NOTES

Introduction: Food and Ethics

1 Michel Foucault, Histoire de la Sexualité 2: L’usage des Plaisirs (Paris, Gallimard, 1984), as cited by Hub Zwart, ‘A Short History of Food Ethics’, Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 12: 113–126, 2000.

2 Plato, The Republic, Book II.

3 ‘Special Report: Profiles Supplement’, Advertising Age, June 27, 2005, p. 5, www.adage.com/images/random/lna2005.pdf. We have added the categories ‘Food, Beverages and Candy’ and ‘Restaurants’ to reach the total figure.

4 Marion Nestle, Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health, Los Angeles and Berkeley, University of California Press, 2002. See also www.foodpolitics.com.

5 See www.supersizeme.com.

6 For a full account of how veal calves are kept, see Peter Singer, Animal Liberation, New York, Ecco, 2001 (first published 1975). On the decline in veal consumption, see US Department of Agriculture, ‘Dairy Situation and Outlook’, excerpted from Economic Research Service LDP-M-118, April 27, 2004, www.aae.wisc.edu/future/outlook/situation_04_04.pdf.

7 Nanette Hanson, ‘Organic Food Sales See Healthy Growth’, MSNBC News, December 3, 2004, http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6638417; for the EU, see ‘Ikea Embraces Organic Ingredients’, Food Navigator, July 7, 2005, www.foodnavigator.com/news/news-ng.asp?n=61239-ikea-embraces-organic.

8 Vegetarian Resource Group, ‘How Many Vegetarians Are There?’, Vegetarian Journal, 2003, no. 3, www.vrg.org/journal/vj2003issue3/vj2003issue3poll.htm.

9 NFO Donovan Research, ‘Food Labelling Issues: Quantitative research with consumers’, A presentation to Food Standards Australia, New Zealand, May 2003, Part II, Methodology Report, powerpoint presentation, slide 14, www.foodstandards.gov.au/mediareleasespublications/publications/foodlabellingissuesquantitativeresearchconsumersjune2003/ part1executivesummary/5segmentationofconsu2140.cfm.

10 Humane Society of the United States, ‘Wild Oats and Whole Foods Show Compassion with Cage-free Egg Policies’, www.hsus.org/farm_animals/farm_animals_news/wild_oats.html; ‘Wild Oats Markets Will Sell Only Eggs from Cage-free Chickens’, Environment News Service, June 3, 2005, www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jun2005/2005-06-03-09.asp#anchor7.

11 Mackey’s comment is from a speech at Princeton University, November 15, 2005.

12 JoAnn Farb, interview.

13 ‘McDonald’s Going Organic—Enough to Change the Image?’ Food Navigator, January 29, 2003, www.foodnavigator.com/news/news-ng.asp?id=45953-mcdonalds-going-organic.

14 Information from Denis Hilton, Customer Relations, The Co-operative Group, Manchester, UK, March 2005; Rosie Murray-West, Daily Telegraph, December 2, 2002.

15 Farming UK, October 26, 2005, www.farminguk.com/bsp/10130/ews.asp?DBID=103-281-013-094&iPage=1&id=3679.

16 Robert Verkaik, ‘Archbishop Tells Church to Help Save the Planet with Green Policies’, Independent, February 3, 2005.

17 Steve Kopperud, ‘Sitting on Our Hands Won’t Help’, Florida Agriculture, April 2003, www.floridafarmbureau.org/flag/april2k3/viewapr.html.

18 Charlie Arnot, ‘Producers Tell Story,’ Feedstuffs, January 17, 2005.

19 Mike Owens, ‘Corporate Hog Farms’, KSDK News, July 12, 2005, http://ksdk.com/news/news_article.aspx?storyid=81786.

20 Kevin Murphy, interview, February 17, 2005 and subsequent email.

21 Peter Cheeke, Contemporary Issues in Animal Agriculture, Upper Saddle River NJ, Pearson, 3rd edn, 2004, p.332.

22 Christy Pitney, ‘Gotta Believe: Food Fuels Emotion-Based Ideologies’, Food Systems Insider, March 1, 2005, www.vancepublishing.com/FSI/articles/0503/0503believe.htm.

PART I: EATING THE STANDARD AMERICAN DIET

2. The Hidden Costs of Cheap Chicken

1 Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Australia’s Beef Industry’, 1301.0 Year Book Australia 2005, 21/1/05, www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/29550f34fee00fc5ca256f7200832fda?OpenDocument.

2 Center for Nutrition Policy and Information, US Department of Agriculture, ‘Nutrient Content of the US Food Supply’, Home Economics Research Report no.56, November 2004, p. 14, www.cnpp.usda.gov/Pubs/Food%20Supply/ FoodSupply2003Rpt/FoodSupply1909-2000.pdf.

3 ‘Tyson Today’, Tyson Foods website, www.tyson.com.

4 ‘Tyson Beefs up Ingredients Market’, Food Navigator, July 3, 2003, www.foodnavigator.com/news/ng.asp?id=47010-tyson-beefs-up.

5 Bill Roenigk, phone conversation with Gaverick Matheny, February 23, 2004.

6 Jennifer Viegas, ‘Study: Chickens Think about Future’, Discovery News, July 14, 2005, http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20050711/chicken.html.

7 Susan Milius, ‘The Science of Eeeeek: What a Squeak Can Tell Researchers about Life, Society, and All That’, Science News, September 12, 1998; available at www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_n11_v154/ai_21156998.

8 Lesley Rogers, The Development of Brain and Behaviour in the Chicken, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, CABI Publishing, 1995, p. 217.

9 T. C. Danbury et al, ‘Self-selection of the Analgesic Drug Carprofen by Lame Broiler Chickens’, Veterinary Record, 146 (11 March 2000) pp. 307–11.

10 Jonathan Leake, ‘The Secret Lives of Moody Cows’, Sunday Times, February 27, 2005.

11 National Chicken Council, ‘Animal Welfare Guidelines and Audit Checklist’, Washington, DC, March 2003, available at http://www.nationalchickencouncilcom/files/NCCanimalWelfar.pdf. On p. 6 it is stated that ‘...density shall not exceed 8.5 pounds live weight per square foot.’ Since the average market weight in 2004 was 5 pounds (see www.nationalchickencouncil.com/statistics/stat_detail.cfm?id=2) this is equivalent to 85 square inches per bird.

12 Victorian Government, Department of Primary Industries, Bureau of Animal Welfare, Code of Accepted Farming Practice for the Welfare of Poultry, www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/nreninf.nsf/LinkView/ED75D5514EDE7DCBCA256C1700047D217B 92DD76D5D93C20CA256E8C00069D5A.

13 M. O. North and D. D. Bell, Commercial Chicken Production Manual, 4th edn, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990, p. 456.

14 John Vidal, McLibel: Burger Culture on Trial, London, Pan Books, 1997, p. 311.

15 H. L. Brodie et al, ‘Structures for Broiler Litter Manure Storage’, Fact Sheet 416, Maryland Cooperative Extension, www.agnr.umd.edu/users/bioreng/fs416.htm, refer, without any suggestion of criticism, to delaying manure cleanout for three years. See also Anon., ‘Animal Waste Management Plans’, Delaware Nutrient Management Notes, Delaware Department of Agriculture, vol. 1, no. 7 (July 2000), where the calculations are based on 90 per cent of the litter remaining in place for two years.

16 C. Berg, ‘Foot-pad Dermatitis in Broilers and Turkeys’, Veterinaria 36 (1998); G. J. Wang, C. Ekstrand, and J. Svedberg, ‘Wet Litter and Perches as Risk Factors for the Development of Foot Pad Dermatitis in Floor-Housed Hens’, British Poultry Science 39 (1998), pp. 191–97; C. M. Wathes, ‘Aerial Emissions from Poultry Production’, World Poultry Science Journal 54 (1998), pp. 241–51; Kristensen and Wathes, op cit; S. Muirhead, ‘Ammonia Control Essential to Maintenance of Poultry Health’, Feedstuffs (April 13, 1992), p. 11. On blindness caused by ammonia, see also Michael P. Lacy, ‘Litter Quality and Performance’, www.thepoultrysite.com/FeaturedArticle/FATopic.asp?Display=388, and Karen Davis, Prisoned Chickens, Poisoned Eggs: An Inside Look at the Modern Poultry Industry, Summertown, TN, Book Publishing Company, 1996, pp. 62– 64, 92, 96–98.

17 G. Havenstein, P. Ferket, and M. Qureshi, ‘Growth, Livability, and Feed Conversion of 1957 versus 2001 Broilers When Fed Representative 1957 and 2001 Broiler Diets’, Poultry Science 82 (2003), pp. 1500–08.

18 S. C. Kestin, T. G. Knowles, A. E. Tinch, and N. G. Gregory, ‘Prevalence of Leg Weakness in Broiler Chickens and Its Relationship with Genotype’, The Veterinary Record 131 (1992), pp. 190–94.

19 Quoted in the Guardian, October 14, 1991; cited in Animals Australia Fact Sheet, ‘Meat Poultry’, http://www.animalsaustralia.org/default2.asp?idL1=1273&idL2=129312/2/2010.

20 John Webster, Animal Welfare: A Cool Eye towards Eden, Oxford, Blackwell Science, 1995, p. 156.

21 G. T. Tabler and A. M. Mendenhall, ‘Broiler Nutrition, Feed Intake and Grower Economics’, Avian Advice 5(4) (Winter 2003), p. 9.

22 J. Mench, ‘Broiler Breeders: Feed Restriction and Welfare’, World’s Poultry Science Journal, vol. 58 (2002), pp. 23–29.

23 I. J. H. Duncan, ‘The Assessment of Welfare during the Handling and Transport of Broilers’, in: J. M. Faure and A. D. Mills, eds, Proceedings of the Third European Symposium on Poultry Welfare (Tours, France: French Branch of the World Poultry Science Association, 1989), pp. 79–91; N. G. Gregory and L. J. Wilkins, ‘Skeletal Damage and Bone Defects during Catching and Processing’, in C. C. Whiteheaded., Bone Biology and Skeletal Disorders in Poultry, Abingdom, England, Carfax Publishing, 1992. Cited from A COK Report: ‘Animal Suffering in the Broiler Industry’.

24 Freedom of Information Act #94-363, ‘Poultry Slaughtered, Condemned, and Cadavers’, 6/30/94; cited in United Poultry Concerns, ‘Poultry Slaughter: The Need for Legislation’, http://www.upc-online.org/slaughter/slaughter3web.pdf.

25 ‘Tyson to Probe Chicken-slaughter Methods’, Associated Press, May 25, 2005.

26 Signed statement of Tyson employee, Virgil Butler, January 30, 2003, www.kentuckyfriedcruelty.com/virgil.asp. See also Butler’s blog, www.cyberactivist.blogspot.com.

27 For the video, and other materials, see www.peta.org/feat/moorefield; see also Donald G. McNeil Jr., ‘KFC Supplier Accused of Animal Cruelty’, New York Times, July 20, 2004, www.nytimes.com/2004/07/20/business/20chicken.html.

28 Chesapeake Bay Foundation, ‘Fact Sheet: Oysters’, www.cbf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=resources_facts_oysters. See also www.chesapeakebay.net/info/american_oyster.cfm.

29 This case study is based on The Chesapeake Bay Foundation, ‘Manure’s Impact on Rivers, Streams and the Chesapeake Bay’, July 28, 2004, www.cbf.org/site/DocServer/0723manurereport_noembargo_.pdf?docID=2143; and on Peter Goodman, ‘By-product: Runoff and Pollution’, Washington Post, August 1, 1999, p. A1.

30 Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet, Department for Environmental Protection, Division of Water, ‘Statement of Consideration Relating to 401 KAR 5:072—Not Amended after Hearing, June 29, 2000’; www.water.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/FB5C9A21-1AFA-43CE-B0A7-E27CD967D778/0/REG_SOC.pdf.

31 Statement by Sara Shelton and Guy Hardin.

32 Statement by Roger Gamble, Patricia Gamble, Natalie Gamble, Brittany Gamble, Nancy and Roger Grace, Faye Lear, Jean Long, Bernie Miller, Linda McGregor, Ella King.

33 Statement by Linda Moon.

34 Sierra Club, et al v. Tyson Foods, Inc., et al, Case No. 02-CV-073, USDC, Western District of KY; www.sierraclub.org/environmentallaw/lawsuits/viewCase.asp?id=160.

35 Sierra Club News Release, ‘Tyson Chicken Held Accountable for Pollution’, January 26, 2005.

36 Alexander Lane, ‘Egg Farm Neighbors Say System Is Broken’, New Jersey Star-Ledger, October 31, 2004.

37 ‘Defunct Egg Farm Fined Again’, Marion Online, February 15, 2005.

38 ‘Mayor Bill LaFortune’s Remarks’, House Bill 1879 Press Conference, March 15, 2005, www.cityoftulsa.org/OurCity/Mayor/documents/SupportforAttorneyGeneral-Poultry.pdf.

39 Sierra Club, ‘The Rapsheet on Animal Factories’, San Francisco and Washington, DC, 2002.

40 Margaret Stafford, ‘Tyson Pleads Guilty in Wastewater Case’, Associated Press, June 25, 2003.

41 See Mark Kawar, ‘Tyson, Freddie Mac Help Workers to Buy Homes’, Omaha World-Herald, February 14, 2004, p. 1D, for both the reported turnover figure and Tyson’s refusal to provide the information. Cited from Human Rights Watch, Blood, Sweat and Fear: Workers’ Rights in US Meat and Poultry Plants, New York, Human Rights Watch, 2004, p.108n. Tyson also refused to provide workforce turnover figures.

42 Department of Labor News Release, US Newswire, October 13, 1999, cited by Deborah Thompson Eisenberg, ‘The Feudal Lord in the Kingdom of Big Chicken: Contracting and Worker Exploitation by the Poultry Industry’, www.nelp.org/docUploads/eisenberg%2Epdf, p.7n.

43 Kari Lyderson, ‘Fowl Behavior’, In These Times, March 19, 2001.

44 Steven Greenhouse, ‘Unions Finding That Employers Want More Concessions’, New York Times, July 11, 2003, p. A12; Cited from Human Rights Watch, Blood, Sweat and Fear: Workers’ Rights in US Meat and Poultry Plants, p. 82.

45 Barry Schlachter, ‘Cooped Up: Contract Growers Hoping the Chicken Industry Offers a Steady Nest Egg May Instead Be Trapped by Debt, Fort Worth Star Telegram, May 27, 2005.

46 See, for example, Dennis and Alex Avery, ‘No More Chicken Run’, Wall Street Journal, European edition, August 26, 2005.

47 UN News Centre, ‘UN Task Forces Battle Misconceptions of Avian Flu, Mount Indonesian Campaign’, October 24, 2005, http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=16342&Cr=bird&Cr1=flu.

48 Dennis Bueckert, ‘Avian Flu Outbreak Raises Concerns about Factory Farms’, Cnews, April 7, 2004, www.cp.org/english/online/full/agriculture/040407/a040730A.html.

49 Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare, ‘The Welfare of Chickens Kept for Meat Production (Broilers)’, European Commission, Health and Consumer Protection Directorate General, March 21, 2000.

3. Behind the Label: ‘Animal Care Certified’ Eggs

1 Ian Duncan, ‘Welfare Problems of Poultry’, in John Benson and Bernard Rollin (eds), The Well-Being of Farm Animals, Ames, Iowa State Press, 2004.

2 The videos are available at www.cok.net or on request from Compassion Over Killing.

3 McDonald’s comment on Grandin is from their ‘Global Animal Welfare Progress Report: 2002 Results’, www.mcdonalds.com/corp/values/socialrespons/sr_report/progress_report.html.

4 Temple Grandin, ‘Corporations Can Be Agents of Great Improvements in Animal Welfare and Food Safety and the Need for Minimum Decent Standards’. A paper presented at the National Institute of Animal Agriculture on April 4, 2001: www.grandin.com/welfare/corporation.agents.html.

5 David Fraser, Joy Mench, Suzanne Millman. ‘Farm Animals and Their Welfare in 2000’, State of the Animals 2001, Humane Society Press, 2001, p. 90.

6 United Egg Producers, ‘Animal Husbandry Guidelines for US Egg Laying Flocks’, 2002, p. 6 7.

7 Ian Duncan, ‘The Science of Animal Well-Being’. A report from a speech in the Animal Welfare Information Center Newsletter, National Agriculture Library,

1993 (January–March): 4.1, p. 5, as cited in Karen Davis, Prisoned Chickens, Poisoned Eggs, Book Publishing Company, 1996, p. 68.

8 ‘McDonald’s and Farming’, National Public Radio’s ‘All Things Considered’ program aired on April 15, 2002, http://discover.npr.org/features/feature.jhtml?wfId=1141753.

9 Mary MacArthur, ‘Analyst Says Poultry Growers Oblivious to Poor Conditions’, Western Producer, December 12, 2002.

10 ‘U. Egg Producers to Phase Out Feed Withdrawal’, Food Production Daily, May 27, 2005, www.foodproductiondaily.com/news/printNewsBis.asp?id=60285.

11 Alexei Barrionuevo, ‘Egg Producers Relent on Industry Seal’, New York Times, October 4, 2005.

4. Meat and Milk Factories

1 Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Australia’s Beef Industry’, 1301.0 Year Book Australia 2005, 21/1/05, www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/ 29550f34fee00fc5ca256f7200832fda?OpenDocument.

2 Christopher G. Davis and Biing-Hwan Lin ‘Factors Affecting US Pork Consumption’, Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Outlook Report no. (LDPM13001), May 2005, www.ers.usda.gov/publications/LDP/may05/ldpm13001/ldpm13001.pdf.

3 ‘Corporate Fact Sheet; Overview’, Kraft Foods. http://kraft.com/profile/factsheet.html.

4 Renee Zahery, telephone message, February 1, 2005; Ronald L. Plain, ‘Trends in US Swine Industry’, paper for US Meat Export Federation Pork Conference, Taipei, Taiwan, September 24, 1997, www.ssu.missouri,edu/faculty/RPlain/papers/swine.htm; T. Stout and G. Packer, ‘National Trends Reflected in Changing Ohio Swine Industry’, Ohio State University Extension Research Bulletin, Special Circular 156, Agricultural Economics Department, (n. d.) http://ohioline.osu.edu/sc156/sc156_48.html.

5 US Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, ‘Livestock Slaughter, 2004 Summary’, March, 2005, http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/livestock/pls-bban/lsan0305.pdf The decline in pig farm numbers averages about 7 per cent per year.

6 ‘Factory Hog Farming: The Big Picture’, Environmental Defense, November 2000, www.environmentaldefense.org/documents/2563_FactoryHogFarmingBigPicture.pdf.

7 Lynn Bonner, ‘Critics Say State Must Do More to Protect Rivers’, Raleigh News &Observer, 17 August 1995; Minority Staff, US Senate Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry, ‘Animal Water Pollution in America: An Emerging National Problem’, 105th Congress, 1st session, December 1997, p. 3. We owe these references to Carolyn Johnsen, Raising a Stink: The Struggle over Factory Hog Farms in Nebraska, Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press, 2003, pp. 14–15.

8 Carolyn Johnsen, Raising a Stink: The Struggle over Factory Hog Farms in Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 2003, pp. 2, 126.

9 Paul Hammel, ‘Turning Hog Odors into Tax Deductions’, Omaha World-Herald, March 5, 2002, cited in Carolyn Johnsen, Raising a Stink, p. 138.

10 American Public Health Association, ‘Precautionary Moratorium on New Concentrated Animal Feed Operations’, 2003 Policy Statements, p. 12 14, www.apha.org/legislative/policy/2003/2003-007.pdf.

11 Ross Clark, ‘If Only Pigs Could Talk’, Sunday Telegraph (London), March 23, 1997; Roger Highfield, ‘Computer Skills Show Just How Smart Pigs Are’, Ottawa Citizen May 29, 1997 (originally published in the Daily Telegraph, London.)

12 David Wolfson, Beyond the Law: Agribusiness and the Systemic Abuse of Animals Raised for Food or Food Production, Watkins Glen, NY, Farm Sanctuary, Inc., 1999. See also ‘COK Talks with David Wolfson, Esq.’, www.cok.net/abol/16/04.php.

13 On the number of pigs kept indoors, see National Animal Health Monitoring System, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, US Department of Agriculture, Swine 2000, ‘Part I: Reference of Swine Health and Management in the United States’, 2000, Washington, DC, 2001, p. 26. Very few total confinement systems in the US use straw or any other form of bedding: www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/ceah/ncahs/nahms/swine/swine2000/Swine2kPt1.pdf.

14 On the number of sows in crates for the ten biggest producers, see US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Livestock Issues Research, ‘Research Project: The Emerging Issue of Sow Housing’, 2004 Annual Report. The overall estimate is from Glenn Grimes, professor emeritus of agricultural economics, University of Missouri, interview with Jim Mason, July 5, 2005.

15 See Scientific Veterinary Committee, Animal Welfare Section, ‘The Welfare of Intensively Kept Pigs’, 1997, and Clare Druce and Philip Lymbery, ‘Outlawed in Europe’, in Peter Singer, ed, In Defense of Animals: The Second Wave, Oxford, Blackwell, 2005.

16 In the European Union, 242 million pigs were slaughtered in 2005, compared to 103 million in the US. See ‘EU Output Data Revised’, Pig International electronic newsletter, June 23, 2005, based on Eurostat information, www.wattnet.com/newsletters/Pig/htm/jun05pigenews.htm.

17 Per Jensen, ‘Observations on the Maternal Behaviour of Free-Ranging Domestic Pigs’, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol.16 (1986), pp. 131–42.

18 Governor’s Office of Drug Control Policy, Iowa, ‘Iowa METH Facts’, February 23, 2005, www.state.ia.us/government/odcp/docs/Meth_Other_Drug_Facts_Feb23.pdf.

19 Bernard Rollin first reported on this case in his column in Canadian Veterinary Journal, 32:10 (October 1991), p. 584; the column is reprinted in Bernard Rollin, Introduction to Veterinary Medical Ethics: Theory and Cases, Oxford, Blackwell, 1999.

20 Jonathan Leake, ‘The Secret Lives of Moody Cows’, Sunday Times, February 27, 2005.

21 Peter Lovenheim, Portrait of a Burger As a Young Calf, New York, Three Rivers Press, 2002. We are grateful to Peter Lovenheim for checking our text and clarifying some issues.

22 John Peck, ‘Dairy Farmer Workers Fight for Their Rights in Oregon’, Z Magazine online, vol. 17 no. 12 (December 2004), http://zmagsite.zmag.org/Dec2004/peckpr1204.html; www.braums.com/FAQ.asp#9.

23 Eddy LaDue, Brent Gloy and Charles Cuykendall, ‘Future Structure of the Dairy Industry: Historical Trends, Projections and Issues’, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, June 2003, http://aem.cornell.edu/research/researchpdf/rb0301.pdf, p. iii.

24 To be precise, the increase is from 665 gallons a year in 1950 to 2365 gallons per year in 2004, an increase of 355 per cent. See Erik Marcus, Meat Market, Ithaca, NY, Brio Press, 2005, pp. 10–11, drawing on figures from USDA National Agricultural Statistical Services, and updated from http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/dairy/pmp-bb/2005/mkpr0105.txt.

25 USDA, National Animal Health Monitoring System, Dairy 2002, Part I: Reference of Dairy Health and Management in the United States, p. 54, www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/ceah/ncahs/nahms/dairy/dairy02/Dairy02Pt1.pdf.

26 Peter Lovenheim, Portrait of a Burger As a Young Calf, p.87.

27 Ibid, p.16.

28 Oliver Sacks, An Anthropologist on Mars, New York, Knopf, 1995, p. 267.

29 Quoted from People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), ‘Cows Grieve’, www.goveg.com/f-hiddenlivescows_giants.asp.

30 Jon Bonné, ‘Can Animals You Eat Be Treated Humanely?’, MSNBC News, June 28, 2004, http://msnbc.msn.com/id/5271434/; ‘Researchers, McDonald’s Say US Govt BSE Defense Not Working’, Cattlenetwork.com, 4 January 2006, www.cattlenetwork.com/content.asp?contentid=16082.

31 Peter Lovenheim, Portrait of a Burger as a Young Calf, pp. 112–13.

32 Miguel Bustillo, ‘In San Joaquin Valley, Cows Pass Cars As Polluters’, Los Angeles Times, August 2, 2005.

33 Chris Clayton, ‘More than 1250 Nebraska Cattle Died in Heat Wave’, Omaha World-Herald, July 27, 2005.

34 F. M. Mitlöhner, et al, ‘Effects of Shade on Heat-stressed Heifers Housed under Feedlot Conditions’, Burnett Center Internet Progress Report, no. 11, February 2001; www.depts.ttu.edu/liru_afs/pdf/bc11.pdf; see also F. M. Mitlöhner, et al, ‘Shade Effects on Performance, Carcass Traits, Physiology, and Behavior of Heat-stressed Feedlot Heifers’, Journal of Animal Science, vol. 80 (2002) pp. 2043–50, http://jas.fass.org/cgi/content/full/80/8/2043.

35 A. M. Soto et al, ‘Androgenic and Estrogenic Activity in Cattle Feedlot Effluent Receiving Water Bodies of Eastern Nebraska, USA’, Environmental Health Perspectives 112 (2004), pp. 346–52; E. F. Orlando et al, ‘Endocrine Disrupting Effects of Cattle Feedlot Effluent on an Aquatic Sentinel Species, the Fathead Minnow’, Environmental Health Perspectives 112 (2004), pp. 353–58; Janet Raloff, ‘Hormones: Here’s the Beef’, Science News, Vol. 161, (January 5, 2002), p. 10, www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020105/bob13.asp.

36 Carolyn Johnsen, Raising a Stink, p. 24.

37 ‘EPA Says It Will Inspect Idaho Feedlots’, Cow-Calf Weekly (BEEF), August 5, 2005.

38 US Environmental Protection Agency, Region 5, ‘Results of an Informal Investigation of The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Program for Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations in the State of Michigan’, Interim Report, 24 July 2002; we owe the reference to Tony Dutzik, The State of Environmental Enforcement, Denver, CoPIRG Foundation, 2002, www.environmentcolorado.org/reports/envenfco10_02.pdf, which discusses the problem of lack of state environmental enforcement.

39 Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality, Water Quality Division, 2002 Nebraska Water Quality Report, Lincoln, 2002, cited by Carolyn Johnsen, Raising a Stink, p. 138.

40 Carolyn Johnsen, Raising a Stink, p. 122.

41 US General Accounting Office, Humane Methods of Slaughter Act, January 2004, www.gao.gov/new.items/d04247.pdf 42 ‘AgriProcessors,’ video available on the website of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, www.petatv.com/inv.html.

43 Sholem Rubashkin, response, Shmais News Service, (n.d.), www.shmais.com/jnewsdetail.cfm?ID=148; Department of Public Relations, Orthodox Union, ‘Orthodox Union Releases Industry Animal Welfare Audit of Agriprocessors’, March 7, 2005, www.ou.org/oupr/2005/agri65.htm.

5. Can Bigger Get Better?

1 Quoted by Milton Moskovitz, ‘That’s the Spirit’, Mother Jones, July/August 1997, www.motherjones.com/news/feature/1997/07/moskowitz.html.

2 McDonald’s Corporation, ‘Interview with Dr Temple Grandin’, www.mcdonalds.com/corp/values/socialrespons/sr_report/progress_report/grandin_interview.html.

3 McDonald’s Animal Welfare Program, Australia, www.rmhc.org/corp/values/socialrespons/sr_report/progress_report/australia.html.

4 Associated Press, August 23, 2000; Los Angeles Times, September 7, 2000.

5 Food Marketing Institute, www.fmi.org/media/mediatext.cfm?id=522.

6 McDonald’s Corporation, ‘Interview with Dr Temple Grandin’.

7 David Fraser, Joy Mench, Suzanne Millman. ‘Farm Animals and Their Welfare in 2000’, State of the Animals 2001, Humane Society Press, 2001, p. 90.

8 Kim Severson, ‘Humane Handling Taking Hold on Farms’, San Francisco Chronicle, September 7, 2003, http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/ archive/2003/09/07/MN165897.DTL; interview with Diane Halverson, July 2005.

9 For details see www.ansc.purdue.edu/CAWB/.

10 ‘McDonald’s Global Policy on Antibiotic Use in Food Animals’, June 3, 2003, www.mcdonalds.com/corp/values/socialrespons/market/antibiotics/global_policy.html.

11 Associated Press, ‘Citing the Human Threat, US Bans a Poultry Drug’, New York Times, July 29, 2005.

12 www.mcdonalds.com/corp/values/socialrespons/sr_report.html.

PART II: THE CONSCIENTIOUS OMNIVORES

6. Jim and Mary Ann

1 Roger Scruton, ‘The Conscientious Carnivore’, in Steve Sapontzis, ed, Food for Thought: The Debate over Eating Meat, Amherst, NY, Prometheus, 2004.

7. Behind the Label: Niman Ranch Bacon

1 Tim Holmes, interview, May 2, 2005.

2 A typical crate is two feet wide and seven feet long, or fourteen square feet. Of course crates do not take up the entire floor space inside a factory gestation building. Typically they are arranged side-to-side in two rows down the length of the building with a four- or five-foot-wide aisle between the rows and narrower walkways around the walls to permit power washing and maintenance. The building is about 30 x 100 feet and holds about 100 sows. One could put three such buildings, then, on the space that the Holmes family allows one of their gestating sows.

3 A. Stolba and D. G. Wood-Gush, ‘The Behaviour of Pigs in a Semi-Natural Environment’, Animal Production, vol. 48 (1989), pp. 419–25.

4 Diane Halverson, interview, May 2, 2005.

8. Behind the Label: ‘Organic’ and ‘Certified Humane’ Eggs

1 Jia-Rui Chong, ‘Vet in Row after Hens “Chipped” to Death’, Los Angeles Times, November 23, 2003; ‘Abuse Charges Led against Moark Egg Company’, News Tribune (Jefferson City, MO) July 30, 2005; ‘Moark Must Pay $100,000’, www.hsus.org/farm_animals/farm_animal_news/Moark_settles_case.html. (October 25, 2005); www.hsus.org/farm_animals/farm_animals_news/missouri_county_files_ charges_against_moark.html .

2 Interview, Nick Levendoski and David Bruce, August 2005.

3 Liza Armstrong, ‘Farmer Welcomes Move to Organic Eggs’, Landline, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, July 11, 2004, www.abc.net.au/landline/content/2004/s1148323.htm.

4 See Helen Thomas, ‘The Free Range Fiddle’, Background Briefing, Radio National, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, June 26, 2005, www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/bbing/stories/s1397934.htm.

9. Seafood

1 Marine Stewardship Council, ‘Fish Facts’, http://eng.msc.org/html/content_528.htm. The 17 billion estimate is from www.fishinghurts.com/fishing101.asp, calculated by dividing the total weight of seafood consumed by an estimated average weight per creature.

2 Otto Pohl, ‘Challenge to Fishing: Keep Unwanted Species out of Its Huge Nets’, New York Times, July 29, 2003, www.nytimes.com/2003/07/29/science/29BYCA.html.

3 Garrett Hardin, ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’, Science 162 (1968), pp. 1243–48.

4 Colin Woodward, ‘A Run on the Banks: How “Factory Fishing” Decimated Newfoundland Cod’, E Magazine, March/April, 2001, www.emagazine.com/view/?507.

5 Information from Tim Fitzgerald, Environmental Defense Trust, Oceans Program, New York, NY, and James Ianelli, Alaska Fish Science Center, Seattle, March/April 2005. See also Pacific Rim Fisheries Program, Institute of the North, Alaska Pacific University, http://prfisheries.alaskapacific.edu/PRF_Statistics/usa/usa_fish_species_federal.htm.

6 Marine Stewardship Council, http://eng.msc.org/html/content_1188.htm.

7 The statement was on the website of Angelina’s of Maryland, www.crabcake.com, in 2005 but has subsequently been removed from that site.

8 Email message from Nancy Rosenberg to Jim Mason, Thursday, March 10, 2005.

9 www.blue-crab.org/spawning.htm.

10 Jose A. Ingles, ‘Biological and Fisheries Assessment of the Blue Crab Resources of the Northeastern Guimaras Strait’. A final report submitted to WWF-Philippines, 2000; K. L. Jayme, G. Romero and J. A. Ingles, 2003, ‘Community-based Certification of the Blue Crab Fishery of the Northeastern Guimaras Strait, Negros Occidental, Philippines: Lessons Learned, Prospects and Directions’. Paper presented at the Second International Tropical Marine Ecosystems Management Symposium (ITMEMS 2), Manilla, Philippines. March 24–27, 2003. Theme 11. www.reefbase.org/References/ref_literature_detail.asp?refID=14923; and Katrina Jayme, email communication, April 2005.

11 P. Redmaynem, ‘Blue Crab: Asian Import’, IntraFish, February 2004, p 20; wwww.intrafish.com/pdf/download/2a71bcdc0cc482441f99 7ea72cea1f35/2004/2/20.pdf.

12 Email message from Brenda Davis to Jim Mason, Wednesday, March 19, 2005. Dr Davis is a fisheries biologist with Maryland’s Department of Natural Resources, Stevensville, MD. See also, ‘King Crab’, by Jon Goldstein, Baltimore Sun, Business, July 2, 2001.

13 John Ryan, ‘Feedlots of the Sea’, World Watch Magazine, September/October 2003, www.worldwatch.org/pubs/mag/2003/165; Worldwatch Institute, ‘Factory-Fish Farming,’ World Watch Magazine, September/October 2003, www.worldwatch.org/pubs/mag/2003/165/mos/.

14 Marian Burros, ‘Stores Say Wild Salmon, but Tests Say Farm Bred’, New York Times, April 10, 2005.

15 Worldwatch Institute, ‘Factory-Fish Farming’, World Watch Magazine, September/ October 2003, www.worldwatch.org/pubs/mag/2003/165/mos/, using data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Fisheries Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

16 Philip Lymbery, ‘In Too Deep: The Welfare of Intensively Farmed Fish’, Compassion in World Farming Trust, Petersfield, Hampshire, 2002, p. 3.

17 Juliet Eilperin, ‘Fish Farming’s Bounty Isn’t Without Barbs’, Washington Post, January 24, 2005, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A31159-2005Jan23.html.

18 Daniel Pauly, et al, ‘Towards Sustainability in World Fisheries’, Nature, vol. 418, pp. 689–95.

19 Rees and Tydeman are quoted in John Ryan, ‘Feedlots of the Sea’, World Watch Magazine, September/October 2003, pp. 22–29, www.worldwatch.org/pubs/mag/2003/165.

20 Kenneth Weiss, ‘Bush Proposal Seeks to Cultivate Fish Farming in Federal Waters’, Los Angeles Times, June 8, 2005.

21 Juliet Eilperin, ‘Fish Farming’s Bounty Isn’t Without Barbs’, Washington Post, January 24, 2005.

22 John Ryan, ‘Feedlots of the Sea’, World Watch Magazine, pp. 22–29. For a fuller account, see ‘Sea-cage Fish Farming: An Evaluation of Environmental and Public Health Aspects’ (the five fundamental flaws of sea cage fish farming), a paper presented by Don Staniford at the European Parliament’s Committee on Fisheries public hearing on ‘Aquaculture in the European Union: Present Situation and Future Prospects’, October 1, 2002: www.watershed-watch.org/ww/publications/sf/Staniford_Flaws_SeaCage.PDF.

23 ‘Farm Sea Lice Plague Wild Salmon’, BBC News, March 29, 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4391711.stm.

24 www.oceansalive.org/eat.cfm?subnav=fishpage&fish=85.

25 www.mbayaq.org/cr/SeafoodWatch/web/sfw_factsheet.aspx?fid=27.

26 Seafood Watch, Seafood Report, Shrimp vol. III, ‘Farm Raised Shrimp, World Overview’, prepared by Alice Cascorbi, Monterey Bay Aquarium, 2004, p. iv, based on information from Jason Clay, Senior Fellow, WWF US. www.mbayaq.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/content/media/MBA_SeafoodWatch_FarmedShrimpReport.pdf.

27 Ibid.

28 Ibid.

29 Quoted in Seafood Watch, Seafood Report, Shrimp vol III, ‘Wild-caught Warmwater Shrimp’, prepared by Alice Cascorbi, Monterey Bay Aquarium, 2004, p. 17.

30 US National Marine Fisheries, Report to Congress, 2003: Status of Fisheries of the United States for 2002. Published April 2003. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD, cited in Seafood Watch Seafood Report, Shrimp vol. III, Wild-Caught Warmwater Shrimp, prepared by Alice Cascorbi, Monterey Bay Aquarium, 2004, pp. 15, 17.

31 Barry Evans, ‘Making the Best Even Better’, Australian Government, Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, R&D News, 13:3 www.frdc.com.au/pub/news/133.01.php.

32 J. B. Robbins, M. J. Campbell and J. G. McGilvray, ‘Reducing Prawn-trawl Bycatch in Australia: An Overview and an Example from Queensland’, Marine Fisheries Review, 61:3 (1999), p. 46.

33 Good Stuff, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC, 2004, sec. 26, www.worldwatch.org/pubs/goodstuff/shrimp/.

34 Seafood Watch Seafood Report, Shrimp vol. III, p. 11, citing Thor Lassen, ‘Mangrove Conservation and Shrimp Aquaculture’. Presentation to World Aquaculture Society, March 1–5, 2004, Honolulu, Hawaii, www.mbayaq.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/content/media/MBA_SeafoodWatch_FarmedShrimpReport.pdf.

35 Acción Ecológica Declaración De Majagual. February 2003, www.accionecologica.org/sobeali3.htm; N. Taylor, ‘Hungry for Change: Protected Area and Ramsar Site 1000, La Barberie, Has Been Destroyed by the Shrimp Company El Faro’, Honduras This Week online, April 14, 2003; cited in ‘Shrimp’s Passport: How International Trade Agencies Monitor America’s Favourite Seafood’, Public Citizen, Washington, DC, 2005, p. 12, www.citizen.org/cmep/foodsafety/shrimp/articles.cfm?ID=12971.

36 Indian Supreme Court, Petitioner: S. Jagannath v. Respondent: Union of India & Ors. Date of Judgment. November 12, 1996, cited in ‘Shrimp’s Passport: How International Trade Agencies Monitor America’s Favourite Seafood’, Public Citizen, Washington, DC, 2005, p.18, www.shrimpactivist.org 37 Seafood Watch Seafood Report, Shrimp vol. III, ‘Farm Raised Shrimp, World Overview’, p. 11, citing A. Wistrand, ‘Shrimp Cultivation Puts Environment in Danger’, published by Nijera Kori, a Bangladesh NGO: www.mbayaq.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/content/media/MBA_SeafoodWatch_FarmedShrimpReport.pdf 38 Darry Jory, ‘Shrimp Farming in Venezuela: A Case Study’, presented to the World Aquaculture Society Conference, Brazil, May 20, 2003, www.iiap.org.pe/publicaciones/CDs/CONFERENCIAS_WAS/WAS_BRASIL/Brazil/.

39 Go to www.mbayaq.org/cr/seafoodwatch.asp.

40 Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Australian Fisheries Statistics, 2004, Canberra, 2005, table 36.

41 James D. Rose, ‘The Neurobehavioral Nature of Fishes and the Question of Awareness and Pain’, Reviews in Fisheries Science, 10: 1, (2002), p. 1 38, http://uwadmnweb.uwyo.edu/Zoology/faculty/Rose/pain.pdf.

42 Lynne Sneddon, V. A. Braithwaite, and M .J. Gentle, ‘Do Fish Have Nociceptors? Evidence for the Evolution of a Vertebrate Sensory System’, Proceedings of the Royal Society vol. 270, no. 1520 (2003), pp. 1115 –21. See also ‘Trout Trauma Puts Anglers on the Hook?’, Science News, April 30, 2003, www.royalsoc.ac.uk/news.asp?year=&id=1697 and Sanjida O’Connell, ‘Does She Have Feelings Too?’, Daily Telegraph, March 3, 2005.

43 Culum Brown, ‘Not Just a Pretty Face’, New Scientist, vol. 182, no. 2451, 12 June 2004, p. 42. See also K. P. Chandroo, I. J. H. Duncan, and R .D. Moccia, ‘Can Fish Suffer? Perspectives on Sentience, Pain, Fear and Stress’, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, vol. 86 (2004), pp. 225–50.

44 S. D. Sedgwick, Salmon Farming Handbook, Fishing News Books, Surrey, 1988, quoted in Philip Lymbery, ‘In Too Deep: The Welfare of Intensively Farmed Fish’, p. 17.

45 Philip Lymbery, ‘In Too Deep: The Welfare of Intensively Farmed Fish’.

10. Eating Locally

1 Rich Pirog, et al, Food, Fuel and Freeways, Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, University of Iowa, Ames, Iowa, 2001. Available at www.leopold.iastate.edu/pubs/staff/ppp/food_mil.pdf.

2 The description of the Wal-Mart distribution centre at Bentonville comes from Associated Press, ‘Vice President Cheney Visits Wal-Mart’s Hometown’, but for an account of Wal-Mart’s distribution system, with similar distances covered, see Brian Halweil, Eat Here, New York, Norton, 2004, p. 7.

3 Erik Millstone and Tim Lang, The Atlas of Food, London, Earthscan, 1963, p .60.

4 Rich Pirog, et al, Food, Fuel and Freeways.

5 Andy Jones, Eating Oil, Sustain & Elm Farm Research Centre, London, 2001, Case Study 1. www.sustainweb.org/chain_fm_eat.asp.

6 Nick Marathon, Tamera VanWechel, and Kimberly Vachal, ‘Transportation of US Grains: A Modal Share Analysis, 1978–95’, US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, 2004, www.ams.usda.gov/tmd/TSB/Modal_Share.pdf; FAO, FAOSTAT: Commodity Balances, 2004, http://apps.fao.org/faostat/collections?version=ext&hasbulk=0&subset=agriculture .

7 K. Klindworth, ‘Agricultural Transportation Challenges for the 21st Century: A Framework for Discussion’, US Department of Agriculture, AMS Transportation and Marketing Programs, 1999. Cited in M. Hora and J. Tick, From Farm to Table: Making the Connection in the Mid-Atlantic Food System, Washington, DC, Capital Area Food Bank, 2001.

8 The Council on the Environment of the City of New York, ‘Greenmarket Farmers Market’, www.cenyc.org/HTMLGM/maingm.htm.

9 www.ams.usda.gov/farmersmarkets; www.foodroutes.org.

10 Robert Summer, et al, ‘The Behavioral Ecology of Supermarkets and Farmers Markets’, Journal of Behavioral Psychology, vol. 1, March 1981, pp. 13–19, and more recent unpublished studies by Robert Sommers, cited by Brian Halweil, Eat Here, New York, Norton, 2004, p. 10.

11 ‘Farmers’ Markets: A Business Survey’, National Farmers’ Union, London, September 2002.

12 Brian Halweil, Eat Here, p. 165; Richard Evanoff, ‘A Look inside Japan’s Seikatsu Club Consumers’ Cooperative’, Social Anarchism, no. 26, (1998), http://library.nothingness.org/articles/all/en/display/247.

13 Jeanette Lee, ‘Colleges Buying More Food from Farmers’, Associated Press, January 27, 2005; taken from Mercury News, San Jose, CA; Yale Sustainable Food Project, www.yale.edu/sustainablefood, and Alison Leigh Cowan, ‘A Dining Hall Where the Students Try to Sneak In’, New York Times, May 10, 2005.

14 Indented quotes from www.foodroutes.org, June 2005.

15 US Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, ‘Trends in US Agriculture, Labor Force and Farm Labor, 1900–1990’, www.usda.gov/nass/pubs/trends/farmpopulation.htm; USDA/NASS, 2002 Census of Agriculture, vol. 1, table 1, www.nass.usda.gov/census/census02/volume1/us/st99_1_ 001_001.pdf; Bureau of Justice Statistics, Press Release, ‘Prison Population Approaches 1.5 million’, November 7, 2004, www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/press/p03pr.htm. (I have drawn on Brian Halweil, Eat Here, p. 199, n. 6 for this comparison.)

16 Bill Vorley, Food Inc., International Institute for Environment and Development, London, 2003, p. 9.

17 Timothy Egan, ‘Amid Dying Towns of Rural Plains, One Makes a Stand’, New York Times, December 1, 2003.

18 Jon Bailey and Kim Preston, Swept Away: Chronic Hardship and Fresh Promise on the Great Plains, Walthill, Nebraska, Center for Rural Affairs, 2003, pt I.

19 Rich Pirog, et al, Food, Fuel and Freeways.

20 Verlyn Klinkenborg, ‘Keeping Iowa’s Young Folks at Home after They’ve Seen Minnesota’, New York Times, February 8, 2005.

21 US Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Fact Book 98, www.usda.gov/news/pubs/fbook98/chart1.htm, fig. 1 8; Economic Research Service, USDA, ‘Food Marketing and Price Spreads: USDA Marketing Bill’, www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/ FoodPriceSpreads/bill/table1.htm.

22 Michael Rosmann, AgriWellness Inc., and Paul Gunderson, National Farm Medicine Center, in discussion with Brian Halweil, Karen Pylka and Pual Gunderson, ‘An Epidemiologic Study of Suicide among Farmers and Its Clinical Implications’, Marshfield Clinical Bulletin, vol. 26, 1992, pp. 31–58. I owe these references to Brian Halweil, Eat Here, pp. 69–70.

23 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ‘Third Assessment Report: Summary for Policymakers: The Science of Climate Change’, IPCC Working Group I, p. 10, available at www.ipcc.ch. On the hottest years, see Traci Watson, ‘2004 is 4th Hottest Year for World since 1861, UN Report Says’, USA Today, December 15, 2004, www.usatoday.com/weather/news/2004-12-15-hot-year_x.htm.

24 Richard Posner, Catastrophe: Risk and Response, New York, Oxford University Press, 2004.

25 For further discussion of climate change as an ethical issue, see Peter Singer, One World, Melbourne, Text Publishing, 2002, chapter 2.

26 John Hendrickson, ‘Energy Use in the US Food System: A Summary of Existing Research and Analysis’, Sustainable Farming, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, vol. 7, no. 4, Fall 1997.

27 G. Schueller, ‘Eat Local’, Discover, 22(5), 2001.

28 John Hendrickson, ‘Energy Use in the US Food System: A Summary of Existing Research and Analysis’.

29 For the number of BTUs it takes to move freight by road, see US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, ‘Saving Energy in US Transportation’, OTA-ETI-589 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, July 1994), p. 44, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/ota/Ota_1/DATA/1994/9432.PDF.

30 Alison Smith, et al, ‘The Validity of Food Miles As an Indicator of Sustainable Development’, ED50254, Issue 7, July 2005, p. 67; A. Carlsson, ‘Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the Life-Cycle of Carrots and Tomatoes: Methods, Data and Results from a Study of the Types and Amounts of Carrots and Tomatoes Consumed in Sweden’, IMES/EESS report no. 24, Department of Environmental and Energy Systems Studies, Lund University, Sweden, March 1997; cited in Tara Garnett, Wise Moves, Transport 2000, pp. 76, 82–84.

31 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ‘Aviation and the Global Atmosphere’, Cambridge University Press, 1999; J. Whitelegg and N. Williams, The Plane Truth: Aviation and the Environment, Transport 2000 and Ashden Trust, London, 2001; we owe these references to Tara Garnett, Wise Moves, p. 23.

32 J. Pretty and A. Ball, ‘Agricultural Influences on Carbon Emissions and Sequestration: A Review of Evidence and the Emerging Trading Options’, Centre for Environment and Society Occasional Paper 2001–03, University of Essex, 2001.

33 Andy Jones, ‘Eating Oil’, Sustain & Elm Farm Research Centre, London, 2001, Case Study 2, www.sustainweb.org/chain_fm_eat.asp.

34 Alison Smith, et al, ‘The Validity of Food Miles As an Indicator of Sustainable Development’, p. 74.

35 Email from Carlo Petrini to Brian Halweil, cited in Brian Halweil, Eat Here, p. 161.

11. Trade, Fair Trade, and Workers’ Rights

1 Diana Friedman, ‘The Del Cabo Project: A Mexican Collective Exports Organic Produce to the USA’, Whole Earth Review, Spring 1989, www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1510/is_n62/ai_7422469; Don Lotter, ‘The Del Cabo Cooperative of Southern Baja Keeps 300 Farm Families Busy Growing Organic Crops for Export’, New Farm, July 20, 2004, www.newfarm.org/international/pan-am_don/july04.

2 United Nations Human Development Report, 2005, p. 24, http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/pdf/HDR05_chapter_1.pdf.

3 United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report 2000, New York, Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 30; Human Development Report 2001, New York, Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 9–12, 22; and World Bank, World Development Report 2000/2001, Overview, p. 3, www.worldbank.org/poverty/wdrpoverty/report/overview.pdf, for the other figures. The Human Development Reports are available at http://hdr.undp.org/4 Nomaan Majid, ‘Reaching Millennium Goals: How Well Does Agricultural Productivity Growth Reduce Poverty?’ Employment Strategy Papers, International Labor Organization, 2004, www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/strat/download/esp12.pdf.

5 M. Ataman Aksoy and John Beghin, eds, Global Agricultural Trade and Developing Countries, Washington, DC, World Bank, 2005.

6 Charles Walaga, email to Peter Singer, April 2005. See also Paul Collier and Ritva Reinikka, (eds), Uganda’s Recovery: The Role of Farms, Firms and Government, Washington, DC, World Bank, 2001.

7 Charles Walaga, email to Peter Singer, April 2005.

8 Oxfam International, Rigged Rules and Double Standards: Trade, Globalisation and the Fight against Poverty, Oxfam, 2002, pp. 10, 48, 53–55, www.maketradefair.com/assets/english/report_english.pdf. See also John Mellor, ‘Reducing Poverty, Buffering Economic Shocks—Agriculture and the Non-tradable Economy’, in FAO Roles of Agriculture Project, Expert Meeting Proceedings: First Expert Meeting on the Documentation and Measurement of the Roles of Agriculture, 19–21 March 2001, FAO, Rome, 2001, p. 275. Available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/es/esa/roa/pdf/EMP-E.pdf. We owe this reference to Sophia Murphy, whose report Agriculture Inc. is currently in preparation for Oxfam America.

9 Brian Halweil, email to Peter Singer, February 2005.

10 For Kenya and Zimbabwe, see C. Dolan, J. Humphrey, and C. Harris-Pascal, ‘Value Chains and Upgrading: The Impact of UK Retailers on the Fresh Fruit and Vegetables Industry in Africa’, Institute of Development Studies Working Paper 96, University of Sussex, 1988, as cited in R. Kaplinsky, ‘Spreading the Gains from Globalization: What Can Be Learned from Value-Chain Analysis?’, Problems of Economic Transition, vol. 47, (2004), pp. 74–115. The analysis of South African peaches also comes from Kaplinsky’s article. The figure for banana workers is from The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets 2004, FAO, Rome, 2004, p. 31.

11 Charles Walaga, email to Peter Singer, April 2005 and ‘The Development of the Organic Agriculture Sector in Africa: Potentials and Challenges’, Ecology and Farming, no. 29, January–April, 2002.

12 Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International, www.fairtrade.net/sites/standards/general.html.

13 TransFair USA, ‘Community Impacts’, www.transfairusa.org/content/about/overview.php.

14 Scientific Certified Systems, ‘Starbucks C.A.F.E. Practices’, www.scscertified.com/csrpurchasing/starbucks.html; ‘Starbucks Fair Trade and Coffee Social Responsibility’, www.starbucks.com/aboutus/StarbucksAndFairTrade.pdf.

15 For background, see Sasha Courville, ‘Social Accountability Audits: Challenging or Defending Democratic Governance?’, Law and Policy, vol. 25 (2003) pp. 269–97; for details of SA8000, see www.sa8000.org.

16 Michael Mitchell, email to Peter Singer, March 8, 2005.

17 International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, ‘Summary of Findings from the Child Labor Surveys in the Cocoa Sector of West Africa: Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, and Nigeria’, July 2002, www.iita.org/news/chlab-rpt.htm.

18 Reuters, Washington, ‘Lawmaker Shuns Valentine Candy, Cites Slavery Fear’, February 10, 2005.

19 Oxfam International, Rigged Rules and Double Standards, p. 55. www.maketradefair.com/assets/english/report_english.pdf; see also www.divinechocolate.com; Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International, ‘Fairtrade Standards for Cocoa for Small Farmers’ Organizations’, (December 2005, www.fairtrade.net/pdf/sp/english/Cocoa%20SP%20Dec%2005%20EN.pdf.

20 Brink Lindsey, ‘Grounds for Complaint? Understanding the ‘Coffee Crisis’, www.freetrade.org/pubs/briefs/tbp-016.pdf.

21 R. H. Frank, T. Gilovich & T. D. Regan, ‘Does Studying Economics Inhibit Cooperation?’ Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), pp. 159–71.

22 See, for example, Joseph Henrich et al, eds, Foundations of Human Sociality: Economic Experiments and Ethnographic Evidence from Fifteen Small-scale Societies, New York, Oxford University Press, 2004; Colin Camerer, Behavioral Game Theory: Experiments in Strategic Interaction, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2003.

12. Eating Out and Eating In, Ethically

1 Conversation with Jim Norwood, Director of Procurement, Meyer Natural Angus Beef, July 2005.

2 Additional sources used for this section are: John Mackey and Lauren Ornelas in discussion with Karen Dawn, ‘Watchdog’, KPFK-FM, Los Angeles, May 3, 2004, reprinted as John Mackey, Karen Dawn, and Lauren Ornelas, ‘The CEO as Animal Activist: John Mackey and Whole Foods’, in Peter Singer, ed., In Defense of Animals, Oxford, Blackwell, 2005, www.animalcompassionfoundation.org; www.wholefoodsmarket.com; Jon Gertner, ‘The Virtue in $6 Heirloom Tomatoes’, New York Times Sunday magazine, June 6, 2004; Charles Fishman, ‘The Anarchist’s Cookbook’, Fast Company, July 2004; www.fastcompany.com/magazine/84/wholefoods.html; Stuart Truelson, ‘Whole Foods Markets and Animal Rights Groups Team Up’, The Voice of Agriculture, January 31, 2005, www.fb.org/views/focus/fo2005/fo0131.html; Daniel McGinn, ‘The Green Machine’, Newsweek, March 21, 2005, http://msnbc.msn.com/id/7130106/site/newsweek/; Seth Lubove, ‘Food Porn’, Forbes, February 14, 2005, www.forbes.com/free_forbes/2005/0214/102.html; and personal communications with John Mackey.

3 John Dicker, The United States of Wal-Mart, New York, Tarcher/Penguin, 2005, p. 30.

PART III: THE VEGANS

13. JoAnn and Joe

1 Humane Research Council, ‘Vegetarianism in the US: A Summary of Quantitative Research’, August 2005, available on request from info@humaneresearch.org; Vegetarian Resource Group, ‘How Many Vegetarians Are There?’, www.vrg.org/journal/vj2003issue3/vj2003issue3poll.htm.

2 Thomas Frank, What’s the Matter with Kansas? How Conservatives Won the Heart of America, New York, Metropolitan Books, 2004, p. 103.

3 New York, Lantern Books, 2000.

14. Going Organic

1 Organic Trade Association, drawing on various sources. See: www.ota.com/organic/mt/business.html; www.ota.com/organic/mt/consumer.html; and www.ota.com/organic/mt/food.html.

2 Rudy Kortbech-Olesen, ‘Overview on World Trade in Organic Food Products, the US Market and Recent Trends’, Nuremberg, Biofach Congress, February 14, 2003, www.intracen.org/mds/sectors/organic/biofach.htm.

3 Erik Millstone and Tim Lang, The Atlas of Food, London, Earthscan, 2003, pp. 56–57.

Quoted from Michael Sligh and Caroline Christman, Who Owns Organic? The Global Status, Prospects and Challenges of a Changing Organic Market, Pittsboro, NC, Rural Advancement Foundation International USA, 2003, p. 1.

4 Stephen Cadogan, ‘Babies Best Customers for Organic Food’, Irish Examiner, February 17, 2005; Bernward Geier, ‘An Overview and Facts on Worldwide Organic Agriculture: Organic Trade a Growing Reality’, ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/006/ad429E/ad429E00.pdf, p. 9.

5 Brian Baker et al, ‘Pesticide Residues in Conventional, IPM-Grown and Organic Foods: Insights from Three US Data Sets’, Food Additives and Contaminants, vol. 19, no. 5, May 2002, pp. 427–46. A summary is available at www.consumersunion.org/food/organicsumm.htm.

6 Cynthia L. Curl, Richard A. Fenske and Kai Elgethun, ‘Organophosphorus Pesticide Exposure of Urban and Suburban Preschool Children with Organic and Conventional Diets’, Environmental Health Perspectives v.111 (2003), pp. 377–82.

7 Sir John Krebs, ‘Is Organic Food Better for You?’, Cheltenham Science Festival, June 5, 2003, www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2003/jun/cheltenham.

8 Michael Pollan, ‘Behind the Organic-Industrial Complex’, New York Times, May 13, 2001.

9 Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, ‘Organic Agriculture: Sustainability, Markets and Policies’, Paris, CABI Publishing, 2003, p. 10. Available at www1.oecd.org/publications/e-book/5103071E.PDF.

10 D. Tillman, ‘The Greening of the Green Revolution’, Nature, no. 396 (1998) pp. 211–12.

11 Mark Shepherd et al, ‘An Assessment of the Environmental Impacts of Organic Farming’, a review for Defra-Funded Project OF0405, May 2003, pp. 26–34; available at www.defra.gov.uk/farm/organic/research/env-impacts2.pdf.

12 John Reganold et al, ‘Long-term Effects of Organic and Conventional Farming on Soil Erosion’, Nature, vol. 330 (1987) pp. 370 72.

13 D. G. Hole et al, ‘Does Organic Farming Benefit Biodiversity?’, Biological Conservation, vol. 122 (2005) pp. 113–30.

14 ‘Organic farms “best for wildlife”’, BBC News, August 3, 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4740609.stm.

15 D. Tillman, ‘The Greening of the Green Revolution’, Nature.

16 Janet Larson, ‘Dead Zones Increasing in World’s Coastal Areas’, Earth Policy Institute, June 16, 2004, available at www.earth-policy.org/Updates/Update41.htm; Ron Brunoehler, ‘Resurrecting the Dead Zone’, The Corn and Soybean Digest, May 1, 1998 available at www.cornandsoybeandigest.com/mag/soybean_resurrecting_dead_zone/.

17 Arnold Aspelin, ‘Pesticide Usage in the United States: Trends during the 20th Century’, CIPM Technical Bulletin 105, Center for Integrated Pest Management North Carolina State University, Raleigh, N.C, 2003, Pt V, www.pestmanagement.info/pesticide_history/five.pdf; T. Kiely, D. Donaldson and A. Grube, ‘Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage: 2000 and 2001 Market Estimates’, Office of Pesticide Programs, US Environmental Protection Agency, 2004, www.epa.gov/oppbead1/pestsales/01pestsales/market_estimates2001.pdf.

18 Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, ‘The Quality of Our Nation’s Waters: Nutrients and Pesticides’, USGS Circular 1225, Reston, VA, 1999. Available at http://water.usgs.gov/pubs/circ/circ1225/index.html.

19 Mark Shepherd et al, ‘An Assessment of the Environmental Impacts of Organic Farming’. A review for Defra-funded Project OF0405, May 2003, available at www.defra.gov.uk/farm/organic/research/env-impacts2.pdf.

20 J. Pretty and A. Ball, ‘Agricultural Influences on Carbon Emissions and Sequestration: A Review of Evidence and the Emerging Trading Options’, Centre for Environment and Society Occasional Paper 2001–03, University of Essex, 2001; see also J. Pretty et al, ‘The Role of Sustainable Agriculture and Renewable Resource Management in Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Increasing Sinks in China and India’, in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, vol. 360, (2002), pp. 1741–61.

21 Paul Hepperly, ‘Organic Farming Sequesters Atmospheric Carbon and Nutrients in Soils’, Rodale Institute, www.strauscom.com/rodale-whitepaper/.

22 On carbon sequestration and organic farming, see J. Pretty and A. Ball, ‘Agricultural Influences on Carbon Emissions and Sequestration’; Robert Jackson and William Schlesinger, ‘Curbing the US Carbon Deficit’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States, vol. 101 (November 9, 2004), pp. 15827–29, www.pnas.org_cgi_doi_10.1073_pnas.0403631101.

23 David Pimentel et al, ‘Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems’, Bioscience, vol. 55 (2005), pp. 573–82.

24 Mark Shepherd et al, ‘An Assessment of the Environmental Impacts of Organic Farming’, pp.49–53; available at www.defra.gov.uk/farm/organic/research/env-impacts2.pdf.

25 Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, London, first published 1818.

26 National Research Council, Environmental Effects of Transgenic Plants, Washington DC, National Academy Press, 2002.

27 Robert H. Devlin, ‘Major Factors Influencing Reliability of Risk Assessment Data Derived from Laboratory-contained GH Transgenic Coho Salmon’, a paper presented to the 8th International Symposium on Risk Assessment of GMOs, and kindly made available to us by Dr Devlin; Rachel Borgatti and Eugene Buck, ‘Genetically Engineered Fish and Seafood’, CRS Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, December 7, 2004, www.ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/04dec/RS21996.pdf.

28 Guelph Transgenic Pig Program, www.uoguelph.ca/enviropig/.

29 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, ‘The State of Food and Agriculture, 2003–04’, Rome, 2004, www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/006/Y5160E/Y5160E00.HTM.

30 Ibid.

31 Uma Lele, ‘Biotechnology: Opportunities and Challenges for Developing Countries’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics vol. 85, 2003, pp. 1119–25.

32 Food Standards Australia New Zealand, Report on the Review of Labelling of Genetically Modified Foods, December 2003, www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/GM_label_REVIEW%20REPORT%20_Final%203_.pdf, sections 9–10.

33 Associated Press, ‘Americans Clueless about Gene-altered Foods’, March 23, 2005, http://msnbc.msn.com/id/7277844/; Lee Silver, Challenging Nature: The Clash of Science and Spirituality at the New Frontiers of Life, New York, Ecco, 2006.

34 Jacques Diouf, foreword in ‘The State of Food and Agriculture, 2003–04’, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 2004, p. viii, www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/006/Y5160E/Y5160E00.HTM; G. J. Persley, ‘New Genetics, Food and Agriculture: Scientific Discoveries— Societal Dilemmas’, Paris, 2003, p. 8, www.icsu.org/2_resourcecentre/INIT_GMOrep_1.php4.

35 ‘Does Bt Maize Kill Monarch Butterflies?’ in ‘The State of Food and Agriculture, 2003–04’, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 2004, Box 24, p. 71; see also John E. Losey, Linda S. Raynor and Maureen E. Carter ‘Transgenic Pollen Harms Monarch Larvae’, Nature, vol. 399 (May 20, 1999), p. 214; Tom Clarke, ‘Monarchs Safe from Bt’, News@Nature.com, September 12, 2001.

36 ‘The State of Food and Agriculture, 2003–04’, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 2004, p. 67, www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/006/Y5160E/Y5160E00.HTM.

37 Andrew Pollack, ‘A Texas-size Whodunit: On the Trail of Genetically Altered Corn from Azteca’, New York Times, September 30, 2000; Andrew Pollack, ‘1999 Survey on Gene-altered Corn Disclosed Some Improper Uses’, New York Times, September 4, 2001.

38 Food and Agriculture Organization, ‘The State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2000’, Rome, 2000, p. 9.

39 Vaclav Smil, Feeding the World: A Challenge for the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge, Mass, MIT Press, 2001, p. 315.

40 Julie Guthman, Agrarian Dreams: The Paradox of Organic Farming in California, Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 2004, p. 169.

41 Jim Mason, interview with Elizabeth Henderson, February 22, 2005; Beth Holtzman, interview with Elizabeth Henderson, in Valerie Berton, ed., The New American Farmer: Profiles of Agricultural Innovation, US Department of Agriculture Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education program, Beltsville MD, 2001, pp. 65–67, www.sare.org/publications/naf/naf.pdf.

42 Rebecca Clarren, ‘Land of Milk and Honey’, Salon, April 13, 2005, www.salon.com/news/feature/2005/04/13/milk.

43 Andrew Martin, ‘Organic Milk Debate’, Chicago Tribune, January 10, 2005.

44 Steve Raabe, ‘Organic Farm under Fire over Pasture Rules’, Denver Post, January 16, 2005.

45 Andrew Martin, ‘Organic Milk Debate’.

46 Michael Sligh and Caroline Christman, Who Owns Organic? The Global Status, Prospects and Challenges of a Changing Organic Market, Pittsboro, NC, Rural Advancement Foundation International–USA, 2003, p. 19.

47 Andrew Martin, ‘Panel Seeks to Put Organic Loophole out to Pasture’, Chicago Tribune, March 2, 2005.

48 Marion Nestle, ‘In Praise of the Organic Environment’, Global Agenda, 2005, www.globalagendamagazine.com/2005/marionnestle.asp.

49 Center for Global Food Issues, www.cgfi.org/about/about_index.htm.

15. Is It Unethical to Raise Children Vegan?

1 Michelle Roberts, ‘Children “Harmed” by Vegan Diet’, BBC News, February 21, 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4282257.stm; Jim McBeth, ‘Vegetarian Diet “bad for children”’, Scotsman, February 22, 2005, http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=199842005.

2 A. R. Mangels and V. Messina, ‘Considerations in Planning Vegan Diets: Infants’, Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 101 (2001), pp. 670–77; ‘Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian Diets’, Canadian Journal of Dietetic Association Practice and Research 64, (2003), pp. 62–81, available at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12826028&dopt=Citation.

3 Pramil Singh, Joan Sabaté and Gary Fraser, ‘Does Low Meat Consumption Increase Life Expectancy in Humans?’, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2003, 78(suppl), pp. 526S–32S.

4 www.vegsource.com/articles2/ncbs_vegan_study.htm.

5 ‘Supplement: Animal Source Foods to Improve Micronutrient Nutrition in Developing Countries’, Journal of Nutrition, November 2003, vol. 133, pp. 3875s –4054s; for funding from the National Cattleman’s Beef Association, see Charlotte Neuman et al, ‘Animal Source Foods Improve Dietary Quality, Micronutrient Status, Growth and Cognitive Function in Kenyan School Children: Background, Study Design and Baseline Findings’ in the same supplement, pp. 3941s–49s, fn. 2.

6 See www.veganoutreach.org. Jack Norris’ essay ‘Staying Healthy on Plant-Based Diets’, available from a link on this website or at www.veganhealth.org/sh/, is an excellent practical guide to what people contemplating vegetarian and vegan diets should know about nutrition.

7 ‘Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian Diets’, Journal of the American Dietetic Association, vol. 103 (2003), p. 749.

8 Lindsay Allen, ‘Interventions for Micronutrient Deficiency Control in Developing Countries: Past, Present and Future’, Journal of Nutrition, vol. 133 (November 2003) supplement, pp. 3875S–78S; Colin Tudge, So Shall We Reap: What’s Gone Wrong with the World’s Food—and How to Fix It, Allen Lane, 2003, p. 125.

9 Jonathan H. Siekmann, Lindsay H. Allen, et al, ‘Kenyan School Children Have Multiple Micronutrient Deficiencies, But Increased Plasma Vitamin B-12 Is the Only Detectable Micronutrient Response to Meat or Milk Supplementation’, Journal of Nutrition, vol. 133 (November 2003), supplement, 3972S–80S.

10 Colin Tudge, So Shall Ye Reap, pp. 334–35.

11 Immanuel Kant, The Moral Law: Kant’s Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, trans. by H. J. Paton, London, Hutchinson University Library, 1966, (first published 1785), p. 67.

12 Andrew Tyler, email, June 2005; Joyce D’Silva in conversation, London, July 2005.

13 Kristin Dizon, ‘Seattle Man Amazes Everyone in 135-mile Marathon—Including Himself’, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, July 22, 2005, http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/othersports/233630_jurek22.html; Carl Lewis, introduction in Jannequin Bennett, Very Vegetarian, Nashville, TN, Rutledge Hill Press, 2001.

16. Are Vegans Better for the Environment?

1 Frances Moore Lappé, Diet for a Small Planet, New York, Ballantine, 1971.

2 Erik Marcus, Meat Market: Animals, Ethics, and Money, Ithaca, NY, Brio Press, 2005, p. 255, citing W. O. Herring and J. K. Bertrand, ‘Multi-trait Prediction of Feed Conversion in Feedlot Cattle’, Proceedings from the 34th Annual Beef Improvement Federation Annual Meeting, Omaha, NE, July 10–13, 2002, www.bifconference.com/bif2002/BIFsymposium_pdfs/Herring_02BIF.pdf.

3 Erik Marcus, Meat Market: Animals, Ethics, and Money, p. 256, citing Pork Facts, 2001/2002, National Pork Board, Des Moines, Iowa.

4 Tyson Foods Inc., 2004–05 Investor Fact Book, p. 5, http://media.corporate-ir.net/media_files/irol/65/65476/reports/04_05_factbook.pdf, citing figures from the National Chicken Council; Erik Marcus, Meat Market, pp. 255–56, citing Glen Fukomoto and John Replogle, ‘Livestock Management’, Cooperative Extension Service, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii, Manoa, April 1999, and F. H. Ricard, ‘Carcass Conformation of Poultry and Game Birds’, Proceedings of the 25th World’s Poultry Science Association Symposium on Meat Quality in Poultry and Game Birds, Norwich, 1979, pp. 31–35.

5 G. Sarwar and F. McDonough ‘Evaluation of Protein Digestibility-corrected Amino Acid Score Method for Assessing Protein Quality of Foods’, Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, vol. 73 (1990), pp. 347–56; Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Protein Quality Evaluation: Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation, FAO Food and Nutrition paper no. 51, FAO, Rome, 1991.

6 Vaclav Smil, Feeding the World: A Challenge for the 21st Century, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 2000, p. 145; Vaclav Smil, ‘Eating Meat: Evolution, Patterns, and Consequences’, Population Development Review, vol. 28 (2002) p. 619.

7 Keite Camacho, ‘Brazil’s Deforestation Worries Scientists’, Brazzil, July 1, 2004, www.brazzil.com/content/view/2005/.

8Gaverick Matheny and Kai Chan, ‘Human Diets and Animal Welfare: The Illogic of the Larder’, Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, vol. 18 (2005), pp.579–94, www.ires.ubc.ca/personal/kaichan/articles/Matheny_and_Chan_2005_JAEE.pdf.

9 Newsweek, February 22, 1981.

10 J. L. Beckett and J. W. Oltjen, ‘Estimation of the Water Requirements for Beef Production in the United States’, Journal of Animal Science, vol. 71 (1993), pp. 818–26.

11 D. Pimentel et al, ‘Water Resources: Agriculture, the Environment, and Society’, BioScience, vol. 47 (1997), pp. 97–106.

12 D. Pimentel et al, ‘Water Resources: Agricultural and Environmental Issues’, BioScience, vol. 54 (2004), pp. 909–18.

13 A. K. Chapagain and A. Y. Hoekstra, ‘Water Footprints of Nations, Volume I:

Main Report’, Unesco-IHE Institute of Water Education, Delft, November 2004, table 4.1, p. 41.

14 USS Maddox Destroyer Association, www.ussmaddox.org/.

15 A. K. Chapagain and A. Y. Hoekstra, ‘Water Footprints of Nations: Volume 1: Main Report’, table 4.2, p. 42.

16 Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Themes—Environment, Land and Soil, Agriculture’, citing World Resources Institute, World Resources, 1998–99: A Guide to the Global Environment, Washington, DC, 1998, p. 157.

17 Michael Archer, ‘Triumphing over Crisis’, Australian Museum Online, January 17, 2000, www.amonline.net.au/archive.cfm?id=153.

18 Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Heritage, ‘2005 Commerical Kangaroo Harvest Quotas’, December 2004, www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/trade-use/publications/kangaroo/quotas-background-2005.html.

19 ‘It’s Better to Green Your Diet Than Your Car’, New Scientist, 17 December 2005, p. 19, www.newscientist.com/channel/earth/mg18825304.800.

20 The Editors, ‘Meat: Now, It’s Not Personal’, World Watch Magazine, July/August 2004, www.worldwatch.org/pubs/mag/2004/174/.

17. The Ethics of Eating Meat

1 Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall, The River Cottage Meat Book, London, Hodder & Stoughton, 2004, p. 24.

2 Michael Pollan, ‘An Animal’s Place’, New York Times Sunday magazine, November 10, 2002; see also Michael Pollan, The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals, New York, Penguin, 2006.

3 Sholto Byrnes, ‘Roger Scruton: The Patron Saint of Lost Causes’, Independent, July 3, 2005, http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk/books/features/article296509.ece.

4 Roger Scruton, Animal Rights and Wrongs, 3rd edn, London, Claridge Press, 2003.

5 Matthew Scully, ‘Fear Factories: The Case for Compassionate Conservatism—for Animals’, The American Conservative, May 23, 2005; George F. Will, ‘What We Owe What We Eat’, Newsweek, July 18, 2005; Matthew Scully, Dominion: The Power of Man, The Suffering of Animals, and the Call to Mercy, New York, St Martin’s Press, 2003.

6 Joseph Ratzinger, God and the World: Believing and Living in Our Time: A Conversation With Peter Seewald, San Francisco, St Ignatius Press, 2002, p. 78; for other Christian views that point in the same direction, see Matthew Scully, Dominion: The Power of Man, the Suffering of Animals, and the Call to Mercy; and Andrew Linzey, Animal Theology, Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 1994.

7 See, for example, Peter Carruthers, The Animals Issue: Moral Theory in Practice, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992.

8 Benjamin Franklin, Autobiography, New York, Modern Library, 1950, p. 41.

9 T. Colin Campbell and Thomas Campbell, The China Study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health, Dallas, Benbella, 2005.

10 Jonathan Swift, ‘A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People from Being a Burthen to Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Public’, first published 1729, reprinted in Tom Regan and Peter Singer, eds, Animal Rights and Human Obligations, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall, 1976, pp. 234–37.

11 For a powerful argument for this position, see Paola Cavalieri, The Animal Question: Why Non-human Animals Deserve Human Rights, trans. Catherine Woollard, New York, Oxford University Press, 2001.

12 Stephen Budiansky, The Covenant of the Wild, New York, HarperCollins, 1992.

13 Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall, The River Cottage Meat Book, London, Hodder & Stoughton, 2004, pp. 23–25.

14 Henry Salt, ‘The Logic of the Larder’ first published in Henry Salt, The Humanities of Diet, The Vegetarian Society, Manchester, 1914, reprinted in Tom Regan and Peter Singer, Animal Rights and Human Obligations, p. 186.

15 See Derek Parfit, Reasons and Persons, Part IV, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1984, 16 Roger Scruton, ‘The Conscientious Carnivore’ in Steve Sapontzis, ed., Food for Thought: The Debate over Eating Meat, Amherst, NY, Prometheus, 2004, p. 88.

17 Gaverick Matheny and Kai Chan, ‘Human Diets and Animal Welfare: The Illogic of the Larder’ and personal correspondence with Gaverick Matheny, April 2005.

18 Steven Davis, ‘The Least Harm Principle May Require That Humans Consume a Diet Containing Large Herbivores, Not a Vegan Diet’, Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics vol. 16, (2003) pp. 387–94.

19 Gaverick Matheny, ‘Least Harm: A Defense of Vegetarianism from Steven Davis’s Omnivorous Proposal’, Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, vol. 16 (2003), pp. 505–11.

20 Todd Purdum, ‘High Priest of the Pasture’, New York Times Style magazine, Living, Spring 2005, pp. 76–79. The comment from Daniel Salatin about his father is taken from the 13th Annual Wisconsin Grazing Conference, February 14th, 2005, www.grassworks.org/Conference/conference.htm.

21 Joel Salatin, ‘Family Friendly Farming,’ AcresUSA, June 2000, available at www.acresusa.com/toolbox/reprints/familyfriendly_jun00.pdf.

22 Anne Fanatico, ‘Sustainable Poultry: Production Overview’, ATTRA—National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service, March 2002, http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/poultryoverview.html.

23 See Herman Beck-Chenoweth, Free-Range Poultry Production and Marketing, Hartshorn, Back40Books, 2001. The quote is taken from the same author’s ‘Free range, Pastured Poultry, Chicken Tractor—What’s the Difference?’,www.free-rangepoultry.com/compare.htm.

24 George Devault, ‘“Chicken Day” at the Farm of Many Faces’, The New Farm, August 2002, www.newfarm.org/features/0802/chicken%20day/print.html.

25 The percentage disapproving of hunting for food varies, but is usually at least 12 per cent and in some US state polls has been as high as 34 per cent. See Mark Damian Duda and Kira C. Young, 1998, ‘American Attitudes towards Scientific Wildlife Management and Use of Fish and Wildlife: Implications for Effective Public Relations and Communications Strategies’, Transactions of the 63rd North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference, 1998, pp. 589–603, www.responsivemanagement.com/download/reports/AmericanAttitudes.pdf.

26 River Cottage Meat Book, p. 153.

27 Geoff Russell, ‘The Economical and Ecological Infeasibility of Large Volume Kangaroo Farming’, in Maryland Wilson and David Croft, eds, Kangaroos: Myths and Realities, Melbourne, Australian Wildlife Protection Council, 2005, p. 126.

28 Ingrid Witte, ‘Kangaroos: Misunderstood and Maligned Reproductive Miracle Workers’, in Maryland Wilson and David Croft, eds, Kangaroos: Myths and Realities, p. 205, as amended in the errata slip.

29 Frederick Pohl and C. M. Kornbluth, The Space Merchants, New York, Ballantine, 1952.

30 Winston Churchill, Thoughts and Adventures, Thornton Butterworth, London, 1932, pp. 24–27.

31 For more information on progress in making cultured meat, see www.new-harvest.org.

32 www.meetup.com visited January 30, 2006.

33 Anonymous, ‘Why Freegan?’, Food Not Bombs Houston, December 30, 2002, http://fnbhouston.org/20021230-2815.html.

34 Our account of freeganism draws on websites like http://freegan.info/ and the writings of Adam Weissman.

35 Lance Gay, ‘Food Waste Costing Economy $100 billion, Study Finds’, Scripps Howard News Service, August 10, 2005, www.knoxstudio.com/shns/story.cfm?pk=GARBAGE-08-10-05&cat=AN.

PART IV: ETHICAL EATING

18. What Should We Eat?

1 We checked prices at Wal-Mart and other major US supermarket chains, and calculated that the protein content of dried lentils, beans and peas cost between half a cent, and 1.5 cents per gram. One gram of protein from peanut butter cost about 2 cents. Frozen edamame soybeans and lima beans yielded protein at 4 and 6 cents per gram, respectively. Tofu worked out at 6 cents per gram. The protein content in chicken cost, depending on the form of chicken bought, between 3 and 9 cents per gram. Vegan meat alternatives like soyburgers and chicken-like patties came to between 6 and 11 cents per gram of protein. Textured vegetable protein from www.healthy-eating.com costs about 1 cent per gram of protein. (Prices were checked in August 2005) 2 Judy Putnam, ‘US Food Supply Providing More Food and Calories’, FoodReview, vol. 22, no. 3 (September 1999), table 1, p. 6; www.ers.usda.gov/publications/foodreview/sep1999/frsept99a.pdf.

3 Javachandran Variyam, ‘The Price Is Right: Economics and Obesity’, Amber Waves, February, 2005, www.ers.usda.gov/AmberWaves/February05/Features/ ThePriceIsRight.htm.

4 ‘Aussie Adults Getting Fatter, Survey Finds’, ABC News online, February 27, 2006.

5 Kenneth E. Thorpe et al., ‘The Rising Prevalence of Treated Disease: Effects on Private Health Insurance Spending’, Health Affairs, vol. 10, June 27, 2005, online at http://content.healthaffairs.org/cgi/content/abstract/hlthaff.w5.317.

6 US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control, ‘Overweight and Obesity: Economic Consequences’, 2005, www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/ dnpa/obesity/economic_consequences.htm 7 Amanda Paulson, ‘One Woman’s Quest to Enjoy Her Dinner Without Guilt’, Christian Science Monitor, October 27, 2004, http://csmonitor.com/2004/1027/ p15s02-lifo.htm.

8 Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Household Expenditure Survey, 2003–04’, catalogue no. 6530.0, Canberra, 2005.

9 According to figures for 2003 from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/collections?subset=agriculture.