoha Stillman, “Hawaiian Hula Competitions: Event, Repertoire, Performance, Tradition,” Journal of American Folklore 109 (1996), p. 360.

44.Raymond Quevedo (Atilla the Hun), Atilla’s Kaiso: A Short History of Trinidad Calypso, University of the West Indies, 1983, p. 63.

45.Koray Değirmenci, “On the Pursuit of a Nation: The Construction of Folk and Folk Music in the Founding Decades of the Turkish Republic,” International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 37.1 (2006), pp. 47–65.

46.Wong Kee Chee, The Age of Shanghainese Pops: 1930–1970, Joint Publishing, 2001, pp. 76–97.

47.Rachel Harris, “Wang Luobin: Folk Song King of the Northwest or Song Thief? Copyright, Representation, and Chinese Folk Songs,” Modern China 31.3 (2005), pp. 381–408; Joshua H. Howard, “The Making of a National Icon: Commemorating Nie Er, 1935–1949,” Twentieth-Century China 37.1 (2012).

48.Donald S. Castro, The Argentine Tango as Social History, 1880–1955: The Soul of the People, Mellen Research University Press, 1990, p. 115.

49.Matthew B. Karush, Culture of Class: Radio and Cinema in the Making of a Divided Argentina, 1920–1946, Duke University Press, 2012, pp. 196–201.

50.Donald Andrew Henriques, Performing Nationalism: Mariachi, Media and Transformation of a Tradition (1920–1942), dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 2006, p. 7 n. 10.

51.McCann, Hello, Hello Brazil, p. 67. Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century, Verso, 1997.

52.Simon Broughton, “Secret History,” New Statesman (October 15, 2007), p. 43.

53.Nicholas G. Pappas, “Concepts of Greekness: The Recorded Music of Anatolian Greeks after 1922,” Journal of Modern Greek Studies 17.2 (1999), p. 360. He adds that “Dalgás did record again briefly in 1938 for Gramophone and in 1939 for Odeon, although Metaxas’s censorship laws had by then diluted much of the potency of Smyrneïc composition and performance” (p. 370 n. 42).

54.Gail Holst, Road to Rembetika: Music of a Greek Sub-Culture. Songs of Love, Sorrow and Hashish, Denise Harvey Publisher, 2006, p. 10; Yiannis Zaimakis, “‘Bawdy Songs and Virtuous Politics’: Ambivalence and Controversy in the Discourse of the Greek Left on Rebetiko,” History and Anthropology 20.1 (2009), pp. 15–36; Zaimakis, “‘Forbidden Fruits’ and the Communist Paradise.”

55.Janet Sarbanes, “Musicking and Communitas: The Aesthetic Mode of Sociality in Rebetika Subculture,” Popular Music and Society 29.1 (2006), pp. 30–1.

56.Holst, Road to Rembetika, pp. 11, 22. See also Elias Petropoulos, Songs of the Greek Underworld: The Rebetika Tradition, Saqi Books, 2000.

57.Janaki Bakhle, Two Men and Music: Nationalism and the Making of an Indian Classical Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 3. See also Amanda J. Weidman, Singing the Classical, Voicing the Modern: The Postcolonial Politics of Music in South India, Duke University Press, 2006.

58.Bronia Kornhauser, “In Defence of Kroncong,” in Margaret Kartomi, ed., Studies in Indonesian Music, Center of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1978, p. 129.

59.Quoted in Rudolf Mrázek, Engineers of a Happy Land: Technology and Nationalism in a Colony, Princeton University Press, 2002, p. 196.

60.See Africa: 50 Years of Music, Discograph, 2010. John Collins, “Ghana and the World Music Boom,” in Tuulikki Pietilä, ed., World Music: Roots and Routes, Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies, vol. 6, 2009, p. 69; Michael E. Veal, Fela: The Life and Times of an African Musical Icon, Temple University Press, 2000; Bob W. White, Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu’s Zaire, Duke University Press, 2008.

61.Kelly M. Askew, Performing the Nation: Swahili Music and Cultural Politics in Tanzania, University of Chicago Press, 2002, p. 263; Laura Fair, Pastimes and Politics: Culture, Community, and Identity in Post Abolition Urban Zanzibar, 1890–1945, Ohio University Press, 2001, pp. 95–6, 297 n. 88; Leila Sheikh-Hashim’s “Siti’s Magnetic Voice” appeared in the first issue of the women’s journal Sauti ya Siti in 1988.

62.Henriques, Performing Nationalism, p. 1.

63.McCann, Hello, Hello Brazil, pp. 65–7.

64.Moore, Nationalizing Blackness, pp. 80–4.

65.Erlmann, African Stars, p. 96.

66.Quevedo, Atilla’s Kaiso, p. 63.

67.Sandroni, Feitiço decente, p. 19.

68.Vianna, The Mystery of Samba, p. 95.

69.Peter Manuel, “Composition, Authorship, and Ownership in Flamenco, Past and Present,” Ethnomusicology 54.1 (2010), p. 113.

70.On the naming of world music, see Collins, “Ghana and the World Music Boom,” in Pietilä, ed., World Music, pp. 62–3; and Timothy D. Taylor, Global Pop: World Music, World Markets, Routledge, 1997, pp. 1–37.

71.Collins, “Ghana and the World Music Boom,” in Pietilä, ed., World Music, pp. 62, 64–5.

72.For Marley, see Paul Gilroy, “Could You Be Loved? Bob Marley, Anti-politics and Universal Sufferation,” Critical Quarterly 47.1–2 (2005), pp. 226–45; and Michelle A. Stephens, “Babylon’s ‘Natural Mystic’: The North American Music Industry, the Legend of Bob Marley, and the Incorporation of Transnationalism,” Cultural Studies 12.2 (1998), pp. 139–67. For excellent case studies of this process, see Veal, Fela, and Meintjes, Sound of Africa!.

73.Peter Manuel, “The Saga of a Song: Authorship and Ownership in the Case of ‘Guantanamera,’” Latin American Music Review 27.2 (2006), pp. 121–47.

74.Rian Malan, In the Jungle, Cold Type Modern Classics, 2003, coldtype.net, pp. 1–40.

75.See the essays written by two members of Ghana’s National Folklore Board: John Collins, “The ‘Folkloric Copyright Tax’ Problem in Ghana,” Media Development 50:1 (2003), pp. 10–14.; John Collins, “Copyright, Folklore and Music Piracy in Ghana,” Critical Arts 20.1 (2006): 158–70; and A. O. Amegatcher, “Protection of Folklore by Copyright: A Contradiction in Terms,” Copyright Bulletin 36.2 (2002), pp. 33–42.

76.Collins, “The ‘Folkloric Copyright Tax’ Problem in Ghana,” pp. 10–14.

77.Hazel V. Carby, “It Jus Be’s Dat Way Sometime: The Sexual Politics of Women’s Blues,” Radical America 20.4 (1986), pp. 9–24.

78.Morgan James Luker, “Tango Renovación: On the Uses of Music History in Post-Crisis Argentina,” Latin American Music Review 28:1 (2007), pp. 68–93; Risto Pekka Pennanen, “The Nationalization of Ottoman Popular Music in Greece,” Ethnomusicology 48.1 (2004), pp. 1–25; Vianna, The Mystery of Samba; Sandroni, Feitiço decente.

79.Jonathan Stock, “Reconsidering the Past: Zhou Xuan and the Rehabilitation of Early Twentieth Century Popular Music,” Asian Music 26.2 (1995), p. 123; Szu-Wei Chen, “The Rise and Generic Features of Shanghai Popular Songs in the 1930s and 1940s,” Popular Music 24.1 (2005): 108; Claudia Cornwall, “The Triumphant Return of the Shanghai Lounge Divas,” The Tyee, March 25, 2005, thetyee.ca.

80.The Secret Museum of Mankind: Ethnic Music Classics, 1925–48, Volumes 1–5, Yazoo CDs 7004, 1995; 7005, 1995; 7006, 1996; 7010, 1997; 7014, 1998.

81.Günter Mayer, “On the Relationship of the Political and Musical Avant-garde (1989),” in Jost Hermand and Michael Gilbert, eds, German Essays on Music, Continuum, 1994, pp. 266, 268.

82.Adorno, “On the Social Situation of Music,” in Essays on Music, pp. 392, 393.

83.Ernest Bloch, The Principle of Hope, MIT Press, 1986, p. 1069.