Index

Note: Page numbers in italics refer to figures and tables.

• Abbate, Janet, 107–108, 223n71, 224n86
• Abrahamson, Stephen, 148–149, 158
• Abuse normalization, 138
• Accessibility-security paradox, 55
• Affective injustices, 138–139
• Agostinho, Daniela, 45
• Ahmed, Sara, 80, 131
• Alder, Ken, 58
• Allen, Jamie, 143
• Analogies, 5, 25, 28, 209n74, 209n77, 210n88
• Andrews, Harry, 103
• Archives, 199
• Aronson, Louise, 163
• ARPANET, 97
• histories of, 107–108
• image transmission tests, 74
• military contexts, 108
• Roberts’s research, 98
• SIPI’s work on, 108, 116
• USC node, 223n71
• Art
• functions, 192
• “Girls on Film,” 189
• Kodak Three Point Reflection Guide, 189
• Lena test image in, 141–143, 191, 230nn71–72
• measurement tools in, 187–188
• Shirley Card spoofs, 189–190
• “Standard Evaluation Materials,” 189, 237n15
• standardized patients, 191
• test materials appropriation, 190
• 3 stoppages étalon, 184–188
• Average man, 25–28, 210n89

• Bains, Sunny, 113
• Banet-Weiser, Sarah, 136
• Barad, Karen, 65, 69
• Barrows, Howard, 191. See also Standardized patient program, Barrows and Abrahamson’s
• Barry, Andrew, 70
• Battle of Mogadishu, 1–3
• Benchmarks, 18–19, 85
• Berlant, Lauren, 77
• Bonhoure, Albert, 66–68
• Bowker, Geoffrey, 28, 48, 193
• Broomberg, Adam, 190
• Broussard, Meredith, 137
• Browne, Simone, 86–87
• Buck, Julie, 189
• Bulletin Board System (BBS), 116
• Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM), 55, 61, 65, 68, 71
• Burke, Kenneth, 140
• Burrington, Ingrid, 197–198
• Busch, Lawrence, 47
• Butler, Judith, 130

• Canguilhem, Georges, 217n88
• Carnegie Mellon University, 136
• Chains of iteration, 122, 124, 130–131, 140
• Chanarin, Oliver, 190
• China Girls test images, 89–91, 107, 189
• Christensen, Alice, 207n54
• Christensen, Ward, 116
• Chun, Wendy Hui Kyong, 125
• Citation patterns, 121
• Cities as proxies, 15–16
• Cleaning. See Hygiene; International Prototype Kilogram cleaning
• Clinical gaze, 149
• Comité International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM), 55, 69, 215n64
• Comparison, 64–65
• Concealment
• forgetfulness, 12–13, 47
• infrastructure, 12–13, 184, 193–198
• invisibility of proxies, 13, 30
• IPK, 195
• standards, 183, 186, 195. See also Visibility
• Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM), 55, 62–63
• Consumer Price Index (CPI), 13–14, 206n39
• Cowan, T. L., 45
• Cullen Dunn, Elizabeth, 46
• Cultural work of proxies, 9, 19, 143, 201–202
• Culture
• chains of iteration, 122, 124, 130–131, 140
• circuits, 192
• contexts of proxies, 191
• definition, 5
• Lena test image, 80–81
• power of, 140
• proxies as, 86, 146, 202

• Daston, Lorraine, 8
• Data, 76–78, 84–86, 110. See also Test data
• Data hygiene, 38–40
• as analytic term, 69
• cleaning versus sanitizing, 44
• media content, 43–45
• money laundering, 40–41, 212n22
• offices, 43
• and power, 45
• purposes, 40
• standardized patients, 162–163
• voter suppression, 41–42, 45
• Davis, Angelique, 157
• Davis, Lennard, 160
• Defaults, 96
• Delegation, 6–8
• DeNardis, Laura, 48, 214n49
• Derrida, Jacques, 63
• Digital images. See Image coding and processing
• Dirt, 39, 41, 44–45
• Disability, 160–162, 169
• Doane, Mary Ann, 89
• Douglas, Mary, 39, 41
• Downey, Greg, 180
• DuBois, Luke, 191
• Duchamp, Marcel, 184–188
• Dyer, Richard, 88, 93

• Earnest, Les, 100
• Edge detection, 106–107
• Emotional labor, 146, 230n3
• Epstein, Jeffrey, 137, 229n60
• Ernst, Rose, 157
• Eugenics, 26–27
• Exemplars, 9–10

• Fictions
• proxies as, 25, 27
• statistical, 25–27
• Vaihinger’s theory of, 25, 28, 209n74, 209n77, 210n88
• Fixed points, 17, 207n55
• advantages of, 186–187
• analytic method, 39
• arbitrary precision, 19, 46–47, 59–60
• legitimizing functions, 18, 53
• maintenance, 18
• measurement prototypes, 59, 64, 185–186
• measurement systems, 17–18, 37–38, 54, 58, 60
• standardized patients, 147, 166
• test images, 84–85, 115. See also International Prototype Kilogram
• Fleming, Sandford, 49–50
• Flyverbom, Mikkel, 195
• Ford, Lisa, 203n6
• Forsén, Lena, 73, 113, 119, 129, 141, 143. See also Lena test image
• Foucault, Michel, 149
• Frenkel, Karen, 135, 137
• Frid-Jiminez, Amber, 230n72
• Fuller, Matthew, 236n6
• Funhouse mirror politics, 136

• Galison, Peter, 8, 62
• Garland Thomson, Rosemary, 159
• Gender, 43, 130, 133–134, 136. See also Test image femininity; Women
• General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), 55, 62–63
• “Girl” test image, 105, 106, 223n79
• Goffman, Erving, 159
• Goodwin, Charles, 81–82, 219n20
• Gordon, Lewis, 87–88
• Guins, Raiford, 44

• Hall, Rachel, 152, 197
• Hancock, Ben, 21–22
• Harmon, Leon, 101
• Hasinoff, Amy, 126, 227n38
• Hawkins, Timothy, 129
• Hay, Deborah, 101
• Hecht, Gabrielle, 196
• Heritage Foundation, 42
• Hetherington, Kregg, 196
• Hicks, Mar, 133
• Hochschild, Arlie Russell, 230n3
• Homosocial desires, 76–77, 101
• How Not to Be Seen: A Fucking Didactic Educational .MOV File, 188
• Hsu, Hsuan, 149
• Hutchinson, Jamie, 120
• Hygiene, 39, 41, 43–45. See also Data hygiene; International Prototype Kilogram cleaning

• IEEE Transactions on Image Processing, 120–122, 225n16
• Igo, Sarah, 15, 207n48
• iLena test image, 131–132
• Image coding and processing
• circulation, 110
• digitization, 97
• disciplinary consolidation, 120
• edge detection, 106–107
• military applications, 108–109
• problems of, 103, 144
• professionalization, 140–141
• research at SIPI, 103–107
• salient feature extraction, 106–107
• skin tone biases, 84, 86–89, 93–94
• training, 133–134, 140–141. See also Images of nude women; Test images
• Image proxies, 81, 138. See also Test images
• Images of nude women
• at Bell Labs, 101
• control of women’s bodies, 111–112
• in engineering training, 133–134
• at MIT, 98–99
• at Stanford, 99–101
• suspension of disbelief, 78
• treatment as technical accomplishments, 101. See also Lena test image; Playboy magazine; Pornography
• Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO), 97, 102, 108, 223n71, 224n86
• Infrastructure, 13
• analytic methods, 183–184, 193, 196
• breakdowns, 193, 196
• concealment and visibility, 12–13, 184, 193–198
• crises, 196, 238n35
• definitions, 193–194
• good versus bad, 195–196
• knowledge, 19
• standards as, 186–187
• Intellectual property
• Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 227n35
• Lena test image, 117–120, 129–130
• Playboy Enterprises enforcing, 117, 127
• International Prototype Kilogram (IPK), 53–54
• accessibility and security, 53–55, 215n64
• concealment, 195
• conventionality, 72
• creation, 61
• enclosure, 62, 71, 183
• environment, 69–71
• ideologies, 54
• infallibility, 63–64
• mass changes, 70
• mass definition, 63–64, 68–69, 217n88
• porousness, 69–70
• as proxy, 56
• replacements of, 36–38, 53, 72, 211n4
• self-sufficient status, 65
• symbol representing, 54
• traceability, 56–57, 65
• uncertainty regarding, 65–66
• verification, 68
• visibility, 197
• witnesses, 61–62, 65–66, 68, 71
• as working object, 11. See also International Prototype Kilogram cleaning
• International Prototype Kilogram cleaning, 11, 38
• diagrams, 51, 52, 67
• errors, 66–68
• instructions, 50–53, 56, 66
• during manufacture, 66
• and mass definition, 68–69
• ontological significance, 55–56
• International Prototype Meter, 64, 185–186
• The Internet
• bigotry and hatred, 126
• Bulletin Board System, 116
• history, 107–108, 111
• infrastructural labor, 128, 227n37
• infrastructure visibility, 197–198
• pornography, 125–129
• regulation attempts, 126. See also ARPANET
• IPK. See International Prototype Kilogram
• Irigaray, Luce, 140

• Jamison, Leslie, 162–163
• “Jennifer in Paradise” test image, 91–92, 96
• Jevons, William Stanley, 25–26
• Johnson, W. Scott, 74
• Johnson & Matthey, 60, 66, 216n79
• Jokes
• about the meter, 184–187

• Kafer, Alison, 161
• Kahn, Bob, 108
• Katz, Elihu, 16
• Knoll, John, 91–92
• Knowledge production, 12, 19, 171, 197
• Knowlton, Kenneth, 101
• Kodak film skin tone biases, 93–94
• Kodak Three Point Reflection Guide (performance art), 189
• Kuhn, Thomas, 9–10, 205n27

• Labor
• contexts of mistreatment, 139–140
• emotional, 146, 230n3
• gendered, 43, 174–175, 228n53
• infrastructural, 128, 176, 227n37
• knowledge, 12
• standardized patients, 171, 174–176
• test images, 79, 124
• Lampland, Martha, 18, 195–196
• Latour, Bruno, 7, 71, 204nn16–17
• Lazarsfeld, Paul, 16
• Leahy, Richard, 103
• Lehmann, Ann-Sophie, 236n11
• Lena test image, 73–74, 113, 115
• appearance of, 80, 97, 106
• in art and media, 141–143, 191, 230nn71–72
• bans on, 141
• benchmarks, 85
• circulation, 110–111, 116
• concealment, 195
• contemporary image standards, 96–97
• data compression, 110
• in engineering culture, 80–81
• feminine whiteness, 112, 115
• as fixed point, 85
• formal descriptions, 110
• as icon, 141–142, 144, 183
• in IEEE Transactions on Image Processing, 120–122, 225n16
• iLena image reproduction, 131–132
• intellectual property issues, 117–120
• justifications for use, 110, 122
• labeling, 116, 225n8
• masculine discourse, 140
• norm perpetuation, 130–131
• notoriety, 113, 114
• in Optical Engineering, 114, 117–119, 129–130, 141, 225n11
• patriarchy, 127
• persistence, 81, 83, 129
• Playboy lawsuit, 117–120, 129–130
• politics of, 112, 117–125
• porousness, 102, 143
• professional vision, 81
• as property, 129–130, 132
• reproduction, 74
• resisting the use of, 131
• and seeing, 144
• separation from the centerfold, 82–83
• separation from the model, 82, 220n22
• as sexist, 120, 123–124, 133, 141, 226n23
• sexualization, 122
• smallest printing of, 224n92
• trained incapacities, 140–141
• ubiquity, 74, 117, 124
• uses, 86, 110, 127. See also Lena test image contexts; Lena test image creation narratives
• Lena test image contexts
• abusive, 132–133
• cultural, 127–128, 132, 140–141
• institutional, 102–107, 115
• professional, 83, 97, 101–103, 111, 139
• Lena test image creation narratives
• centerfold folding and tearing, 75–76, 197
• common features, 74–75, 78
• homosocial desire, 76–77
• image selection process, 75–76, 80
• image selection reasons, 78, 109–110, 138
• professional vision creation, 81
• Lincoln, Martha, 149
• Literature, 65, 207n54
• Losing Lena documentary, 141
• Lynch, Robin, 101, 190
• Lynd, Helen, 15
• Lynd, Robert, 15, 207n48

• Maguire, Ryan, 191
• Marvin, Carolyn, 35
• Masculinity, 76–77, 101, 218n7
• Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
• hackers, 137, 228n58
• images of nude women at, 98–99
• influence and reputation, 136–137
• Minsky, Marvin, 137, 228n58, 229n60
• women’s experiences, 136–139, 229nn60–61
• Material turns, 192, 194
• McCarthy, John, 99, 137
• McGill Pain Questionnaire, 154–155
• McKinney, Cait, 12
• McWilliams, Rose, 171–172, 173, 176, 179
• Measurement
• American, 63
• comparison, 64–65
• difference identification, 62
• need for standards, 36–37
• de Podesta on, 35–37
• ritual bolstering, 71
• standard systems, 58
• traceability, 56–57. See also Metric system
• Medical education, 147, 167. See also Standardized patient programs
• Medical experimentation, 156–157
• Medical professionals
• doctors, 148, 153, 164–165
• emotional labor, 146, 230n3
• Medical systems
• clinical gaze, 149
• disability, 160–162, 169
• pain, 153–158
• racism, 155–157
• suspension of disbelief, 164
• white supremacy, 156–157. See also Standardized patient programs
• Melas, Natalie, 64–65
• Melzack, Ronald, 154–155
• Mendel, David, 164–165
• Metric system
• arbitrariness, 58–61
• Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, 55, 61, 65, 68, 71
• creation of, 49, 54–55, 58–61
• inaccuracies, 59–60
• jokes about, 184–187
• kilograms, 59–64
• management, 55
• mass redefinitions, 37–38, 65
• meters, 18, 58–63, 217n89
• Metre Convention, 60–61, 63
• original basis, 17–18, 58
• scope, 58
• success, 59–60. See also Metric system standard objects
• Metric system standard objects
• authority, 63
• kilograms, 59–61
• meters, 59–63
• philosophical inquiries, 64
• ritual burial, 62–63, 71. See also International Prototype Kilogram
• Middletown studies, 15–16, 28, 96, 207n48
• Minsky, Marvin, 137, 228n58, 229n60
• Moran, Mayo, 14–15
• Munson, David, 121–125, 140
• Murphy, Michelle, 10, 43
• “Musicians” test image, 94–96

• National Physical Laboratory (NPL), 35, 211n2
• Nation-states, 49
• Nietzsche, Friedrich, 29
• Norman, Geoffrey, 148
• Normate, 28–29, 88, 96, 159
• Norms, 30, 130
• Norm-swapping, 16
• NPL (National Physical Laboratory), 35, 211n2

• Object arrivals, 80
• Olesko, Kathryn, 49
• Optical Engineering, 114, 117–119, 129–130, 141, 225n11
• Ordinariness, 19

• Pachirat, Thomas, 239n42
• Paglen, Trevor, 191, 230n72
• Pain, 153–158
• Peirce, Charles S., 217n91
• Performance as proxy, 165–166
• Phantasmagrams, 10, 27
• Pixl test images, 90, 91
• Planck, Max, 50
• Planck constant, 37, 211n8
• Platform moderation, 128, 227n37
• Playboy Enterprises, 117–120, 127, 129–130
• Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Russ Hardenburgh, 127–129
• Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Webbworld Inc, 127
• Playboy magazine
• issues at SIPI, 76–77, 80, 98, 102, 111, 133
• Lena centerfold, 73
• photographs used as test images, 98–99. See also Lena test image
• Podesta, Michael de, 35–38, 64
• Politics of representation, 6, 19, 28. See also White skin in test images
• Politics of standing-in, 138
• Pornography
• in computer science environments, 132, 135–136
• feminist debates, 226n23
• internet, 125–129
• mainstreaming of, 111
• new media adoption, 125. See also Images of nude women; Lena test image
• Porousness of proxies, 27, 39, 146, 201
• and culture, 86
• IPK examples, 69–70
• Lena test image, 102, 143
• mediating function, 20
• standardized patients, 146
• test image examples, 78
• Pratt, William, 98, 102–103, 131, 223n79
• Professional vision, 81, 219n20
• Prototype objects. See Standard objects
• Prototypical whiteness, 86–88, 96, 120
• Proxies, 4–5
• accessibility-security paradox, 55
• averageness, 25–27
• bodily, 8
• critique, 171
• environmental interactions, 70
• as fictions, 25, 27
• following, 200–201
• humans sustaining, 11–12
• influence, 202
• legal system, 14
• living, 10–11
• maintenance needs, 70–71, 143, 146, 198
• materialized hypotheses, 47–48
• mediation, 5, 20
• ordinariness, 19
• power, 30, 33
• problem appearance, 33
• reality creation, 28–29
• reality practices, 22
• requirements for functioning, 53
• revealing norms, 9
• selection consequences, 15–17
• spectacularity, 183
• taking for granted, 6–7, 19
• ubiquity of, 7
• unjust, 139
• Proxification, 5, 14
• Proxy servers, 12

• Quetelet, Lambert “Adolphe” Jacques, 25–26
• Quinn, Terry, 38

• Racial gaslighting, 157
• Racism
• denial of Black pain, 155–157
• infrastructure, 196–197
• medical systems, 156–157
• standardized patient programs, 157–158
• training data, 84–86
• voter suppression, 45. See also Test image racism; Whiteness; White skin in test images
• Rault, Jas, 196
• Raven, Lucy, 189, 237n15
• Reasonable person proxies, 14–15
• Reenactment, 165–166
• Rentschler, Carrie, 138
• RI. See Royal Institution of Great Britain
• Rituals, 38–39, 71, 171, 187
• Roberts, Lawrence, 98–99, 102, 107
• Roth, Lorna, 90, 94, 190
• Royal Institution of Great Britain (RI), 35
• Ruhleder, Karen, 193
• Russell, Andrew, 6

• Salient feature extraction, 106–107
• Sawchuk, Alexander, 74–76, 80, 115–116, 138
• Scarry, Elaine, 153–155, 158, 232n23
• Schechner, Richard, 166
• Schneider, Rebecca, 165–166
• Schwartz Cowan, Ruth, 43
• Scott, James C., 49, 59–60
• Scott, Joan Wallach, 134
• Sedgwick, Eve, 76–77
• Seeing and not seeing, 140
• Segal, Karin, 189
• Settler colonialism, 203n6
• Sexism
• Lena test image, 120, 123–124, 133, 141, 226n23
• test images, 6, 130. See also Images of nude women; Test image femininity; Women in STEM
• Sexuality and technology, 76–77, 79
• Sex work and pornography debates, 226n23
• Shapin, Steven, 8–9
• Shirley cards, 87, 90–91, 94–96, 107
• Shirley Card spoofs, 189–190
• Siebers, Tobin, 169
• Signal and Image Processing Institute (SIPI)
• ARPANET work, 108, 116
• Department of Defense funding, 102–103, 223n71
• history, 97, 102–104, 223n71
• image processing research, 103–108, 111
• Playboy magazine at, 77, 80, 98, 102, 111, 133
• reputation, 80
• test images, 97, 104–106, 115–116. See also Lena test image
• Simpson, Audra, 203n6
• Simulated towns, 21. See also Yodaville
• Simulation, 167
• Sjööblom, Lenna. See Forsén, Lena; Lena test image
• Slaton, Amy, 223n71
• Spertus, Ellen, 135–136
• Srinivasan, Amia, 138
• Stallman, Richard, 229n60
• Standardization, 6
• analytic approaches, 50
• cultural circuits, 192
• early, 49
• fixed point selection, 46–47
• materialism, 18
• social contexts, 46
• suspension of disbelief, 163
• utopian, 49–50
• Standardized patient program, Barrows and Abrahamson’s
• advantages of, 167–168, 175
• development, 148–149
• normalcy’s role in, 158
• physician evaluation, 179
• SP hiring, 171, 174–175
• SP training, 180, 235n87
• as transitional aid, 169
• Standardized patient programs, 10–11, 145–146
• the clinical gaze, 149
• criticisms, 166, 171
• development, 148–149
• exams based on, 146, 230n4, 231n8
• goals, 152–153, 166
• Master Interviewing Rating Scale (MIRS), 149, 232n21
• media coverage, 171–172, 173
• normalcy’s role in, 158–159
• origins of, 147–148, 157
• pain communication, 153–154
• patient templates, 149–150
• physician evaluation, 179
• prototypical able-bodiedness, 169
• racism, 157–158
• relationality, 161–162
• scenarios, 149–152
• suspension of disbelief, 158–163, 168
• theater of transparency, 152
• Standardized patients
• advantages over actual patients, 166–168, 175
• authority of presence, 168–169
• data hygiene, 162–163
• with disabilities, 170
• disability performance, 169
• enactment practices, 166
• expertise, 176, 178–179
• fixed point status, 166
• gig work, 175–176, 179, 235n76
• hiring criteria, 159
• infrastructural labor, 176
• instrumentalization, 148, 168, 174
• labor sources, 171, 174–176
• maintenance, 162
• McWilliams, Rose, 171–172, 173, 176, 179
• in media, 183, 191, 235n76
• obesity studies, 169–170
• pay rates, 176–179
• physician evaluation, 179
• power, 179–180
• prophylactic functions, 166–167
• proxy logic resistance, 180–181
• reproducibility versus verisimilitude, 166
• roles, 148–149
• scripts, 150–151
• Taylor, Lynn, 171–172, 175, 179, 191
• term significance, 148, 231n12
• as test data, 159–160
• trainee physician encounters, 149
• training, 180, 235n87
• visibility, 197
• women, 171–175
• Standard objects
• circular definitions, 64
• media ecologies, 236n6
• metric system, 59–64, 71
• semiotics of, 217n91
• verification, 68
• Standards
• categorization, 48–49
• common histories, 116
• concealment, 183, 186, 195
• enforcement and maintenance, 180, 216n70
• fixed point use, 186–187
• future behavior influence, 152
• infrastructural impacts, 130
• as infrastructure, 186–187
• interoperability, 48–49, 63, 214n49
• limits, 144
• materiality, 192
• NTSC television, 91
• organizational power, 46
• and power, 48–49
• proxies maintaining, 180
• purposes, 46, 48
• reference use, 186
• reproducing phenomena, 47
• secondary, 57
• Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab (SAIL), 99–101
• Stanislavski, Constantin, 163–164
• Star, Susan Leigh
• on categorization, 48
• on infrastructure, 193, 195–196
• on reality creation, 28
• on standardization, 18
• Statistics
• average man, 25–28, 210n89
• development of, 26
• Middletown studies, 15–16, 28, 96, 207n48
• Steedman, Carolyn, 199
• Steinfeldt, Anne, 128
• Steyerl, Hito, 188
• Stickiness of proxies, 8, 39
• Stillman, Paula, 232n21
• Strathern, Marilyn, 5, 80
• Suess, Randy, 116
• Suspension of disbelief
• empathy, 162
• medical doctors, 164
• nude women in test images, 78
• proxy reliance on, 8, 23, 25, 29
• standardization, 163
• standardized patient programs, 158–163, 168
• theatrical, 23, 163–164
• Yodaville, 7, 23
• Sutherland, Ivan, 104
• Swartz, Lana, 41

• Taylor, Janelle, 145, 168
• Taylor, Lynn, 171–172, 175, 179, 191
• Témoins (witnesses), 61–62
• comparison need, 65–66
• enclosure, 61, 71
• verification, 68
• Test data
• creating normativity, 84–85
• materialization, 12
• standardized patients, 159–160
• versus training data, 84–85
• Yodaville, 22
• Test image femininity, 86
• China Girls (film), 89–91, 107, 189
• consumption of, 89
• Girl (image recognition), 105, 106, 223n79
• image recognition research, 105, 106
• instrumentalization, 111–112
• “Jennifer in Paradise” (Photoshop), 91–92, 96
• Lena test image, 112, 115
• “Musicians” (Shirley card), 94–96
• Pixl (photo printing), 90, 91
• Playboy photograph use, 98–99
• problems created by, 90, 132
• sexualized, 96
• Shirley cards (photography), 87, 90–91, 94–96, 107
• television, 90–91, 92
• Test image racism
• inscribing, 130
• skin tone biases, 6, 84, 86–95. See also White skin in test images
• Test images
• appearances of, 144
• benchmarking via repetition, 85
• commodification of otherness, 96
• common characteristics, 85
• contexts of operation, 124
• databases, 115–116
• enabling measurement, 109
• fixed points, 84–85, 115
• history of, 83
• labor, 79, 124
• military applications, 109
• politics of, 112
• porousness, 78
• power of, 144
• as proxies, 84
• selection requirements, 107
• sexism, 6, 130
• SIPI, 97, 104–106, 115–116
• standard creation, 96
• television, 90–91, 92
• uses, 84. See also Lena test image
• Test sounds, 191
• Theater of objectivity, 47
• Thompson, Brian, 117–118, 125, 129
• 3 stoppages étalon
• author’s re-creation, 200, 201
• Duchamp’s work, 184–188
• Thylstrup, Nanna Bonde, 45
• Towns, Armond, 196–197
• Traceability, 56–57, 65
• Trained incapacities, 140–141
• Training data, 84–86
• Training simulations, 2–3, 21. See also Yodaville
• Transactions on Image Processing. See IEEE Transactions on Image Processing
• Transform coding, 103
• Transparency
• contradictory meanings, 194–195
• politics, 196–197, 239n42
• theater of, 152
• visibility management, 195. See also Visibility
• Tri-bar test targets, 188, 189
• Truth naturalization, 29–30
• Turner, Fred, 228n58

• University of Southern California (USC), 102, 147–148, 223n71. See also Signal and Image Processing Institute
• Utah Teapot, 188, 236n11

• Vaihinger, Hans, 1, 25, 28, 209n74, 209n77, 210n88
• Veblen, Thorstein, 140
• Vega, Suzanne, 191
• Vertesi, Janet, 219n20
• Visibility
• infrastructure, 12–13, 184, 193–198
• IPK, 197
• management, 195, 197
• proxies, 183, 198
• standardized patients, 197. See also Concealment
• Voter suppression, 41–42, 45

• Washington, Harriet, 156
• Wernimont, Jacqueline, 12
• Whiteness
• as default, 96
• image technology biases, 93
• prototypical, 86–88, 96, 120
• in test images, 86–92
• White skin in test images, 86
• color calibration, 90
• creating defaults, 96
• image recognition research, 105, 106
• “Jennifer in Paradise” (Photoshop), 91–92, 96
• Lena test image, 112, 115
• Pixl (photo printing), 90, 91
• problems with, 6, 84, 86–88, 92–94, 96
• prototypical, 86–89, 91
• Shirley cards (photography), 87, 90–91, 94–96, 107
• television standards, 90–91, 92
• White supremacy, 156–157
• Willfulness, 131
• Williams, Christopher, 188–189
• Witnessing, 138
• Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 39, 64
• Women
• gendered labor, 43, 174–175, 228n53
• Montreal Massacre, 134
• pictures in engineering training, 133–134
• sexist test images, 6, 130
• sex work and pornography debates, 226n23
• standardized patients, 171–175
• wives of engineers, 131–132. See also Images of nude women; Lena test image; Test image femininity; Women in STEM
• Women in STEM
• affective injustices, 138–139
• computer science departments, 135–136
• enrollment, 134–135
• exclusion, 140
• fundamental roles of, 133
• MIT, 136–139, 229nn60–61
• reports of abuse, 133, 135
• social justice struggles, 134
• Stanford, 99–101
• Working objects, 8–11, 47

• Yodaville, 1
• articles on, 20, 208n64
• and empire, 3, 203n6
• Iraq War contexts, 21–22
• location significance, 4, 21–22, 203n8
• Marines Fire on Yodaville, 3
• plasticity, 20–21
• as proxy, 3–4, 23–24
• purposes of, 1–3
• suspension of disbelief, 7, 23
• taking for granted, 6–7
• as test data, 22
• upkeep, 22–23
• Yue, Genevieve, 89
• Yuma, Arizona, 208n70
• Yuma Proving Ground, 21

• Zones of privacy, 77