1. Sclafani offered rats: Catalina Pérez, François Lucas, and Anthony Sclafani, “Increased Flavour Acceptance and Preference Conditioned by the Postingestive Actions of Glucose,” Physiology & Behavior 64 (1998): 483–492.
2. learned which flavour delivered: Ivan E. de Araujo et al., “Metabolic Regulation of Brain Response to Food Cues,” Current Biology 23 (2013): 878–883.
3. An old study from the 1950s: James Olds and Peter Milner, “Positive Reinforcement Produced by Electrical Stimulation of Septal Area and Other Regions of Rat Brain,” Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 47 (1954): 419–427.
4. conscious and unconscious valuations: Deborah W. Tang, Lesley K. Fellows, and Alain Dagher, “Behavioral and Neural Valuation of Foods Is Driven by Implicit Knowledge of Caloric Content,” Psychological Science 25 (2014): 2168–2176.
5. a glass of carrot juice: Julie A. Mennella, Coren P. Jagnow, and Gary K. Beauchamp, “Prenatal and Postnatal Flavour Learning by Human Infants,” Pediatrics 107 (2001): E88, http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/107/6/e88.
6. as infants liked it better: R. Haller et al., “The Influence of Early Experience with Vanillin on Food Preference Later in Life,” Chemical Senses 24 (1999): 465–467.
7. more accepting of vegetable flavours: Julie A. Mennella, “Ontogeny of Taste Preferences: Basic Biology and Implications for Health,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 99 (2014): 704S–711S.
8 “you are turning green”: Carol Zane Jolles, Faith, Food, and Family in a Yupik Whaling Community (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 284; cited in Sveta Yamin-Pasternak et al., “The Rotten Renaissance in the Bering Strait: Loving, Loathing, and Washing the Smell of Foods with a (Re)acquired Taste,” Current Anthropology 55 (2014): 619–646.
9. wearing latex gloves: Yamin-Pasternak et al., “Rotten Renaissance.”
10. didn’t respond the same way: Paul M. Wise et al., “Reduced Dietary Intake of Simple Sugars Alters Perceived Sweet Taste Intensity but Not Perceived Pleasantness,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 103 (2016): 50–60.
11. the renowned French Laundry: Thomas Keller, The French Laundry Cookbook (New York: Artisan, 1999): 14.
12. tomato soup aroma: Mariëlle Ramaekers et al., “Aroma Exposure Time and Aroma Concentration in Relation to Satiation,” British Journal of Nutrition 111(2014): 554–562.
13. some other young Dutch men: Anne G. M. Wijlens et al., “Effects of Oral and Gastric Stimulation on Appetite and Energy Intake,” Obesity 20 (2012): 2226–2232.
14. big squirts separated: Dieuwerke P. Bolhuis et al., “Both Longer Oral Sensory Exposure to and Higher Intensity of Saltiness Decrease Ad Libitum Food Intake in Healthy Normal-Weight Men,” Journal of Nutrition 141 (2011): 2242–2248.
15. eating pasta with a small spoon: Ana M. Andrade et al., “Does Eating Slowly Influence Appetite and Energy Intake When Water Intake Is Controlled?” International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 9 (2012): 135, doi:10.1186/1479-5868-9-135.
16. playing with texture: K. McCrickerd and C. G. Forde, “Sensory Influences on Food Intake Control: Moving beyond Palatability,” Obesity Reviews 17 (2015): 18–29.
17. soup more filling: Mieke J. I. Martens and Margriet S. Westerterp-Plantenga, “Mode of Consumption Plays a Role in Alleviating Hunger and Thirst,” Obesity 20 (2012): 517–524.
18. highly flavoured vanilla custard: René A. de Wijk et al., “Food Aroma Affects Bite Size,” Flavour 1 (2012): 3, doi:10.1186/2044-7248-1-3.
19. saltier tomato soup: Bolhuis et al., “Longer Oral Sensory Exposure.”
20. a dozen rat-friendly flavours: Michael Naim et al., “Energy Intake, Weight Gain, and Fat Deposition in Rats Fed Flavoured, Nutritionally Controlled Diets in a Multichoice (‘Cafeteria‘) Design,” Journal of Nutrition 115 (1985): 1447–1458.
21. scarf the stuff down anyway: Israel Ramirez, “Influence of Experience on Response to Bitter Taste,” Physiology & Behavior 49 (1991): 387–391.
22. any taste receptor or odor receptor genes: Adam E. Locke et al., “Genetic Studies of Body Mass Index Yield New Insights for Obesity Biology,” Nature 518 (2015): 197–206.
23. tells you nothing useful: Chih-Hung Shu et al., “The Proportion of SelfRated Olfactory Dysfunction Does Not Change across the Life Span,” American Journal of Rhinology & Allergy 23 (2009): 413–416.
24. impairments of their sense of smell: Claire Murphy et al., “Prevalence of Olfactory Impairment in Older Adults,” JAMA 288 (2002): 2307–2312.
25. scratch-and-sniff smell survey: Charles J. Wysocki and Avery N. Gilbert, “National Geographic Smell Survey: Effects of Age Are Heterogeneous,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 561 (1989): 12–28.
26. responded to both: Nancy E. Rawson et al., “Age-Associated Loss of Selectivity in Human Olfactory Sensory Neurons,” Neurobiology of Aging 33 (2012): 1913–1919.
27. four times as likely to die: Jayant M. Pinto et al., “Olfactory Dysfunction Predicts 5-Year Mortality in Older Adults,” PLoS One 9 (2014): e107541, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0107541.
28. depression and anxiety: Carl M. Philpott and Duncan Boak, “The Impact of Olfactory Disorder in the United Kingdom,” Chemical Senses 39 (2014): 711–718.
29. linked to other health problems: Nicole Toussaint et al., “Loss of Olfactory Function and Nutritional Status in Vital Older Adults and Geriatric Patients,” Chemical Senses 40 (2015): 197–203.
30. might improve with practice: Thomas Hummel et al., “Effects of Olfactory Training in Patients with Olfactory Loss,” Laryngoscope 119 (2009): 496–499.
31. Mark Friedman thinks: David S. Ludwig and Mark I. Friedman, “Increasing Adiposity: Cause or Consequence of Overeating?” Journal of the American Medical Association 311 (2014): 2167–2168.
32. Dana Small thinks: Martin G. Myers Jr. et al.,”Obesity and Leptin Resistance: Distinguishing Cause from Effect,” Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 21 (2010): 643–651.
33. containers of sugary or fatty food: Michael G. Tordoff, “Obesity by Choice: The Powerful Influence of Nutrient Availability on Nutrient Intake,” American Journal of Physiology: Regulatory, Integrative, and Comparative Physiology 282 (2002): R1536–R1539.