NOTES
Prologue
1. Close to 9:00 A.M.: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 78. Brilliant sunshine: Ibid. Palazzo Venezia was in the center of Rome: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 167.
2. Hibbert, 212.
3. Stuffed hand grenades into their briefcases: Monelli, 212; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 99.
4. A ten-hour meeting: Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 414.
5. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 64.
6. Hoettl, 235 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
7. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 78.
8. Surrounded himself with yes-men: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 279; Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 391; and Brendon, 559.
9. Corvaja, 314.
10. Ibid., 320.
11. “Mussolini is always right”: Hibbert, 208; and Dombrowski, 3. Note: Dombrowski wrote that this slogan could be seen in every Italian city.
12. Mussolini was greeted by the crowd: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 80; Monelli, 215; Davis, Who Defends Rome, 134; and Hibbert, 219. Note: Dollmann, Interpreter, 229, claimed that Galbiati informed him that Mussolini had received a favorable reception that afternoon.
13. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 80.
14. Instructed Galbiati to empty his wallet and distribute money to the victims: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 134; and Hibbert, 219.
15. Did not generally carry cash: Hibbert, 219.
16. Pride in his reception: Katz, Battle for Rome, 19, noted that Mussolini bragged about it to his wife on July 25.
17. Steamy summer in Rome that year: Hibbert, 246; and Plehwe, 39.
18. Hoettl, 236 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
19. Bearing soup: Rachele Mussolini, 249; and Hibbert, 219.
20. Hoettl, 236 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
21. Rachele begged Mussolini to cancel his meeting with the king: Rachele Mussolini, 249; and Hibbert, 219.
22. He told Rachele that he had nothing to fear from the king: Rachele Mussolini, 251.
23. He told Rachele that the king was a friend: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 138; and Katz, Battle for Rome, 19.
24. Gran Consiglio: Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 414.
25. Alfa Romeo: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 139. Iron gates: Hibbert, 223. The Villa Savoia was on the outskirts of Rome: Badoglio, 41 (in a footnote).
26. Dark-blue suit and a black felt hat: Hibbert, 219–220. Note: Rachele Mussolini, 251, also said that Mussolini was wearing a blue suit and a hat.
27. Behind the king’s shrubbery: Katz, Battle for Rome, 21.
28. No trace of foreboding: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 80.
29. Five feet tall: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 38.
30. Exchange about the hot weather: Hibbert, 224.
31. Discussed the vote and minimized its importance: Hibbert, 224; and Monelli, 218.
32. Benito Mussolini, My Rise and Fall, page 71 of the section titled “Fall of Mussolini.”
33. Monelli, 218.
34. Benito Mussolini, My Rise and Fall, page 71 of the section titled “Fall of Mussolini.”
35. Ibid.
36. Badoglio, 42. Note: Badoglio took this quote directly from the king, and it is consistent with other accounts; see, for instance, Monelli, 218. Mussolini sat down: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 141.
37. Davis, Who Defends Rome, 141. Admiration for Mussolini: Ibid., 40.
38. Benito Mussolini, My Rise and Fall, page 72 of the section titled “Fall of Mussolini.”
39. Twenty minutes: Monelli, 217; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 141.
40. At 5:20 P.M.: Monelli, 218.
41. Benito Mussolini, My Rise and Fall, page 72 of the section titled “Fall of Mussolini.”
Chapter 1
1. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 43.
2. Three lieutenant colonels and two majors: Ibid., 40.
3. Looped-wool carpet: Ibid.
4. Foley, 41.
5. Resigned from office for reasons of poor health: Wiskemann, 305; Gilbert, 55 (in a footnote); and Dombrowski, 39.
6. Lounge of the Hotel Eden: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 35.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid., 36.
10. Thousands of tons of bombs on Republican forces and Spanish civilians: Green, Warplanes, 406–407.
11. Discussed the strange goings-on in Italy: Note: Radl, 20–24, claimed that he did not meet Skorzeny at Tempelhof but that another of Skorzeny’s men brought him his uniform.
12. About 320 miles and was nearing Masuria: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 38.
13. Fir and pine trees: Corvaja, 231.
14. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 39.
15. Ibid.
16. Stuttgart landscaping company . . . installed artificial trees and moss: Hoffmann, Hitler’s Personal Security, 224–225.
17. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 40.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid., 41.
20. Ibid.
21. Blue-gray eyes: Trevor-Roper, Last Days, 116.
22. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 42.
23. Ibid., 43.
24. Ibid.
25. 200,000 German-speaking ex-Austrians: Wiskemann, 23.
26. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 43.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid.
29. Hitler grew more animated as he spoke: Ibid.
30. Ibid., 43–44.
31. Ibid., 44.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid., 45.
34. Guensche appeared again and told him that Student was waiting: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 231.
35. Sniper’s bullet in 1940: Barnett, Hitler’s Generals, 470.
36. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 232.
37. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 46.
38. Ibid., 46–47.
39. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 232–233.
40. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 47.
Chapter 2
1. Gilbert, 57.
2. Contempt for the bourgeois and upper classes: Bullock, Hitler, 220.
3. Warlimont, 326–327 (from a May 20, 1943, Hitler conference).
4. They had been caught napping: Note: After the war, Wilhelm Hoettl and Walter Schellenberg, both of whom worked in SS intelligence, claimed that the SS had tried to warn Hitler about the deteriorating situation in Italy. However, Hitler preferred to put his faith in the rosy reports issued by Mackensen, who was inclined to tell the Fuehrer what the latter wanted to hear. See Hoettl, 221–225; and Schellenberg, 385–386.
5. Dollmann, Interpreter, 229.
6. With Mussolini’s blessing: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 290.
7. Westphal, 167.
8. Allowed thousands of merchant vessels to cross: Buderi, Invention, 168.
9. Doenitz, 341.
10. Endless sorties into Germany during the first half of the year: Liddell Hart, Second World War, 600.
11. Sanctioned the use of carpet-bombing: Rhodes, Atomic Bomb, 471.
12. Nothing less than “unconditional surrender”: Garland and Smyth, 11.
13. Hitler noticed trembling in his left arm and leg: Bullock, Hitler, 419. Note: Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 52, indicates that this trembling occurred early in 1943.
14. Tremors grew worse despite treatment: Bullock, Hitler, 419. Crossed his right hand over his left, and pushed his foot against stationary objects: Ibid., 420.
15. A slight limp: Ibid., 420; and Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 52.
16. Hitler was a hypochondriac: Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 10. Large amounts of drugs: Bullock, Hitler, 420. Various drugs, vitamins, glucose injections, hormones: Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 60–72.
17. Morell became indispensable: Bullock, Hitler, 420–421.
18. Contributed to Hitler’s deterioration: Ibid. Used Hitler as a guinea pig: Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 61.
19. Seventy-seven different medications: Irving, Secret Diaries of Hitler’s Doctor, 60.
20. Corvaja, 299.
21. Liddell Hart, Rommel Papers, 428.
22. In mid-July: Shirer, 1000.
23. Warlimont, 334.
24. Corvaja, 147.
25. “Arrogant islanders”: Trevor-Roper, Testament, 42 (Hitler said this in 1945).
26. Second largest city: Rhodes, Atomic Bomb, 471.
27. Aim was to destroy the city: Ibid.
28. Coin the term Feuersturm: Ibid., 473.
29. Temperatures of 1,400 degrees Fahrenheit, killing tens of thousands and destroying eight square miles: Ibid., 474.
30. Roasted alive: Ibid. Trapped in melting asphalt: Buderi, Invention, 191.
31. Gilbert, 39–40.
32. Ibid., 40.
33. Ibid., 40–41.
34. Ibid., 41.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid., 42.
37. Ibid.
38. Hewel, Ribbentrop’s man: Trevor-Roper, Last Days, 190 (in a footnote).
39. Gilbert, 43.
40. Ibid., 44.
41. Ibid., 47.
42. Badoglio had issued a cover story: Plehwe, 42–43, 65.
43. Purely a domestic matter: Ibid., 42.
44. Italy would continue to fight: Ibid.
45. Hitler did not reply: Ibid., 65.
46. Gilbert, 48.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid. About thirty-five miles north of Rome near Lake Bolsena: Garland and Smyth, 283.
50. Squeezed into the northeastern corner: Stokesbury, Short History of World War II, 294.
51. Gilbert, 49.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid., 50–51.
56. Ibid., 51–52.
57. Ibid., 52.
58. Junge, 114.
59. Thirteenth meeting: Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 413; and Hibbert, 196.
60. Wear down the enemy, conserve German forces, and delay an assault on the Third Reich: Alfieri, 229.
61. Ibid. (from a memo dated July 12).
62. Ibid.
63. Trevor-Roper, Bormann Letters, 14 (the letter is dated July 23).
64. Hitler’s 60,000 Germans versus invasion force of 500,000 men: See Liddell Hart, Second World War, 440, 445.
65. Garland and Smyth, 242.
66. Ibid.
67. Whip up the martial spirit: Shirer, 996; Bullock, Hitler, 412; Plehwe, 28; and Warlimont, 339.
Chapter 3
1. Alfieri, 93.
2. First made contact in the early 1920s: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 172.
3. Hitler, 681.
4. Italian trains to run on time: Monelli, 101.
5. Doled out cash and offered assistance: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 172–173.
6. Flattered by Hitler’s admiration: Ibid., 173.
7. Asking for a signed photograph: Hibbert, 95; and Monelli, 128.
8. Monelli, 129.
9. A bronze bust of Mussolini; the Munich headquarters: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 173. In his office: Toland, Hitler, 247.
10. Disarmed and politically isolated: Shirer, 209.
11. Austria was a security buffer: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 218.
12. Believed he could overrule Anschluss: Ibid., 183.
13. Ibid., 183 (from Documents Diplomatiques Français).
14. War and race: Ibid., 185; and Starhemberg, 147–148.
15. Dombrowski, 7.
16. Compared Hitler to a broken record: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 185.
17. Rachele Mussolini, 144.
18. Ibid., 145.
19. Starhemberg, 166.
20. Ibid., 167.
21. Ibid.
22. Hitler’s aggressive swagger: Note: Wiskemann, 44, indicates that relations between Hitler and Mussolini were very bad during the first half of 1935.
23. Keeping Hitler in check was important: Note: According to Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 193, Mussolini needed a measure of security on Italy’s northern border before launching the Ethiopian war.
24. Starhemberg, 212.
25. More popular than ever among the Italians: Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 386. New Italian empire: Ibid., 392; and Monelli, 139–140, 143.
26. She was then twenty-four (1936): Monelli, 153.
27. Shortly after the Ethiopian war: Ibid., 152.
28. Photograph under her pillow: Ibid., 154.
29. Ciano was thirty-three: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 206.
30. Ciano was cunning: Ciano, Diary, xi-xii.
31. Alfieri, 201.
32. Believed that the Western powers were on the decline: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 206.
33. Favored an alliance with the Nazis: Ibid.
34. Muggeridge, 56.
35. The Nazis could dominate Eastern Europe and Mussolini could expand his empire: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 208.
36. Ciano thought he could manipulate Hitler: Ibid.
37. United States and Italy, 2.
38. “Eight million bayonets”: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 214.
39. Could raise 1.5 million soldiers: Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 403.
40. Warplanes and artillery were out of date: Ibid., 400. Armed with 1890sstyle rifles: Ibid.; and Brendon, 568.
41. Blue-gray-colored uniform: Brendon, 565.
42. Maifeld: Shirer, 301. The Maifeld was near the Olympic Stadium: Brendon, 565. Coached on how to cheer: Ibid.
43. New York Times, September 29, 1937.
44. Ibid.
45. Made a profound impression: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 215; and Brendon, 565.
46. Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 393.
47. Dollmann, Interpreter, 107.
48. Shirer, 343.
49. Hibbert, 112.
50. Nazi salute was modeled on the Roman salute: Wiskemann, 26; Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 389; and Monelli, 128.
51. Racial laws were decreed in the summer and fall of 1938: Brendon, 570. Affected the 40,000 to 70,000 Jews living in Italy: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 221.
52. Jews were maligned in the press: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 221.
53. Jews were to be expelled from Italian schools, purged from the military, forbidden to marry gentiles, and excluded from owning land or certain types of businesses: Brendon, 570.
54. Racial laws were not well received: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 222; Wiskemann, 113; and Brendon, 570.
55. Many Italian Jews were Fascists and looked fondly on Mussolini: Brendon, 553; and Lamb, War in Italy, 35.
56. Starhemberg, 92 (Mussolini made this remark in 1932).
57. Ibid. (Mussolini made this remark in 1932).
58. Ibid., 24 (Mussolini made this remark in 1930).
59. Hibbert, 98–99.
60. World war was inevitable within three or four years: Shirer, 436.
61. Wring a few concessions by playing the peace card: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 224.
62. Ciano, Diary, 146 (from an entry dated October 23, 1938).
63. Referred to Hitler as untrustworthy and considered aligning himself with the Western powers: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 228.
64. Jealous: Ibid., 230.
65. Bumbling and meaningless adventure: Ibid., 230–231.
66. Was aware in the spring of 1939 (i.e., April and May) that Hitler was planning to invade Poland: Ibid., 232; and Shirer, 482.
67. Assured the Italians in May that Germany did not want war for four years: Wiskemann, 143; and Shirer, 482.
68. The king disapproved, but Mussolini brushed off his reservations: Monelli, 174.
69. Mussolini dubbed it the Pact of Steel: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 231.
70. Patto di Sangue: Wiskemann, 145.
71. Documents on German Foreign Policy, vol. 6, 562.
72. Ibid., 618–619.
73. Hitler’s father was a civil servant: Shirer, 6. Mussolini’s was a blacksmith: A.J.P. Taylor, War Lords, 17.
74. Made deals with big business: Wiskemann, 342.
75. Neither knew much about economics: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 69.
76. Monelli, 119.
77. Mussolini made it known he wanted men killed: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 115; Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 387; and Monelli, 172.
78. Both praised The Crowd: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 127.
79. Five feet six inches: Hibbert, 88; and Monelli, 122.
80. Duodenal ulcer first surfaced in 1925: Wiskemann, 9.
81. Good for most of his life and began to fail in 1943: Bullock, Hitler, 420.
82. Kesselring, 180.
83. Worked tirelessly: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 111; and Monelli, 123. At the expense of his personal comfort: Hibbert, 52.
84. Man of culture and learning, and had a tendency to exaggerate his erudition: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 131–132.
85. Mussolini insisted on writing a thesis paper: Monelli, 103.
86. Irving, Hitler’s War, xxxi.
87. Ribbentrop, 28, 30–31.
88. Wiskemann, 342.
89. Hibbert, 11.
90. Alfieri, 92.
91. Never had real friends and considered this fact a virtue: Dennis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 4, 299.
92. Ibid., 11.
93. Imitation of the Duce’s gestures: Ibid., 216. Used rouge: Hibbert, 115; and Dollmann, Interpreter, 109.
94. Had little regard for the Italians: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 240.
95. Kampfzeit: Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, xiv.
96. Ibid., 10 (this remark was made on the evening of July 21–22, 1941).
97. Ibid., 266 (this remark was made on January 31, 1942).
98. Ibid., 135 (this remark was made on November 20, 1941).
99. Mussolini was a former Socialist: Hibbert, 37.
100. Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 240.
101. A.J.P. Taylor, War Lords, 24.
102. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, 10 (this remark was made on the evening of July 21–22, 1941).
103. Ibid., 3 (this remark was made on July 5, 1941).
104. Rachele Mussolini, 152.
105. Alfieri, 93.
106. His alliance with Italy was a burden: Bullock, Hitler, 460.
107. Fuehrer Conferences, 67 (this remark was made on May 14 at the Wolf ’s Lair).
108. Deakin, 799–800 (from Testament of Adolf Hitler).
109. Trevor-Roper, Testament, 85.
110. Too many guitar players, not enough warriors: Ciano, Diary, 72–73.
111. Dollmann, Interpreter, 315.
112. Ciano, Diary, 332 (from an entry dated March 18, 1940).
113. Rachele Mussolini, 153.
114. Ciano, Diary, 333 (from an entry dated March 19, 1940).
115. Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 260.
116. Ciano, Diary, 590 (from an entry dated December 23, 1943).
117. Bullock, Hitler, 368.
118. Gilbert, 33 (from a May 20, 1943, Hitler conference).
119. Ciano, Diary, 258 (from an entry dated August 13, 1939).
120. Ibid., 330 (from an entry dated March 12, 1940).
121. Made his subordinates run to his desk: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 202. Distance to his desk was twenty yards: Ibid., 125.
122. Monelli, 211.
123. Schmidt, 65.
Chapter 4
1. Goebbels, 407.
2. Near the Gulf of Genoa: Liddell Hart, Rommel Papers, 432 (Rommel mentions this point in a diary entry dated July 26).
3. Warlimont, 362 (from a July 26, 1943, Hitler conference).
4. Liddell Hart, Rommel Papers, 432.
5. Trevor-Roper, Bormann Letters, 16. (The letter is dated July 26.)
6. Within a week unless the Nazis seized Rome: Goebbels, 408, 416.
7. Goebbels, 405–406.
8. Semmler, 95.
9. By the time Hitler’s advisors arrived: Bullock, Hitler, 414. Note: Bullock wrote that Hitler had these plans at the ready at least in theory by July 26.
10. Operation Oak was the mission to find and rescue Mussolini; Operation Student called for the armed takeover of the Italian capital: Shirer, 1000; and Martienssen, 184.
11. Operation Black was the military occupation of the Italian peninsula: Shirer, 1000; and Martienssen, 184.
12. Operation Axis was the capture or destruction of the Italian fleet: Shirer, 1000; and Martienssen, 184.
13. Goebbels, 416.
14. Goering and Ribbentrop adopted Hitler’s point of view: Fuehrer Conferences, 104.
15. Ibid.,103–104.
16. Ibid., 104.
17. Ibid.
18. Nicknamed “Smiling Albert”: Barnett, Hitler’s Generals, 276. Kesselring had a reputation for being an Italophile: Plehwe, 86.
19. Fuehrer Conferences, 104.
20. Gilbert, 31 (from a May 20, 1943, Hitler conference).
21. Trevor-Roper, Bormann Letters, 14.
22. Goebbels, 411.
23. Shirer, 343.
24. Dissolved the Fascist Party on July 27: Delzell, 238.
25. Deakin, 495 (from a Mackensen telegram dated July 26).
26. Alfieri fled to Switzerland: Dombrowski, 112.
27. Deakin, 495 (from a Mackensen telegram dated July 27).
28. Goebbels, 417–418.
29. Deakin, 498 (from a Mackensen telegram dated July 29).
30. Ibid. (from a Mackensen telegram dated July 29).
31. Deliver Hitler’s birthday present to the Duce: Plehwe, 66.
32. The gift would be conveyed by the Italians: Ibid.
33. Badoglio had given the Germans a letter: Ibid., 49–50. Note: According to Plehwe, Badoglio told the Germans about this letter on July 26.
34. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 84.
35. Goebbels, 415.
36. Units from France and the Eastern front: Plehwe, 67–68.
37. Goebbels, 408.
38. The Allies were caught off guard by the coup: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 163.
39. Ibid., 40 (this remark was made by Galeazzo Ciano to a friend).
40. Lacked experience as a politician: Lamb, War in Italy, 13.
41. Sacked in 1940: Lamb, War in Italy, 14.
42. A pint of champagne daily, card games and frequent naps: Lamb, War in Italy, 14.
43. Rarely made a move without the monarch’s approval: Garland and Smyth, 267, 281.
44. Neither had developed a strategy for getting out of the war: Delzell, 233.
45. Several attempts to contact the West: Lamb, War in Italy, 12.
46. Inclined to reject such a harsh stance: Ibid.
47. Held out hope that they could come to an understanding with Hitler and thereby exit the war: Garland and Smyth, 282, 287.
48. Plehwe, 125.
49. Contacted Hitler and requested a summit meeting: Garland and Smyth, 286.
50. Badoglio, 55.
51. Churchill, Onwards to Victory, 143, 145.
52. Created uncertainty in the minds of the Allies: Delzell, 243; Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 417; and Lamb, War in Italy, 13.
53. Dozens wrote letters to Badoglio: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 307; and Plehwe, 73, 75.
54. Badoglio, 46.
55. Its 4 million members: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 306.
56. Units were beginning to mass near the Italian frontier: Plehwe, 66.
57. Some of Badoglio’s own generals believed that Italy should make a clean break: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 307; and Delzell, 257. Never gave this option consideration: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 210.
58. Badoglio, 66.
Chapter 5
1. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 57.
2. Put it on hold before canceling it altogether: Note: According to Garland and Smyth, 368, OKW cancelled Operation Student on August 5.
3. Student, 392–393.
4. About 20,000: Ibid., 394.
5. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 48.
6. Sometime after 11:00 P.M.: Radl, 22–26.
7. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 48.
8. Every half an hour: Radl, 22–26.
9. Forty commandos from Friedenthal: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 236.
10. Ten intelligence officers from Amt VI: Ibid.
11. Assigned to Skorzeny to aid in the search: Ibid., 233, 236.
12. Paratrooper garb and bogus IDs: Radl, 23–30.
13. A set of civilian clothes: Ibid., 23–27.
14. Dye their hair black: Ibid., 27–31.
15. Chalked up the idea to Himmler: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 233.
16. Radl ignored the hair dye order: Radl, 29–33.
17. Monk’s robes: Ibid., 25–29.
18. Early on the morning of July 27: Student, 393–394.
19. Gerlach was an ace: Patricelli, 67.
20. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 52.
21. Ibid., 53.
22. Ten miles from Rome: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 363.
23. Had worked with them for more than a year and a half: See ibid., 87.
24. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 54.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid.
27. Goebbels, 410.
28. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 44.
29. Similar lecture about secrecy: Student, 393–394, 412.
30. Keep Kesselring out of the loop: See Ibid., 393–394; and Deakin, 544.
31. Kesselring, 171.
32. Liddell Hart, Rommel Papers, 434.
33. Over the next several days: Garland and Smyth, 286, 293.
34. Without the consent of the Italians: Student, 394; and Liddell Hart, Second World War, 452. Would be transferred to Sicily or southern Italy: Ibid.
35. On the evening of July 28: Radl, 48–52.
36. Detour to France on July 27: Ibid., 35–42.
37. Quartered near the airport: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 234.
38. Showed up on July 29 and informed his men: Radl, 55–56.
39. Ibid., 55.
40. One of the commandos fainted: Ibid., 56.
41. Ibid.
42. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 55.
43. Worked with Langguth: Radl, 87–91; and Patricelli, 23.
44. Blue eyes: Dollmann, Interpreter, 241. Kappler was thirty-six: Katz, Battle for Rome, 46; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 89. Dueling scars: Dollmann, Interpreter, 239; and Katz, Battle for Rome, 83. Training in espionage and security: Ibid., 51.
45. Spying on the Italian police: Katz, Battle for Rome, 51.
46. Dogs, roses, and Etruscan vases: Ibid.
47. Fondness for Rome: Ibid. Posted to Rome in 1939: Ibid.
48. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 55.
49. Dollmann was in the General SS: Dollmann, Interpreter, 76.
50. Excellent knowledge of Italian: Katz, Death in Rome, 26. Blond: Ibid. Dapper: Katz, Battle for Rome, 291. Confidant of Eva Braun: Katz, Death in Rome, 26.
51. Elegant manners and knowledge of Italian culture: Katz, Death in Rome, 26.
52. Flair for intrigue: Ibid.
53. Dollmann, Interpreter, 239.
54. Ibid.
55. Ribbentrop urged the German embassy staff to arrest the “wire-pullers”: Plehwe, 60; also see Hoettl, 225.
56. Three men and one female secretary: Plehwe, 60.
57. Kappler and Dollmann disliked each other: Dollmann, Interpreter, 237, 241; and Plehwe, 63. Kappler believed that rescuing Mussolini was a bad idea: Katz, Battle for Rome, 51.
58. Dollmann, Interpreter, 249.
59. Kappler was convinced that Fascism was finished: Plehwe, 63.
60. Ibid.
61. Kappler flew to see Himmler: Ibid., 91–92.
62. Dollmann, Interpreter, 240.
63. Dollmann and Mackensen drew up the list of victims: Plehwe, 84, 89; also see Radl, 72–76.
64. Resented Skorzeny as an intrusion: Dollmann, Interpreter, 241. A stickler for orders: Ibid; and Katz, Battle for Rome, 51.
65. Priebke spoke fluent Italian: Goni, Real Odessa, 252. Priebke was Kappler’s second-in-command: Katz, Battle for Rome, 61.
66. He had made connections among the Italians: Radl, 71–75. Italian operatives on his payroll: Note: Radl, 87–91, indicates that Kappler used his “agents” to help find Mussolini, but it is not clear whether Radl is referring to Kappler’s tiny staff or to possible Italian operatives.
67. Kappler was actively involved: Ibid., 87–91.
68. Student, 410.
69. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 57.
70. Hoettl, 231.
71. Schellenberg, 386.
72. Wulff, Zodiac, 85 and 87.
73. Student, 408.
74. About 5,000 pounds in forged British banknotes: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 221.
75. New York Times, July 26, 1943.
76. A wave of popular feeling rippled through Rome: Wiskemann, 303.
77. People sang songs in the streets and wept: Ibid. They declared that the end of Fascism had arrived and cursed the name of Mussolini: Hibbert, 229.
78. Plehwe, 41.
79. Monelli, 224–225.
80. Little physical violence: Monelli, 224.
81. Shop windows already bore photographs of the king and Badoglio: Monelli, 225.
82. Badoglio, 50.
83. Outdid the Fascists regarding repressive measures: Katz, Battle for Rome, 27.
84. A 9:00 P.M. curfew, and meetings involving more than three people were outlawed: Plehwe, 49.
85. One of the best organizations of its kind: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 59.
86. Planted by Italian agents: Radl, 87–91; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 286.
87. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 56.
88. Student, 409.
Chapter 6
1. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 83.
2. Captain Paolo Vigneri: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 135, 141.
3. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 82.
4. Ibid.
5. A seat on a stretcher: Monelli, 219.
6. Hoettl, 237 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
7. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 82.
8. Courtyard of the Podgora barracks in Via Quintino Sella: Hibbert, 227.
9. Thrust out his chin, hands on hips: Ibid.
10. Shown to the officers’ mess, bided his time for forty-five minutes: Ibid.
11. Carabinieri cadet barracks in Via Legnano: Ibid. Arriving at 7:00 P.M.: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 147.
12. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 83.
13. Large white letters: Hibbert, 232. “Believe, Fight, and Obey” was a popular Fascist slogan: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 124.
14. Green-colored envelope, “War Office,” and handwritten note: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 83.
15. Ibid., 83–84.
16. Ibid., 84.
17. Ibid., 85.
18. Goebbels, 415.
19. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 84.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid., 86.
22. About eighty miles southeast of Rome: Maugeri, 125.
23. Costanzo Ciano Wharf: Hibbert, 235. Named after the father of Galeazzo Ciano: Dombrowski, 62.
24. Maugeri, 125.
25. Ibid., 129.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid., 130.
28. Ibid., 131.
29. Ibid.
30. Twenty-five miles northwest of Ventotene: Hibbert, 237.
31. Maugeri, 134.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid., 135–136.
34. Ibid., 139.
35. Ibid., 139–140.
36. Ibid., 140.
37. Ibid.
38. Criticized the Italians for being too soft and artistic: See, for instance, Monelli, 181.
39. Santa Maria was a village: Hibbert, 238.
40. Gray-colored house with green shutters: Ibid.
41. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 87–88.
42. Ibid., 226 (from “In the Ras’s House,” an article compiled by the editors of the Rome periodical Politica Estera).
43. Ibid. (also from “In the Ras’s House,” an article compiled by the editors of the Rome periodical Politica Estera).
44. Ibid., 88.
Chapter 7
1. Speer, 308.
2. Approximately 30,000 German soldiers: Garland and Smyth, 371.
3. “Viva il Duce” on their helmets: Lamb, War in Italy, 14.
4. Badoglio was confident that he could talk the Anglo-Americans down: Badoglio, 56. The king also believed that Italy could get better terms: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 308.
5. Churchill, Closing the Ring, 100.
6. Stalling for time: Note: According to Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 308, even at this stage while they were sending peace feelers to the Allies, the Italians were still hoping that Hitler would allow them to withdraw from the Axis.
7. Churchill, Closing the Ring, 101–102 (from a telegram dated August 7).
8. Goebbels, 412.
9. Fuehrer Conferences, 121 (Hitler said this to Doenitz).
10. Speer, 308.
11. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 56.
12. A petty officer said he had seen the Duce boarding a vessel in Gaeta: Deakin, 544.
13. Demanded that he be kept informed of the latest leads: Ibid., 543.
14. Fuehrer Conferences, 110.
15. Ultimate source of the Ventotene lead was Laurich: Deakin, 544.
16. Laurich worked at a German navy signals base at Gaeta: Ibid. He received the tip from an Italian naval officer, with whom he had become friendly: Ibid., 544; and Martienssen, 189 (in a footnote).
17. Fuehrer Conferences, 113.
18. Ventotene lead may have been a plant by SIM: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 286.
19. Fuehrer Conferences, 110.
20. Ibid.
21. Rescue of the Duce was put on hold, as well as Hitler’s plans to take over Italy by force: Deakin, 502.
22. Keitel, 188.
23. Fuehrer Conferences, 113.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid., 113–114.
27. Ibid., 114.
28. Maugeri, 142.
29. Badoglio, 63.
30. Maugeri, 143.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid., 144.
33. Ibid., 145.
34. Ibid., 147–148.
35. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 91.
36. Evacuated after a heavy bombing raid: Hibbert, 245.
37. Composed mainly of sailors and fishermen: Ibid.
38. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 92.
39. He called his journal the Pontine and Sardinian Musings: Hoettl, 264.
40. Ibid., 239 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
41. Ibid., 242 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
42. Ibid., 248 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
43. Ibid., 258 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
44. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 92.
45. “Live dangerously” was a Fascist motto: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 115.
46. An enormous case: Badoglio, 64.
47. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 93.
48. The same gift that Mackensen had attempted to deliver: Plehwe, 66.
49. Badoglio, 64.
50. Polito was his senior jailer: Hibbert, 248.
51. Not certain he could prevent Mussolini from being seized by mobs: Monelli, 225.
52. Hoettl, 246 (from Mussolini’s Pontine and Sardinian Musings).
Chapter 8
1. Fuehrer Conferences, 115.
2. Schmidt, 263.
3. Ibid.
4. Warlimont, 376.
5. Deakin, 506 (from Hitler e Mussolini).
6. Ibid. (from Hitler e Mussolini).
7. Ibid. (from Hitler e Mussolini).
8. Ribbentrop had been instructed to gauge intentions: Plehwe, 111; and Warlimont, 375.
9. Dollmann, Interpreter, 245.
10. The return of Italian troops: Garland and Smyth, 369–370.
11. Would refer the matter to Hitler: Ibid., 370.
12. Conference was a bust: Ibid.
13. Dollmann, Interpreter, 246.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Fuehrer Conferences, 114.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid., 115.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. “Game”: Gilbert, 50–51.
24. Fuehrer Conferences, 115.
25. Ibid., 116.
26. Ibid.
27. Liddell Hart, Rommel Papers, 441.
28. Fuehrer Conferences, 118.
29. Kappler had traced the Duce to Ponza: Student, 410.
30. An Italian grocer who supplied the island: Radl, 88–94.
31. Sometime during the first ten days of August: Ibid., 94–98.
32. Fuehrer Conferences, 119.
33. Student, 411.
34. Fuehrer Conferences, 119.
35. Ibid., 118.
36. Doenitz was becoming one of Hitler’s closest advisors during this period: Warlimont, 374.
37. Fuehrer Conferences, 121.
38. Ibid., 117.
39. Ibid., 118.
40. Warlimont, 374.
41. Keitel, 187.
42. A mass exodus from Berlin during August: Irving, Hitler’s War, 612.
43. One million civilians were eventually evacuated, many of them women and children: Ibid.
Chapter 9
1. Student, 413.
2. Kamptz had run across an old navy buddy in Rome: Ibid., 411.
3. Rumor going around the island: Ibid.
4. Flew to the Wolf ’s Lair on August 16: Fuehrer Conferences, 122.
5. Ibid., 123.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Being held on an Italian warship in Spezia: Student, 411.
9. “Reliable source” revealed Mussolini’s secret location: Ibid.
10. Ultimate source was an Italian naval officer: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 57.
11. Student, 411–412.
12. Student did not know what to believe: Ibid., 412.
13. Left the Pontine islands aboard an Italian warship (destination unknown) prior to mid-August: Radl, 91–95. Note: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 248, claimed that the Germans learned this on August 10 or 11.
14. Cordon around Spezia: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 286.
15. Student, 412.
16. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 57.
17. Jaegerleitoffiziere based in Spezia: Student, 412.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid., 413.
20. Whiting, Skorzeny, 14.
21. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 127.
22. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 13.
23. About five hundred yards west of the town: Infield, Skorzeny, 35.
24. Hunaeus mentioned the Villa Webber: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 249; and Radl, 102–104.
25. Multiple leads pointed to the area of Sardinia: Radl, 95–97, 103–105.
26. Flak unit commander said that Mussolini was in Santa Maria: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 248–249.
27. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 58.
28. An interpreter working for Hunaeus: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 249; and Radl, 103–105.
29. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 59.
30. Student, 413.
31. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 60.
32. Ibid.
33. The 20,000-pound airplane: Green, Warplanes, 303.
34. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 62.
35. Arrived in Rome on August 20: Ibid., 63. He learned of Kappler’s discovery: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 250.
36. Had focused on Mussolini’s family: Radl, 106–108. Vittorio had fled to Germany: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 287.
37. Kappler traced it to Maddalena: Radl, 107–109.
38. Had actually seen the Duce: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 250; and Radl, 108–110.
39. On August 23 he flew back to Maddalena with Radl: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 250; and Radl, 108–110.
40. Spied a bald, stocky man on the terrace: Radl, 109–111.
41. Was almost certain that it was the Duce: Ibid.
42. Returned to Rome on August 24 and conferred with Student: Ibid., 110–112.
43. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 63–64.
44. Abwehr and Amt VI were separate organizations with similar agendas, and the lines of demarcation were gray: Lucas, Kommando, 21–22.
45. Competed for Hitler’s favor: Ibid., 22–23.
46. Almost a matter of policy: Brendon, 289; Lucas, Kommando, 22–23; and Doenitz, Memoirs, xv.
47. Philosophy of “divide and rule”: Brendon, 289; Lucas, Kommando, 22–23; and Doenitz, Memoirs, xv.
48. Reassured the Nazi leadership that the loyalty of the Italians was beyond reproach: Hoehne, 532.
49. On Elba or somewhere close by: Student, 414.
50. To meet with Hitler in person: Note: Contrary to what the accounts of Student and Skorzeny say, Radl, 141–146, claimed that this visit took place after the aborted Maddalena rescue attempt.
51. Student, 414.
52. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 251.
53. Student, 414.
54. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 252.
55. Student, 414.
56. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 71.
57. Some of them were drinking wine: Radl, 142–144.
58. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 71.
59. Student, 414.
60. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 72.
61. Dulles, From Hitler’s Doorstep, 111.
62. Open secret among the local population: Patricelli, 42.
63. Believed that a rescue attempt was in the making: Hibbert, 248.
64. On August 28 at around 4:00 A.M.: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 93.
65. An hour and a half: Ibid.
66. Not far from the headquarters of the Third Panzergrenadier Division: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 287.
67. Gueli replaced Polito after the latter was injured in a car accident: Hibbert, 248.
68. The “usual motor-ambulance,” and was driven past Rieti and Cittaducale: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 93–94.
69. Fifteen miles or so: Hibbert, 249. Small inn called La Villetta: Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 244.
70. Two primary guardians were Gueli and Faiola: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 94; and Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 245.
Chapter 10
1. Deakin, 522.
2. Warlimont, 374.
3. Liddell Hart, Rommel Papers, 440 (from a diary entry dated August 11).
4. Student, 397.
5. Deakin, 519.
6. Ibid., 520.
7. Ibid., 522.
8. For several weeks to come, Ribbentrop would nurture the hope that the Nazis could reach an understanding with Badoglio: Ibid., 516.
9. Ibid., 522.
10. D’Ajeta wanted to know whether they were open to the idea of negotiating: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 230.
11. Suave: Strong, Intelligence at the Top, 146. A quick-witted Sicilian: Plehwe, 53; and Monelli, 208.
12. Left by train on August 12: Delzell, 247.
13. Castellano could have taken a plane, but was told not to hurry: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 311.
14. A “motley collection of garments”: Strong, Intelligence at the Top, 144–145.
15. Ibid., 151.
16. Not anxious to surrender: Delzell, 248; and Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 311.
17. Did not have the authority to surrender: Delzell, 248; and Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 311.
18. Trying to learn the details of the invasion plans: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 312.
19. Strong, Intelligence at the Top, 149–150.
20. Failed to send a progress report: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 311; Delzell, 249; and Clark, Modern Italy, 303.
21. Neglected to bring a radio: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 311.
22. Italian intelligence services possessed several communications links, but no one told Castellano: Ibid.
23. Zanussi was on Roatta’s staff: Delzell, 249. Arrived on August 26: Churchill, Closing the Ring, 107–108.
24. Created confusion: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 311; and Garland and Smyth, 462.
25. Churchill, Closing the Ring, 107.
26. One of Eisenhower’s men (Bedell Smith) considered having Zanussi shot: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 292.
27. Fuehrer Conferences, 117.
28. Would help to “clarify” intentions: Fuehrer Conferences, 117; and Liddell Hart, Rommel Papers, 441.
29. Just outside Bologna at a villa that had belonged to Federzoni: Deakin, 512.
30. Diplomats were told to stay at home: Garland and Smyth, 452.
31. Kesselring, 173.
32. Liddell Hart, Rommel Papers, 441.
33. Warlimont, 378. Note: Warlimont did not attend the Bologna conference.
34. On August 11: Warlimont, 377; and Plehwe, 118. Triggered the August 15 meeting: Warlimont, 377.
35. Warlimont, 378.
36. Roatta refused to answer: Garland and Smyth, 453.
37. Progress was almost nonexistent: Ibid., 452; and Badoglio, 69.
38. Fearful of a poisoning attempt: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 251.
39. In the center of Bologna: Ibid.
40. Jodl refused to drink his coffee: Plehwe, 119.
41. Roatta stressed the distrustful atmosphere: Garland and Smyth, 453.
42. Struck by the fact that the Nazis surrounded Federzoni’s villa with SS: Ibid.
43. Badoglio cautioned everyone present: Ibid.
44. Provocations might cause the Nazis to descend on Rome: Ibid.
45. In the early afternoon of August 15: Warlimont, 378.
46. Ibid.
47. Fuehrer Conferences, 124.
48. Could not hold on to all of Italy without the support of the Italians: Garland and Smyth, 469.
49. Fuehrer Conferences, 99.
50. Eighty percent of Italian industry: Brendon, 138.
51. By mid-month, half of Army Group B had entered Italy: Garland and Smyth, 442.
52. “Showed their true colors”: Fuehrer Conferences, 116. Kesselring’s divisions would withdraw from the south and regroup in the Rome area: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 330.
53. At which point Rommel would assume control of all German forces in Italy: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 330.
54. An assignment in Norway: Westphal, 153.
55. Rommel advocating the evacuation of southern and central Italy: Kesselring, 184.
56. Ibid., 171.
57. Had quarreled with the Italians: Plehwe, 68.
58. Warlimont, 379.
59. On August 17: Warlimont, 379; and D’Este, 74. After thirty-eight days of fighting: D’Este, 75.
60. Some 40,000 German troops: Garland and Smyth, 469; and Liddell Hart, Second World War, 445. Note: D’Este, 74, puts the number at 55,000.
61. Brought their vehicles and equipment: Garland and Smyth, 469.
62. Kesselring and Jodl made the decision for him: Warlimont, 379.
63. Churchill, Closing the Ring, 102 (he wrote this in a message to Anthony Eden dated August 7 after learning that the Italians had made contact with a British diplomat in Tangier).
64. Frequently bombed Italian cities: Monelli, 228.
65. Milan, Naples, Turin, and Genoa: Ibid.
66. On August 13: Deakin, 513; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 239. Declared Rome an Open City on August 14: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 240; and Garland and Smyth, 279–280.
67. Bombings of Italy undermined the idea that the Italians were forging a separate peace: Student, 414.
68. Eastern forces had been weakened: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 345. Captured Kharkov on August 23 and Taganrog one week later: Goebbels, 422 (in an editor’s note).
69. Hundreds of miles away: Ibid., 423 (in an editor’s note).
70. One million civilians: Irving, Hitler’s War, 612.
71. Might not be receptive: Deakin, 517.
72. Badoglio worried about the Nazis and the Fascists: Deakin, 517.
73. Exposed or manufactured: Ibid. Note: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 278, maintains that Badoglio made the whole thing up.
74. Some of the plotters had been arrested after July 25 and subsequently released: Deakin, 517.
75. Preemptive strike, settle accounts, and eliminate rivals: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 277–278.
76. Tongue lashing from the king: Ibid., 282.
77. For having illegally enriched himself: Deakin, 518.
78. On August 27: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 235; Hoettl, 267; Edda Ciano, 26; and Moseley, 182. Three children: Edda Ciano, 27. Conducted by Kappler: Dollmann, Interpreter, 292; Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 235; and Deakin, 518.
79. Edda Ciano, 26.
80. Believed that the Nazis would facilitate their journey to Spain: Hibbert, 268; and Ciano, Ciano Diaries, v, 580.
81. Edda Ciano, 28.
82. Edda Ciano, 28.
83. Hoettl helped plan the Cianos’ escape: Hoettl, 265–268; and Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 246 (in a footnote).
84. Hoettl, 265.
Chapter 11
1. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 254.
2. On August 27, Castellano returned: Plehwe, 135; and Delzell, 253. Note: Some sources give the date as August 28.
3. Dearly wanted to reach an understanding: Strong, Intelligence at the Top, 154; Lamb, War in Italy, 16; and Garland and Smyth, 465.
4. A majority recommended rejecting the armistice: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 312.
5. To haggle over the Short Terms and learn more about the invasion: Delzell, 254.
6. Churchill, Closing the Ring, 109.
7. By the end of August the Nazis had more or less completed their military preparations in northern Italy: Deakin, 517; and Garland and Smyth, 474.
8. Kesselring, 171.
9. Had no desire to force an open break: Deakin, 516.
10. Clung to the hope that he could keep the Italians in the Axis camp, possibly by reinserting Mussolini: Warlimont, 374.
11. Ribbentrop believed that the Nazis might be able to do business with Badoglio, even at this late date (the end of August): Deakin, 516.
12. Warlimont, 379.
13. To probe Badoglio’s state of mind and play for time: Deakin, 516.
14. On August 31, Hitler fired Mackensen and Rintelen: Westphal, 147. Note: Garland and Smyth, 473, give the date as September 1.
15. Intelligent: Dollmann, Interpreter, 254; and Deakin, 514. Bushy eyebrows: Dollmann, Interpreter, 254.
16. Designed to increase Badoglio’s anxiety: Deakin, 528 (in a footnote).
17. Flew to Rome on August 30 and met with Guariglia: Ibid.
18. Ibid. (from Guariglia’s book Ricordi 1922–1946).
19. Were aware of negotiations; would not hesitate to use force: Deakin, 528.
20. On September 3, Rahn met with Badoglio: Ibid., 529.
21. Ibid. (from Rahn’s book Ruheloses Leben).
22. At the same moment: Deakin, 529. Olive grove: Churchill, Closing the Ring, 111.
23. In no hurry to hand over Mussolini (after the September 3 armistice signing): Plehwe, 146.
24. The Italians had considered handing Mussolini over to the Allies right after the coup: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 298–299.
25. Two main guardians were Gueli and Faiola: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 94; and Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 245.
26. Retrieved the knives and forks after his meals: Hibbert, 250.
27. At the beginning of September: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 95; and Hibbert, 250. Nearby cable car station: After the Battle, 15.
28. A ten-minute ride: Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 245. Spanned 3,000 feet: Hibbert, 249; and After the Battle, 16 (map). First look: Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 248.
29. Almost 7,000 feet: After the Battle, 16 (map).
30. At 9,500 feet, it was the highest peak in the Apennines: Encyclopedia Britannica online.
31. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 95.
32. Guests were evacuated: Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 245. Note: Hibbert, 250, claimed that Mussolini was kept at La Villetta only because the Italians needed time to evacuate the Imperatore.
33. There were two hundred or so Italians guarding Mussolini: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 255. Police and carabinieri: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 288.
34. Comfortable second-floor suite: Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 245; and After the Battle, 15. No. 201: Ibid.
35. Listening to the radio and playing card games such as Scopone with his captors: Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 247. One of his new privileges: Hibbert, 250.
36. Allowed to take walks: Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 246.
37. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 116.
38. Special treatment reserved for men facing the gallows: Ibid., 115.
39. Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 250. Note: Other sources also indicate that Badoglio ordered that Mussolini was not to be taken alive by the Nazis: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 300; Hibbert, 254; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 473.
40. On August 31: Edda Ciano, 197. Welled up with tears: Ibid., 122.
41. Ibid., 122–123.
42. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 253. Note: Radl claimed that Student admitted that there were men on his own staff who doubted that the war could still be won. Radl, 79–81.
43. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 253.
44. Ibid.
45. Barnett, Hitler’s Generals, 477.
46. Ibid., 474.
47. In Africa, Russia, Sicily, Italy, France, Holland, and Germany: Ibid., 473.
48. One “trustworthy” source placed Mussolini in a Roman hospital: Radl, 157–161.
49. Eugen Dollmann dispelled a rumor suggesting that Mussolini was being held in the Villa Savoia: Ibid.
50. Hints that Badoglio had hidden Mussolini somewhere near Lake Trasimene: Ibid., 160–164.
51. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 254. Note: Radl, 158–162, and Student, 414, also mention this intercept.
52. Did not attach much value to Kappler’s discovery: Student, 414–415.
53. Was not convinced that he was on the mainland: Ibid.
54. On September 4 or 5: Radl, 160–164. Note: Student, 415–416, also mentions this visit.
55. In preparation for the Maddalena rescue: Student, 414–415.
56. Heard a story from the squadron captain: Ibid., 415.
57. Seemed to confirm that he was on the mainland: Ibid., 414–415.
58. If it were not for the secrecy: Ibid., 415–416.
59. “Racking his brains” for weeks: Ibid., 415.
60. Ibid., 415–416.
61. Supported by a car crash involving two Italian officers: Radl, 158–162.
62. Student, 416.
63. Brochure provided some details, including a photo: Radl, 160–162.
64. Student, 414. Note: Student seems to be referring to the period between September 3 and September 8.
65. Krutoff spoke fluent Italian: Ibid., 417. Krutoff was a charmer: Ibid.; and Radl, 168–172.
66. About seventy-five miles from Rome: Lamb, War in Italy, 23.
67. At least one agent had done some snooping: Radl, 159–162.
68. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 254.
69. About 230 miles per hour and its altitude was 16,400 feet: Ibid.
70. Temperature was 18 degrees Fahrenheit: Ibid.
71. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 76.
Chapter 12
1. Goebbels, 429.
2. Around noon: Garland and Smyth, 522. More than 10,000 people, and almost four hundred tons: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 363.
3. Thousands of Frascati’s residents lay dead or injured: Ibid.
4. 150 German soldiers had been killed: Katz, Battle for Rome, 30.
5. Kesselring was uninjured: Garland and Smyth, 522–523.
6. Kesselring, 176.
7. Minor damage: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 363.
8. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 79.
9. At 5:45 P.M. on the American radio: Deakin, 529.
10. The U.S. media had broken the story prior to Eisenhower’s announcement: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 372.
11. Garland and Smyth, 508.
12. At noon: Deakin, 529.
13. Ibid. (from a Rahn telegram).
14. After hearing the first broadcast: Deakin, 529–530.
15. British propaganda: Ibid.
16. Ibid. (from a Rahn telegram).
17. Ibid. (from a Rahn telegram).
18. Believed D-day was set for September 12: Badoglio, 71; and Garland and Smyth, 490. Note: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 317, asserts that this so-called confusion regarding the date of the invasion was merely used as an excuse by the king and Badoglio, who had no intention of providing military support.
19. On the evening of September 7–8: Garland and Smyth, 501; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 349.
20. Victor Emmanuel convened a council: Garland and Smyth, 511.
21. Considered denying the existence of the armistice: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 315.
22. At 7:45 P.M.: Garland and Smyth, 513.
23. Ibid., 509, 513.
24. Eisenhower was left guessing: Ibid., 509.
25. Could have been disastrous: Ibid., 465.
26. Italian aircraft attacked the invasion force: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 315.
27. Prevented at the last minute: Ibid., 315–316.
28. Caught the Nazis by surprise: Bullock, Hitler, 415; Garland and Smyth, 514; Dollmann, Interpreter, 255; and Plehwe, 122.
29. Times (London), September 9, 1943.
30. Kesselring had anticipated a landing in the Salerno area: Liddell Hart, Second World War, 456.
31. Kesselring, 186.
32. Strong, Intelligence at the Top, 164–165.
33. Thanks to naval gunfire, air power, and desperate fighting: D’Este, 109.
34. Cooks and typists: Ibid., 107.
35. Strong, Intelligence at the Top, 164–165.
36. Clark admitted that Salerno was almost a disaster: Liddell Hart, Second World War, 456.
37. Garland and Smyth, 508.
38. About 140 miles: Lamb, War in Italy, 19; and Garland and Smyth, 449.
39. Would spook the Nazis: Garland and Smyth, 478; and Plehwe, 143–144.
40. Series of airdrops and landings: Garland and Smyth, 498–499.
41. On September 7: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 314; and Delzell, 255. Downed airman: Katz, Battle for Rome, 29; and Garland and Smyth, 500.
42. Strong, Intelligence at the Top, 159.
43. Dubious assertions involving lack of fuel and ammunition and German troop positions: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 317.
44. Strong, Intelligence at the Top, 161.
45. Five divisions in the Rome area: Garland and Smyth, 532; Shirer, 1001; and Liddell Hart, Second World War, 452, 459.
46. The Third Panzergrenadier Division and the Second Parachute Division: Garland and Smyth, 523.
47. Badoglio, 82.
48. Badoglio did not give the Italian Army specific orders: Garland and Smyth, 513; Delzell, 258; Clark, Modern Italy, 303; Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 417.
49. On September 11, the Italian people received a call to arms (the message from Churchill and Roosevelt): Garland and Smyth, 535; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 468.
50. United States and Italy, 1936–1946: 68.
51. Cementing their control over most of Italy at this time: Bullock, Hitler, 415.
52. Goebbels, 444.
53. De Courten met with Kesselring on September 7: Westphal, 147.
54. Ibid., 147–148.
55. Arrived in Malta on September 11: Churchill, Closing the Ring, 115.
56. Ibid.
57. Executed several Italian commanders: Garland and Smyth, 533.
58. Goebbels, 432 (from an entry dated September 10).
59. Four-fifths of Italy: Garland and Smyth, 540; and Lamb, War in Italy, 21.
60. Liddell Hart, Second World War, 455 (from the Other Side of the Hill by Liddell Hart).
61. Aircraft carriers were unavailable in quantity: Garland and Smyth, 261.
62. Goebbels, 429.
63. Ibid.
64. New York Times, September 11, 1943.
65. Ibid.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid.
68. Seventeen thousand civilians were killed: Shirer, 826.
Chapter 13
1. Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1987.
2. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 83.
3. Student, 417.
4. Liddell Hart, Second World War, 454 (from Other Side of the Hill by Liddell Hart).
5. Italians put up a fierce resistance: Student, 402.
6. By September 10, the task force was turning its attention to the Gran Sasso: Ibid., 417.
7. Ibid.
8. On the evening of September 10, Student decided to spring the Duce: Ibid.
9. Ibid., 416.
10. Just a mule track: Patricelli, 64.
11. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 84.
12. Ibid.
13. Four inches square: Ibid.
14. Student, 416.
15. Concept originated with Hitler: McRaven, 33.
16. On a 150-foot ridge: Lucas, Kommando, 53. Designed to withstand artillery shelling and aerial bombardment: McRaven, 66.
17. Student and his staff developed a detailed plan: McRaven, 41, 60.
18. Eben Emael was their debut: McRaven, 62.
19. German Institute for Gliding Research: Edwards, German Airborne Troops, 44.
20. Early on the morning of May 10: McRaven, 45–47.
21. Dodging antiaircraft fire: Ibid., 47.
22. Shaped charges were a novelty: Ibid., 62.
23. Student’s sixty-nine-man team was outnumbered by ten to one: Ibid., 55. Within twenty minutes: Ibid., 58.
24. Germans had six fatalities, the Belgians twenty-five: Ibid., 55.
25. Rehearsed for months on end: Ibid., 57, 64.
26. Had good intelligence, including blueprints: Ibid., 61.
27. Four or five acres: Ibid., 195.
28. Did not possess proper schematics: Ibid., 193.
29. Worked out many of the details himself: Student, 418, 434.
30. Mors was the primary architect: Patricelli, 60–61 and 65–66; and the Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1987.
31. Led troops during the invasion of the Low Countries and the assault on Crete: Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1987.
32. Mors received the assignment on September 11: Patricelli, 58–59.
33. Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1987.
34. Student, 434.
35. Berlepsch was given command of the assault team: Student, 434.
36. Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1987.
37. Student, 419–420.
38. Cutting telephone and telegraph lines: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 258.
39. To prevent reinforcements from aiding the Italians: Student, 418.
40. Scheduled to take place at the same time: Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. The two hundred or so Italians: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 255.
43. Student, 419. Student was a glider pilot: McRaven, 33.
44. It was a worthy “challenge”: Student, 419.
45. The FG-42 was a new type of automatic rifle built especially for the paratroopers: Edwards, German Airborne Troops, 29–30; and McRaven, 180, 193 (in a footnote).
46. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 86.
47. Ibid., 87.
48. Student, 421.
49. Soleti was contacted on September 11: Radl, 214–218.
50. Not told the real reason: Ibid., 215–217.
51. Goebbels, 439–440 (from an entry dated September 10).
52. Had assured Eisenhower that the dictator would be in a secure location: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 316.
53. Butcher, 407.
54. Made no effort: Denis Mack Smith, Italy and Its Monarchy, 316.
55. Had driven through the Abruzzi region not far from the Hotel Imperatore: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 429.
56. Gueli was Mussolini’s senior jailer: Hibbert, 248; and Deakin, 547. Enhanced security measures: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 117; and Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 248. A few machine guns: Dombrowski, 68.
57. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 133.
58. On the evening of September 10 while listening to Berlin radio: Ibid., 117; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 473.
59. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 117. Which he missed: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 472.
60. New York Times, September 10, 1943.
61. United States and Italy, 1936–1946, 61.
62. Kept secret until 1945: Garland and Smyth, 550 (in a footnote).
63. Later that evening on September 10, Mussolini tried to slit his wrists with a Gillette razor blade: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 473.
64. It is not clear whether the Duce was really trying to commit suicide: Note: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 300, casts doubt on whether Mussolini really intended to commit suicide.
65. Faiola removed the razors and other sharp objects: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 133.
66. More likely the Nazis would attempt to snatch Mussolini: Hibbert, 254.
67. The Nazis were not to take Mussolini alive: Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, 300; Hibbert, 254; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 473.
Chapter 14
1. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 105.
2. Goebbels, 443 (from an entry dated September 11).
3. September 12 was a Sunday: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 88.
4. Swoop down at 7:00 a.m: Ibid.
5. Operation would have to be postponed: Student, 420.
6. Mors wanted to be certain: Ibid.
7. Mors wanted a margin for error: Ibid.
8. Student pushed Zero Hour back to 2:00 P.M.: Ibid.
9. During the early hours of September 12, Mors left for Assergi in a motorized column: Ibid., 420, 418.
10. Ibid., 420.
11. Ibid.
12. Around 7:30 A.M.: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 262.
13. Appeared at 9:00 A.M. and agreed to accompany Radl: Radl, 225–229.
14. Student took Soleti aside: Ibid., 229–233.
15. Gave his consent without much fuss: Ibid.
16. Scheduled to fly from Grosseto to Pratica: Student, 422.
17. About an hour later, the gliders and tugs appeared: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 92.
18. Student, 422.
19. Soleti was eating with Radl in an airport building: Radl, 231–235.
20. Student had not gone into great detail: Radl, 229–233.
21. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 262.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. Soleti thought Radl was making a joke: Ibid., 263.
25. Soleti became ill and a doctor was summoned: Radl, 232–236.
26. Made an appeal to Student and Kappler: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 263.
27. Ibid.
28. Was kept under guard: Ibid.
29. Gave a briefing for the pilots and selected officers in an office of the airfield: Radl, 233–237.
30. Also present were Berlepsch, Langguth, Skorzeny, and Radl: Ibid.
31. Most were surprised: See Whiting, Hunters from the Sky, 105.
32. Student, 422.
33. The shock value of the raid would be great: Ibid.
34. Main job of the pilots was to put the paratroopers on the ground: Ibid.
35. Was regrettable that the pilots would have to make their landings in the afternoon: Ibid.
36. No guarantee that Mussolini was still on the mountain: Patricelli, 76; and Whiting, Hunters from the Sky, 105.
37. Italian morale was low: Student, 422.
38. The Germans were bringing Soleti: Ibid.
39. Student returned to Frascati: Ibid.
40. Langguth and Skorzeny offered additional details: Radl, 236–240; and Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 92.
41. Hard to discern the slope: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 254; and Radl, 193–197.
42. Ridge east of Tivoli that rose to a height of 4,265 feet: Student, 422.
43. Not certain whether the aircraft could gain enough altitude: Ibid.
44. A horizontal 360-degree turn: Ibid., 424.
45. Henschel aircraft: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 260.
46. The Hs 126 was doing a lot of glider towing: Green, Warplanes, 389.
47. The 131-foot-long tow cable: Green, Warplanes, 105. Note: This type of cable was typical, but the Germans occasionally used a rigid-tow arrangement that was much shorter. It is not clear which was used during the Gran Sasso raid of September 12.
48. Rate of one per minute: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 260.
49. Berlepsch was in command of the assault team: Student, 419, 434; and Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1987 (in this article, Mors identifies Berlepsch as the commander).
50. Twelve glider groups: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 260–261.
51. Langguth would fly the leading tug: Student, 423.
52. Berlepsch would ride in the glider attached to Langguth’s plane: Ibid.
53. Skorzeny would fly in the first DFS 230 of the second Kette: Ibid.
54. FG–42 paratrooper rifles, machine guns, and light mortars: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 260–261.
55. Without the need for a bloody clash: Student, 419.
56. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 155.
57. Twin-engine Mitchells: Whiting, Hunters from the Sky, 107. Dropping bombs on the airport: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 92. Note: Student, 423, claimed that the enemy planes did not drop bombs during this raid.
58. Dashed for cover in the bushes and trees as the sound of explosions and AA guns filled the air: Radl, 237–241.
59. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 92.
60. None of the gliders had been hit: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 92–93. Minor damage: Ibid.; and Radl, 237–241.
61. Radl, 240.
62. Soleti made an attempt to shoot himself: Student, 424; and Radl, 238–242.
63. Trouble controlling their bladders: Radl, 239–243.
64. Tubular steel rods surrounded by a fabric skin: Green, Warplanes, 104.
65. Length of thirty-seven feet and a wingspan of seventy-two feet, and it weighed less than one ton when empty: Ibid., 107.
66. Particularly vulnerable to enemy fire: Ibid., 105.
67. Came equipped with machine guns: Ibid.
68. Not planning to fire these glider guns: Student, 422.
69. A little more than 4,600 pounds: Green, Warplanes, 107.
70. Straddle a long bench that ran down the center: McRaven, 41.
71. Jettison its wheels (two-wheel dolly): Green, Warplanes, 104.
72. Barbed wire: Student, 423; and Radl, 240–244.
73. Parachute beneath rear fuselage: Green, Warplanes, 105.
74. At 1:00 P.M., they began lifting off: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 93; and Student, 424.
75. Langguth was flying in the lead chain: Student, 423.
76. Skorzeny flew in the fourth chain: Ibid.
77. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 93.
78. The hotel was seventy-five miles from Rome: Lamb, War in Italy, 23.
79. Normal towing speed was about 112 miles per hour, but could be increased to 130 miles per hour: Green, Warplanes, 107.
80. Former cavalry officer: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 263.
81. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 93.
82. One of the commandos in Radl’s glider vomited: Radl, 241–245.
83. Langguth decided to swing around in a circle: Student, 424.
84. Langguth flew a loop: Ibid.
85. None of the other Ketten were following suit: Ibid.
86. Ibid.
87. Bank of clouds near Tivoli: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 93–94.
88. No radio contact between chains: Student, 424.
89. Failed to understand the significance of the course change: Ibid.
90. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 266.
91. Small plastic windows: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 265. Cut slits in the fuselage: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 94.
92. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 94.
93. Meyer relayed the information to the tug: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 266.
94. Spotted L’Aquila: Ibid.
95. Dust storm: Ibid.
96. Winding road that led to the cable car station: Ibid.
97. Timing was perfect: Ibid.
98. Altitude of 9,843 feet: Note: According to Student, 425, the gliders were flying at 9,843 feet right before the tow cables were released.
99. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 95.
100. Rocks and boulders: Ibid., 96.
101. “Steep approach!”: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 266. Told the pilot to land close to the hotel: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 95.
102. Radl, 244.
103. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 96.
104. Fifty feet from the corner of the hotel: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 266. Near the rear corner on the hotel’s right shoulder: McRaven, 186 (in a diagram).
105. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 133. Note: Due to the location of Mussolini’s suite, it is unlikely that the Duce saw Skorzeny’s glider land; he is probably referring to one of the other DFS 230s.
106. Door was torn off: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 96.
107. Skorzeny followed: Ibid.
108. “Don’t shoot, don’t shoot!”: Radl, 244–248. Note: Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 250, make a similar claim.
109. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 97.
110. Saw a face at a window: Ibid.
111. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 134.
112. Ibid.
113. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 267.
114. Radl’s glider landed in front: Ibid. Three hundred feet from the hotel: Radl, 244–248.
115. Could see Skorzeny and his men moving along the front: Radl, 242–246.
116. Soleti was with them: Ibid.
117. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 267.
118. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 97.
119. Only three or four minutes: Ibid., 98.
120. Two Germans appeared at the window: Ibid.
121. Not a shot fired: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 267.
122. Ibid.
123. Several gliders appeared from the clouds: See Student, 425.
124. Berlepsch was among the new arrivals: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 268; and Patricelli, 85. His chain had rejoined the convoy: Patricelli, 77. Note: Contrary to Student’s account, Skorzeny claimed that Berlepsch rode in the fifth glider—not the first.
125. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 98.
126. Shots in the distance: Ibid.
127. Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 267.
128. Ibid.
129. Ibid.
130. Treated by German and Italian medics: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 269.
131. Not life-threatening: Ibid.
132. Ibid.
133. Minor Italian casualties: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 269.
134. Deakin, 547.
135. It was signed by Senise: Ibid.
136. Shortly after Skorzeny’s glider landed, Gueli gave the order not to open fire: Ibid.; and Davis, Who Defends Rome, 473.
137. Gave them the authority to surrender the Duce: Davis, Who Defends Rome, 473.
138. Student, 425.
139. Traveling overland was too risky: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 100.
140. Fearful of angry civilians: McRaven, 188.
141. To be flown back to Pratica in a Stork: Student, 426.
142. Hover in mid-air: Green, Warplanes, 166.
143. A second Stork would transport Skorzeny: Student, 425–426.
144. Ibid., 426.
145. Gerlach was thirty: Whiting, Hunters from the Sky, 106. Headwind and an incline: Student, 426.
146. Had landed in the valley and damaged its undercarriage: Student, 427.
147. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 102.
148. Student, 427.
149. No enthusiasm for the flight, with or without Skorzeny: Ibid., 426–427.
150. Be allowed to return to Rocca: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 270; Radl, 250–254; and Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 251.
151. Mors was in charge of the entire operation: Student, 425; and Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1987 (in this article, Mors claimed that he was in charge of the rescue operation).
152. Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1987.
153. Cameraman by way of the cable car: After the Battle, 29.
154. Dark overcoat, which was too big for him, and black felt hat: Hibbert, 266.
155. German soldiers and some of the carabinieri raised their arms in the Fascist salute and chanted “Duce!”: Iurato and Antonelli, “With Mussolini at the Campo Imperatore,” 252; and Hibbert, 265.
156. At 3:00 P.M.: Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 135.
157. The “runway” was a downward slope: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 270; and After the Battle, 25, in a photo caption. Two hundred yards long: After the Battle, 29; and Whiting, Hunters from the Sky, 111.
158. The 240-horsepower engine: Green, Warplanes, 168.
159. Some German soldiers were holding the plane: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 104; and Hibbert, 266.
160. Rolled over half-buried stones: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 104.
161. Ibid., 105.
162. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 135.
163. Radl, 261.
164. An eerie silence swept through the crowd: Radl, 259–263.
165. Ibid., 261.
166. Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 105.
167. Student, 427.
168. Southwesterly course: Hibbert, 266. Skimming the treetops: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 105.
169. The engine was not functioning properly: Student, 428.
170. Placed a hand on Mussolini’s shoulder: Skorzeny, Secret Missions, 105.
171. Ibid.
172. Two-point landing due to damaged left wheel: Ibid., 106.
173. Ibid.
174. Student, 428.
175. Aspern airport: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 272; and Student, 429. At about 11:00 P.M.: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 246 (in a footnote).
176. Hotel Imperial: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 272.
177. Close to midnight, a colonel appeared: Ibid., 246 (in a footnote).
178. McRaven, 187–188 (from “Mussolini Event”).
179. First time it was earned and awarded on the same day: Whiting, Skorzeny, 43; Patricelli, 128; and Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1987.
180. Himmler, Goering, and Keitel spoke to Skorzeny: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 272–273.
181. Thanked Hitler briefly and went directly to bed: Hibbert, 267.
182. Goebbels, 450 (from an entry dated September 13).
183. Skorzeny walked off with Mussolini’s papers: Hoettl, 232–233. Note: According to Hoettl, Skorzeny stole Mussolini’s papers during the journey from Rome to Vienna.
184. Copied, translated, and presented to Hitler: Ibid., 233.
Epilogue
1. New York Times, September 13, 1943.
2. Boost to German morale: Wiskemann, 311; and Toland, Hitler, 755.
3. Bullock, Hitler, 417.
4. New York Times, September 13, 1943.
5. Ibid., September 14, 1943.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Churchill, Onwards to Victory, 200.
10. Ibid.
11. Air Force Medal in Gold from Goering: Whiting, Skorzeny, 44.
12. Order of the Hundred Musketeers: Ibid.
13. Radl was promoted to captain: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 276.
14. Hoettl, 230.
15. Goebbels, 451 (from an entry dated September 14).
16. Ibid., 452 (from an entry dated September 15).
17. Never thanked Student or the paratroopers: Student, 429.
18. Student, 430.
19. The one organization he could trust: See Irving, Hitler’s War, 617. Note: Irving points out that Hitler’s trust in Himmler and the SS was absolute by this point.
20. To restage the rescue: Skorzeny, My Commando Operations, 281.
21. New York Times, September 13, 1943.
22. Hitler had tears in his eyes: Hibbert, 269.
23. Goebbels, 471 (from an entry dated September 23).
24. Demanded that Ciano and the others pay with their heads: Monelli, 230.
25. Goebbels, 468 (from an entry dated September 23).
26. Ibid., 471 (from an entry dated September 23).
27. To avoid civil war: Monelli, 230.
28. Would reflect badly on Germany: Monelli, 230.
29. Goebbels, 470, 471 (from an entry dated September 23).
30. Goebbels was jealous: Hibbert, 271; and Wiskemann, 312.
31. Goebbels, 472 (from an entry dated September 23).
32. Wiskemann, 313.
33. Dollmann, Interpreter, 280.
34. Rachele Mussolini, 277.
35. On the western shore of Lake Garda: Deakin, 607.
36. Never saw the Eternal City again: Shirer, 1005; and Dombrowski, 73.
37. Under pressure from Hitler: Shirer, 1005; and Monelli, 235.
38. Ciano turned around to face his executioners: Monelli, 286.
39. The Villa Feltrinelli in Gargnano: Deakin, 607.
40. Monelli, 232.
41. Liked to refer to Wolff as his jailer: Ibid.
42. Dombrowski, 144.
43. Clark, Modern Italy, 310.
44. Churchill, Closing the Ring, 187.
45. The 80,000 or so Partisans: Clark, Modern Italy, 315. More than half of the Partisans (50,000) had joined the Communist-controlled Garibaldi brigades: Clark, Modern Italy, 312.
46. Assassinations, sabotage, and surprise attacks: Ibid., 311.
47. Dollmann, Interpreter, 322.
48. Goering, Doenitz, and Ribbentrop began to squabble: Shirer, 1056.
49. Crumbling a piece of cake and creating sculptures: Dollmann, Interpreter, 323.
50. Ibid.
51. Schmidt, 276–277.
52. Looked Mussolini in the eye and reaffirmed his friendship: Hibbert, 301.
53. Deakin, 713 (from Die Gebrochene Achse by E. F. Moellhausen).
54. Hitler drew aside Rahn: Deakin, 713.
55. Dollmann, Interpreter, 325.
56. Deakin, 800 (from volume 3 of Tamaro’s Due Anni di Storia, 1943–1945, 514).
57. Outside the village of Dongo: Monelli, 257.
58. Wearing an overcoat, helmet, and sunglasses: Ibid.
59. Near the hamlet of Mezzegra: Deakin, 816. On the western shores of Como: Wiskemann, 338.
60. Piazzale Loreto: Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy, 420.
61. Left the Wolf ’s Lair for good in November 1944: Hoffmann, Hitler’s Personal Security, 257.
62. In January 1945, he ordered that it be destroyed: Hoffmann, Hitler’s Personal Security, 257. Not enough explosives to finish the job: Ibid., xii.
63. Junge, 177.
64. Benito Mussolini, Memoirs, 139.
65. Succumbed to their illusions like madmen: Hibbert, 291; and Dombrowski, 148.
66. McRaven, 195.
67. Bradley, 467–468.
68. Summersby, 202–203.
69. New York Times, May 18, 1945.
70. Ibid.
71. Whiting, Skorzeny, 104.
72. Worked as a temporary agent of the Mossad: Jerusalem Post, September 20, 1989.
73. To foil an Egyptian plan to develop a missile program: Ibid.
74. Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1987.
75. Ibid.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid.
78. McRaven, 192 (in a footnote).
79. Lamb, War in Italy, 1.
80. Westphal, 153.
81. Liberate Naples by Day Three: Liddell Hart, Second World War, 461.
82. Took them three weeks: Ibid. Naples fell on October 1: D’Este, 110. Fifth Army suffered 12,000 casualties: Liddell Hart, Second World War, 469.
83. Could be captured by the end of October 1943: D’Este, 115.
84. The 140-mile distance from Salerno to Rome: Lamb, War in Italy, 19; and Garland and Smyth, 449.
85. D’Este, 117.
86. About eighty miles south of Rome: Katz, Battle for Rome, 65.
87. Berlepsch was killed in action there: Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1987.
88. Katz, Death in Rome, 6.
89. Katz, Battle for Rome, 181.
90. Ultimately, 335 men were shot dead: Katz, Battle for Rome, 254.
91. Deakin, 725 (from a Kesselring order dated August 4, 1944).
92. Gothic Line was in the mountains north of Florence: D’Este, 181.
93. D’Este, 89.
The Story of Operation Oak
1. Deakin, 543.