acupuncture: An ancient Chinese medical practice, in which very thin needles are inserted into specific points in the skin in order to relieve a wide variety of ailments. Acupuncture is often used to relieve the pain of arthritis, headaches, etc.
Allah: The Moslem name for God. Moslems are a religious minority in China. Most Chinese Moslems live in western China, but there are some, like the Jiang family, who live in eastern cities such as Shanghai.
Beijing: The capital of China. Formerly spelled “Peking.”
black: Opposed to the Communist Party. Communism was symbolized by the color red. Black, seen as the opposite of red, was used to symbolize opponents of Communism, and therefore became a negative in general.
black whelp: An insulting term for a child of a family belonging to any one of the “Five Black Categories.”
bourgeois; bourgeoisie: A member of the middle class. In China this term is used in a derogatory manner to describe a person who enjoys and admires a luxurious “capitalist” lifestyle.
capitalism: An economic system characterized by private ownership of property, free competition, and business for profit. The United States, Japan, and many other countries are capitalist nations. Communists are strongly opposed to capitalism. (See “Communism.”)
Central Committee: The powerful top leadership of the Chinese Communist Party, which actually rules the country. They make laws, issue policies, and control the military, legal systems, and even the national treasury. Chairman Mao was the head of the Central Committee.
Chairman Mao: See “Mao Ze-dong.”
Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975): The chairman of the Nationalist Party, and one of Mao Ze-dong’s major enemies. Before 1949 he was the leader of China. In 1949 he was defeated by Mao Ze-dong and the Communist Party and fled to the offshore island of Taiwan, where he continued as the chairman of the Nationalist Party until his death.
Chinese New Year: The most important family holiday in China. Chinese New Year is the first day of the lunar calendar, which is based on the phases of the moon. The date varies according to the Western calendar, but Chinese New Year usually occurs in late January or early February.
class status: A system of classifying people by their economic situation or occupation. This was particularly important during the Cultural Revolution. It was believed that family class status would determine one’s behavior and thinking, so someone born in a family with a “red” class status was assumed to be revolutionary, while one born into a “black” family was assumed to be unreliable. One’s status was determined by one’s father’s degree of “redness” or “blackness.”
Communism: An economic system in which all means of production, such as land and natural resources, are owned by the entire community and used for the good of all its members.
Communist Party: China’s ruling political party, led during his lifetime by Chairman Mao.
conservative: One who resists political change. To Chinese Communists the term was usually negative, but during the Cultural Revolution the meaning could change. Sometimes the people called conservatives were more loyal to the Communist leadership than the so-called revolutionaries.
counterrevolutionary: A person who actively fights against the Communist Party. A counterrevolutionary is seen as a public enemy.
crematorium: The building where the bodies of the dead are cremated—that is, burned. Nonreligious memorial services were performed at the crematorium, since all religion was condemned as superstition during the Cultural Revolution. In China today bodies are usually cremated, because land is considered too valuable to use for graves.
criticize: In China during the Cultural Revolution criticizing was punishment for political errors. “Criticism” was often carried out in “struggle meetings” and often included humiliation or physical punishment.
Cultural Revolution (officially known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution): The social and political upheaval that overtook China from 1966 to 1976. During this time many innocent people were ruthlessly persecuted. The Cultural Revolution was launched by Chairman Mao, supposedly to rid the country of anti-Communist influences. Long afterward it was revealed that Chairman Mao unleashed this chaos in order to protect his own political position.
da-dui-zhang: In a Chinese elementary school, the student chairman of the entire school, roughly equivalent to the Student Council president in an American school.
da-zi-bao: A form of propaganda in the shape of a large handwritten poster presenting an important issue. During the Cultural Revolution, da-zi-bao were used to attack and humiliate people.
detainment: Confinement without legal arrest. People who were under investigation were often put in solitary confinement within their work units as a way to make them confess, sometimes falsely, to political crimes.
educable child: In Cultural Revolution jargon, a child from a “black” family who is loyal to the Communist Party and rejects his or her black family.
establish revolutionary ties: In Cultural Revolution jargon, to meet with people from other regions to exchange the experience of the Cultural Revolution and discuss political issues.
exploitation: The unethical use of someone else’s labor or resources for one’s own profit.
fen: The Chinese “penny,” one hundredth of a yuan.
feudalism: The economic system in which the majority of the land was held by relatively few landowners, who leased their vast properties to farmers in return for large shares of the crops.
Five Black Categories: According to Chairman Mao and the Communist Party, the worst enemies of Communism and the common people. The five categories were: landlords, rich peasants, counterrevolutionaries, criminals, and rightists.
Four Olds: “Old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits.” According to the propaganda, these remnants of the old society interfered with the creation of a modern, socialist society. However, people in power arbitrarily decided whether or not something was “fourolds,” and used this as an excuse to attack people and destroy property.
ideology: A system of beliefs. Communist theory held that in order to change social conditions, people needed to change their patterns of thought. Someone with “bad ideology” was dragging the society backward, so this was a serious matter. The Cultural Revolution’s emphasis on changing “old thinking” made ideology even more important.
individualist: One who believes that each individual is more important than the group as a whole, and who favors freedom of action and belief. Individualism was in opposition to the Communist theory of the supremacy of the state, and therefore it was considered a moral weakness.
Lao Jiang: “Lao” literally means “old.” It is a common way to address friends or acquaintances who are older than the speaker.
Lei Feng (1940-1962): A soldier in the People’s Liberation Army who was noted for his good deeds. He was held up as a model for ordinary people to emulate.
Liberation: The establishment of the Chinese Communist government in 1949 by Chairman Mao; so called because the Communist Party claimed to be liberating the common people from feudalism and from Chiang Kai-shek’s oppression.
Liu Shao-qi (1898-1974): The chairman of the nation (or head of state) and vice-chairman of the Communist Party when the Cultural Revolution started. He was second in command to Mao, who was the chairman of the Communist Party. In China the Communist Party always has the highest power over the nation, the military force, and so on. Mao was threatened by the power Liu and other leaders were gaining, and launched the Cultural Revolution to suppress them. Liu was overthrown at the end of 1966, and later was placed under house arrest for a few years before he died. Also spelled “Liu Shao-chi.”
Mandarin: The official national language of China. The many regions of China have their own local languages; the Chinese are encouraged to speak Mandarin so that people from different areas can communicate with each other.
Mao Ze-dong (1893-1976): The chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, and leader of China from 1949 to 1976. Formerly spelled Mao Tse-tung.
Mao Ze-dong Thought Study Groups: Groups that gathered at schools, workplaces, or neighborhoods to study Chairman Mao’s works. The Communist Party encouraged these groups as a way to educate people and strengthen the power of the Party.
Nanjing: A city on the Yangtze River about 200 miles from Shanghai. Formerly spelled “Nanking.”
Nationalist Party: The party of Chiang Kai-shek, which ruled China from 1928 until the Communist victory in 1949. The Nationalist Party led a revolution against the emperor in 1911 and tried to establish a democracy. They were defeated by the Communist Party in 1949 and withdrew to Taiwan. The Nationalists continue to rule the island of Taiwan today.
Neighborhood Dictatorship Groups: During the Cultural Revolution, volunteer groups that monitored the activities of neighbors. Since they were not official organizations, their duties and formats varied from city to city.
Neighborhood Party Committee; The Communist Party officers in charge of a neighborhood.
neutral: In Communist jargon, neither “red” nor “black.” Since anything neutral was not sufficiently “red,” to be neutral meant to be weak.
office workers: The class that was neither “black” nor “red.” “Office workers” included intellectuals and professionals, salespeople, and people who worked in offices. They were not considered as admirable as farmers or factory workers.
pedicab: A three-wheeled vehicle pedaled like a bicycle, with a seat for one or two passengers behind the driver. Sometimes called a bicycle rickshaw.
People’s Liberation Army; The national army of Communist China.
political study class: A gathering in a neighborhood, workplace, or school to study Mao’s writings or the Communist Party’s documents. For people who were said to have political mistakes, these classes were often used to pressure them into confessing their problems.
Precious Red Book: The common name for a pocket-sized edition of Selected Quotations from the Writings of Chairman Mao. During the Cultural Revolution it was quoted frequently in schools, workplaces, and political meetings. Many people, especially Red Guards and enthusiastic revolutionaries, carried it everywhere.
proletarian: A member of the working class, especially a farmer or factory worker.
propaganda: Information intended to promote a particular belief. While sometimes the word implies that the information is false, or at least misleading, in Comunist China it was used as a positive term, something like “public relations.”
reactionary: Against the Communist Revolution, or a person who is against the revolution.
Rebel: Someone fighting for political change. To Chinese Communists this was generally considered a positive term during the Cultural Revolution.
red: The symbolic color of Communism. Therefore, any person who conforms to Communist Party ideology is considered “red,” as is anything that serves to further the cause of Communism.
Red Guard: During the Cultural Revolution a very popular, semiformal organization of high school and college students who were from “red” family backgrounds or who, though not “red,” had proved themselves to be firm revolutionaries. They were Chairman Mao’s loyal supporters and the pioneers of the Cultural Revolution.
Red Successors: A semiformal organization in elementary schools formed in imitation of the Red Guards.
reeducation troop: A group of students from the city who were sent (or volunteered to go) to the remote countryside to work with the farmers as part of their education.
reincarnation: The belief, held by China’s majority Buddhists among others, that after death a soul is reborn in another body.
remold one’s ideology: In Communist jargon, improve or correct one’s beliefs. For people who had made important political mistakes, this meant they were expected to change or correct their beliefs to match those of the Central Committee.
revisionist: A member of the Communist Party who attempts to alter Communist ideals. This was a very serious offense during the Cultural Revolution.
Revolutionary Committee: A group in charge of any organization or company within China. This term was invented by the Central Committee during the Cultural Revolution to replace the former leadership. Revolutionary Committees were formed in every unit: schools, factories, farms, the armed services, etc.
Revolutionary Performance Team: An informal student group that promoted Communist ideals. Formed by school revolutionary committees, or by the students themselves, these groups performed songs and skits in schools, and sometimes for the public.
rightist: A member of a conservative party who disagreed with or opposed the Communist Party.
sanitary belt: A washable and reusable cotton pad used during menstruation.
school committee: A central group appointed by the Communist Party to be in charge of school administration.
Shanghai: China’s largest city. During the Cultural Revolution it had a population of about 10 million people.
socialism: An economic system in which government ownership of land, industries, transport, natural resources, and so on, is supposed to help distribute wealth more evenly between the rich and the poor.
struggle meeting: A meeting within a work unit to publicly criticize someone. Often these meetings included humiliation or even physical assault. This format was not officially ordered by the Central Committee, but it was used as an effective revolutionary weapon.
study group: A nonofficial small group that gathered regularly to study a particular subject, often a political issue, such as Chairman Mao’s works or Lei Feng’s Diary.
study session: A small meeting intended to change someone’s behavior or thinking by studying Mao’s works and government documents. Held as needed, these sessions were used to improve revolutionaries and reeducate others.
summer labor: Under the Communist government, a regular part of education, in which students take part in factory or farm work during school vacations in order to learn to appreciate the contribution of the laboring masses.
telephone kiosk: Before private telephones were common, a small booth containing one or two phones served an entire community. Usually two people who worked in the kiosk would take and deliver messages.
work unit: The term for any organization that employs a person.
Uncle; Aunt: Polite titles used by children when addressing adults, especially family friends.
xenophile: A person who loves anything foreign. Such behavior was considered disloyal.
yin-yang hairdo: A punishment in which one side of the head is shaved and the hair is left long on the other.
Young Pioneers: A primary-school group that included most children in every school. Approved by the school committee, membership in the Young Pioneers was intended as the first step toward eventual membership in the Communist Party.
yuan: The Chinese “dollar.” During the Cultural Revolution the official value of a yuan was about one third of a U.S. dollar.