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Prologue: The Chief Justice
1. Josiah Quincy Jr., ed., Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged in the Superior Court of Judicature of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, Between 1761 and 1772 (Boston, 1865), 244–45; see also Leonard W. Levy, Emergence of a Free Press (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 65–68.
2. Quincy Jr., Reports of Cases, 309.
3. Quincy Jr., Reports of Cases, 274–75.
4. Levy, Emergence, 6
5. Levy, Emergence, 6.
6. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4:151–52, 1769, in Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, ed., The Founders’ Constitution (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1987), 5:119.
7. Patterson v. Colorado, 205 U.S. 454, 462 (1907).
8. Henry Schofield, Essays on Constitutional Law and Other Subjects (Boston: Chipman Law Publishing Company, 1921), 2:521–22.
9. Zechariah Chafee Jr., Freedom of Speech (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920), 23–24.
10. Leonard W. Levy, Legacy of Suppression: Freedom of Speech and Press in Early American History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960), vii.
11. Levy, Legacy, 176, 87.
12. Levy, Emergence, xviii.
13. Antonin Scalia and Bryan A. Garner, Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts (St. Paul, MN: Thomson/West, 2012), 16.
14. Merrill Jensen, review of Legacy of Suppression: Freedom of Speech and Press in Early American History, by Leonard W. Levy, Harvard Law Review 75 (1961–1962): 456, 457.
15. Levy, Emergence, x.
16. Levy, Emergence, x, xii, xvi.
17. Lovell v. City of Griffin, GA, 303 U.S. 444, 452 (1938).
18. Talley v. California, 362 U.S. 60, 64, 65 (1960).
19. Richmond Newspapers v. Virginia, 448 U.S. 555, 569, 572 (1980).
20. Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357, 375 (1927) (Brandeis, concurring).
21. Akhil Reed Amar, “30th Annual Sullivan Lecture: How America’s Constitution Affirmed Freedom of Speech Even Before the First Amendment,” Cap. U.L. Rev. 38 (Spring 2010): 503, 513.
22. For example, see Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, 393 U.S. 503 (1969); and Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397 (1989).
23. Eugene Volokh, “Symbolic Expression and the Original Meaning of the First Amendment,” Geo. L. J. 97 (2008–2009): 1057–59.
24. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397 (1989), U.S. v. Eichman, 496 U.S. 310 (1990).
25. Volokh, “Symbolic Expression.”
26. Levy, Emergence, 188–89.
27. Jack N. Rakove, Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 6.
28. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Eduardo Nolla, trans. James T. Schleifer (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2010), 1:cviii–cix.
29. John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, August 14, 1815, in The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson & Abigail & John Adams, ed. Lester J. Cappon (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 455.
Chapter 1: The Minister
1. For descriptions of the town meetings in Ipswich and of Wise’s role in the protest, see George Allan Cook, John Wise: Early American Democrat (New York: King’s Crown Press, 1952), 45–50; Edward Randolph; Including His Letters and Official Papers from the New England, Middle, and Southern Colonies in America. . . . 1676–1703 (Boston: Prince Society, 1899), 4:171–177; Joseph B. Felt, History of Ipswich, Essex, and Hamilton (Cambridge, MA: Charles Folsom, 1834), 123–126; and John M. Palmer, The Revolution in New England Justified and the People there Vindicated from the Aspersions Cast upon them (Boston, 1691), 12–16.
2. Felt, History of Ipswich, 125.
3. Randolph; Including His Letters, 176; Felt, History of Ipswich, 48; Cook, John Wise, 49.
4. Felt, History of Ipswich, 258–60; Cook, John Wise, 3–4, 6, 14, 24.
5. Cook, John Wise, 34, 41.
6. Felt, History of Ipswich, 120.
7. Felt, History of Ipswich, 24, 38, 95, 108; “First Period Buildings of Eastern Massachusetts,” National Register of Historic Places Registration Form, United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1990.
8. Cook, John Wise, 43.
9. Larry D. Eldridge, “Before Zenger: Truth and Seditious Speech in Colonial America, 1607–1700,” American Journal of Legal History 39, no. 3 (July 1995), 347.
10. Larry D. Eldridge, A Distant Heritage: The Growth of Free Speech in Early America (New York: New York University Press, 1994), 54.
11. Eldridge, Distant Heritage, 3.
12. Eldridge, “Before Zenger,” 338–39.
13. Eldridge, “Before Zenger,” 344.
14. Leonard W. Levy, Emergence of a Free Press (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 17–18; Harold L. Nelson, “Seditious Libel in Colonial America,” American Journal of Legal History 3, no. 2 (April 1959): 163–64; Michael E. Stevens, “Legislative Privilege in Post-Revolutionary South Carolina,” William and Mary Quarterly 46, no. 1 (January 1989): 71–92.
15. Eldridge, Distant Heritage, 44.
16. Eldridge, Distant Heritage, 46.
17. Eldridge, Distant Heritage, 92–93.
18. Eldridge, Distant Heritage, 95.
19. Eldridge, Distant Heritage, 27–28.
20. Eldridge, Distant Heritage, 95.
21. Eldridge, Distant Heritage, 43–44.
22. Eldridge, Distant Heritage, 91–92.
23. Eldridge, Distant Heritage, 16.
24. Thomas Franklin Waters, Ipswich in the Massachusetts Bay Colony (Ipswich, MA: Ipswich Historical Society, 1905), 238.
25. Cook, John Wise, 49–54.
26. Randolph; Including His Letters, 175.
27. Cook, John Wise, 51, 55.
28. Randolph; Including His Letters, 180–82; Cook, John Wise, 56–57.
29. Cook, John Wise, 57.
30. Cook, John Wise, 57–59.
31. Clinton L. Rossiter, “John Wise: Colonial Democrat,” New England Quarterly 22, no. 1 (March 1949): 8.
32. Charles W. Upham, Salem Witchcraft; with An Account of Salem Village and A History of Opinions on Witchcraft and Kindred Subjects (Boston: Wiggin and Lunt, 1867), 2:304–7; Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 200–202.
33. Cook, John Wise, 85–86, 102, 104, 105–27.
34. John Wise, The Churches’ Quarrel Espoused: Or, A Reply in Satire (1710) in John Wise, A Vindication of the Government of New England Churches (Boston: Congregational Board of Publication, 1860), 135–36; Cook, John Wise, 105–27.
35. Wise, The Churches’ Quarrel Espoused, 136.
36. Wise, The Churches’ Quarrel Espoused, 141, 209.
37. Cook, John Wise, 125.
38. Rossiter, “John Wise,” 13.
39. John Wise, A Vindication of the Government of New England Churches (Boston: 1717), 47; Rossiter, “John Wise,” 14, 19, 20, 22.
40. Cook, John Wise, 150.
41. The High Church Mask pull’d off (London: A. Baldwin, 1770), 15–16.
42. A Vindication of the Last Parliament in four Dialogues Between Sir Simon and Sir Peter (London, 1711), 210.
43. Rossiter, “John Wise,” 30.
Chapter 2: The Advocate
1. T. B. Howell, A Complete Collection of State Trials, 1726–1743 (London: 1813), 17:721–722.
2. Howell, Complete Collection of State Trials, 17:722.
3. Boston Weekly News-Letter, 17 August 1732.
4. Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 63, 109–10.
5. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 144.
6. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 119–20.
7. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 125, 144.
8. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 150.
9. Vincent Buranelli, The Trial of Peter Zenger (New York: New York University Press, 1957), 8.
10. Buranelli, The Trial, 9–10.
11. Gail Jarrow, The Printer’s Trial: The Case of John Peter Zenger and the Fight for a Free Press (Honesdale, PA: Calkins Creek Books, 2006), 17; Livingston Rutherfurd, John Peter Zenger: His Press, His Trial and a Bibliography of Zenger Imprints (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1904), 8.
12. Rutherfurd, John Peter Zenger, 8–9; Buranelli, The Trial, 11–12; Joseph H. Smith and Leo Hershkowitz, “Courts of Equity in the Province of New York: The Cosby Controversy, 1732–1736,” American Journal of Legal History 16, no. 1 (January 1972), 18. The Smith-Hershkowitz article contains an extended discussion of the Cosby salary dispute.
13. Rutherfurd, John Peter Zenger, 10; Stanley Nider Katz, ed., A Brief Narrative of the Case and Trial of John Peter Zenger, Printer of the New York Weekly Journal (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963), 3.
14. Whitfield J. Bell Jr., Patriot-Improvers: Biographical Sketches of Members of the American Philosophical Society 1743–1768 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1997), 1:87; William Cosby to the Duke of Newcastle, 18 December 1732, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York, vol. 5, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons and Company, 1855), 5:940.
15. Buranelli, The Trial, 5–8, 11; Rutherfurd, John Peter Zenger, 10–12; Smith and Hershkowitz, “The Cosby Controversy,” 21; Eben Moglen, “Considering ‘Zenger’: Partisan Politics and the Legal Profession in Provincial New York,” Columbia Law Review 94, no. 5 (June 1994): 1505.
16. Smith and Hershkowitz, “The Cosby Controversy,” 24–31; Rutherfurd, John Peter Zenger, 14–20; William Smith Jr., The History of the Province of New-York, Volume 2: A Continuation, 1732-1762, ed. Michael Kammen (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972), 6–7.
17. William Cosby to the Duke of Newcastle, 3 May 1733, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York, 5:942–50.
18. Rutherfurd, John Peter Zenger, 14–15; Smith and Hershkowitz, “The Cosby Controversy,” 28.
19. Buranelli, The Trial, 14–15.
20. Lewis Morris to the Lords of Trade, 27 August 1733 and postscript of 1 September 1733, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York, 5:951–55.
21. Katz, A Brief Narrative, 4–5.
22. Buranelli, The Trial, 16–19.
23. New York Gazette, 7 January 1734.
24. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 108–9, 124.
25. Leonard W. Levy, Emergence of a Free Press (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 9.
26. Levy, Emergence, 6.
27. Levy, Emergence.
28. Levy, Emergence.
29. Paul Starr, The Creation of the Media: Political Origins of Modern Communications (New York: Perseus Books, 2004), 32–36.
30. Sir Edward Coke, The Selected Writings and Speeches of Sir Edward Coke, ed. Steve Sheppard (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2003), vol. 1, Chapter [125 a], “The Case de Libellis Famosis,” http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/911/106331, accessed June 8, 2013; Levy, Emergence, 7.
31. Levy, Emergence, 7.
32. William Waller Hening, The Statutes at Large Being A Collection of All the Laws of Virginia from the First Legislature in the Year 1619 (New York: R. & W. & G. Bartow, 1823), 2:511, 517.
33. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 2nd ser., 8 (1892–1894): 273.
34. Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick, 25 September 1690; see also National Humanities Center, http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/amerbegin/power/text5/PublickOccurrences.pdf.
35. Virginia Gazette, 6 August 1736, excerpt, Virginia Historical Register and Literary Companion, ed. William Maxwell (Richmond: MacFarlane & Fergusson, 1853), 6:20–23.
36. Katz, A Brief Narrative, 8.
37. James Alexander to Robert Hunter, 1733, in Rutherfurd, John Peter Zenger, 28–29.
38. New York Weekly Journal, 5 October 1733; Moglen, “Considering ‘Zenger,’” 1507.
39. New York Weekly Journal, 21 January 1734.
40. New York Weekly Journal, 28 January 1734.
41. Alison Olson, “The Zenger Case Revisited: Satire, Sedition and Political Debate in Eighteenth Century America,” Early American Literature 35, no. 3 (2000): 226.
42. Jonathan Swift, “The Importance of the Guardian Considered,” The Prose Works of Jonathan Swift (London: Henry Washbourne, 1841), 1:391.
43. New York Weekly Journal, 10 December 1733.
44. New York Weekly Journal, 24 December 1733.
45. New York Weekly Journal, 26 November 1733.
46. Levy, Emergence, 109–18.
47. New York Weekly Journal, 18 February 1733.
48. New York Weekly Journal, 25 February 1733.
49. James Madison, “Report on the Virginia Resolutions,” January 1800, in James Madison: Writings, ed. Jack N. Rakove (New York: Library of America Literary Classics of the United States, 1999), 647.
50. Rutherfurd, John Peter Zenger, 33–34.
51. William Cosby to the Lords of Trade, 19 June 1734, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York, vol. 6, 4-7
52. Jerry Silverman, New York Sings: 400 Years of the Empire State in Song (Albany, NY: Excelsior Editions, 2009), 16–17.
53. Rutherfurd, John Peter Zenger, 39–40; Smith Jr., History of the Province of New-York, 2:14–15.
54. Rutherfurd, John Peter Zenger, 40–43; Smith Jr., History of the Province of New-York, 2:15.
55. Howell, State Trials, 17:681–82; Rutherfurd, John Peter Zenger, 46–47.
56. Howell, State Trials, 17:682.
57. Howell, State Trials, 17:682–83.
58. Jarrow, The Printer’s Trial, 61–62.
59. Howell, State Trials, 17:683–87.
60. Moglen, “Considering ‘Zenger,’” 1518.
61. For a discussion of Andrew Hamilton’s early career, see Foster C. Nix, “Andrew Hamilton’s Early Years in the American Colonies,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 21, no. 3 (July 1964): 390–407.
62. William Lowell Putnam, John Peter Zenger and the Fundamental Freedom (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 1997), 70–71.
63. For a discussion of the role of the jury in seditious libel trials like Zenger’s, see Frederick Schauer, “The Role of the People in First Amendment Theory,” California Law Review 74, no. 3 (May 1986): 762–64.
64. Howell, State Trials, 17:691.
65. Howell, State Trials, 17:693–94.
66. Howell, State Trials, 17:696.
67. Howell, State Trials.
68. Howell, State Trials, 17:698–99.
69. Howell, State Trials, 17:703–4.
70. Howell, State Trials, 17:705–6.
71. Howell, State Trials, 17:706–7.
72. Howell, State Trials, 17:708.
73. Howell, State Trials, 17:721–22.
74. Howell, State Trials, 17:722–23.
75. Howell, State Trials.
76. Putnam, John Peter Zenger and the Fundamental Freedom, 119.
77. Levy, Emergence, 44–45; Leonard W. Levy, “Did the Zenger Case Really Matter? Freedom of the Press in Colonial New York,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 17, no. 1 (January 1960): 38–39.
78. Levy, Emergence, 17–18; Harold L. Nelson, “Seditious Libel in Colonial America,” American Journal of Legal History 3, no. 2 (April 1959): 163–64; Michael E. Stevens, “Legislative Privilege in Post-Revolutionary South Carolina,” William and Mary Quarterly 46, no. 1 (January 1989): 71–92.
Chapter 3: The Editors
1. For background on Benjamin Edes, I relied on Rollo G. Silver, “Benjamin Edes, Trumpeter of Sedition,” Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America 47 (1953): 248–68.
2. Leonard W. Levy, Emergence of a Free Press (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 30–32.
3. Silver, “Benjamin Edes,” 251–52.
4. Francis Bernard to the Board of Trade, 15 August 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard: Governor of Colonial Massachusetts, 1760–1769, ed. Colin Nicolson (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2012), 2:301.
5. Boston Evening-Post, 19 September 1774.
6. Boston Evening-Post, 19 September 1774.
7. Francis Bernard to Henry Seymour Conway, 28 February 1766, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 3:99.
8. Thomas Hutchinson to Thomas Pownall, 8 March 1766, in Edmund S. Morgan, Prologue to Revolution: Sources and Documents on the Stamp Act Crisis, 1764–1766 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 122–26.
9. William H. Ukers, All About Coffee (New York: Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Company, 1922), 53–54, 74; Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. Thomas Burger with the assistance of Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989), 32–33.
10. Ukers, All About Coffee, 73; Tom Standage, Writing on the Wall: Social Media in the First 2,000 Years (New York: Bloomsbury, 2013), 104–23.
11. Diary and Correspondence of Samuel Pepys, F.R.S., (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1855), 1:7, 9.
12. Thomas Babington Macaulay, The History of England from the Accession of James II (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1875), 1:286–88.
13. An Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, from the Earliest Accounts, containing An History of the Great Commercial Interests of the British Empire . . . (London: Logographic Press, 1787), 2:531.
14. Habermas, Structural Transformation, 27–33.
15. Habermas, Structural Transformation, 42.
16. John Adams, “A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law,” in The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1851), 3:450. Also, the essay was published in four parts in the Boston Gazette in August 1765.
17. Adams, “A Dissertation,” 3:451.
18. Adams, “A Dissertation,” 3:456, 457.
19. Clyde Augustus Duniway, The Development of Freedom of the Press in Massachusetts (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1906), 22, 29, 30, 32, 38, 39.
20. Duniway, Development of Freedom, 41, 46–50, 68–69; Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick, 25 September 1690; see also National Humanities Center, http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/amerbegin/power/text5/PublickOccurrences.pdf.
21. Duniway, Development of Freedom, 78; Jeffrey L. Pasley, The Tyranny of Printers: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2001), 30.
22. Duniway, Development of Freedom, 91, 94–96, 99–102.
23. David W. Conroy, In Public Houses: Drink & the Revolution of Authority in Colonial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 143, 153.
24. Conroy, In Public Houses, 178.
25. Conroy, In Public Houses, 256–58.
26. Conroy, In Public Houses, 276.
27. Rivington’s New York Gazetteer, 9 March 1775.
28. For discussion of the Boston Caucus and various political clubs, I relied on G. B. Warden, “The Caucus and Democracy in Colonial Boston,” New England Quarterly 43, no. 1 (March 1970): 19–45; and Alan Day and Katherine Day, “Another Look at the Boston ‘Caucus,’” Journal of American Studies 5, no. 1 (April 1971): 19–42.
29. Warden, “The Caucus and Democracy in Colonial Boston,” 19–21; Day and Day, “Another Look at the Boston ‘Caucus,’” 19–25.
30. John Adams, diary entry, February 1763, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, ed. L. H. Butterfield (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961), 1:238.
31. For discussion of the town meeting, I drew from a number of sources, including David Syrett, “Town-Meeting Politics in Massachusetts, 1776–1786,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 21, no. 3 (July 1964): 352–66; Benjamin W. Labaree, “New England Town Meeting,” American Archivist 25, no. 2 (April 1962): 165–72. For voting in Massachusetts, see Robert E. Brown, “Democracy in Colonial Massachusetts,” New England Quarterly 25, no. 3 (September 1952): 291–313; Albert Edward McKinley, The Suffrage Franchise in the Thirteen English Colonies in America (Philadelphia, 1905), 353–57; J. R. Pole, “Suffrage and Representation in Massachusetts: A Statistical Note,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 14, no. 4 (October 1957): 560–92; Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 3–21; Marchette Chute, The First Liberty: A History of the Right to Vote in America, 1619–1850 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1969).
32. Labaree, “New England Town Meeting,” 168.
33. Brown, “Democracy in Colonial Massachusetts,” 300–301.
34. New York Gazette, 8 November 1756, reprinted in Boston Evening Post, 22 November 1756.
35. Edmund S. Morgan and Helen M. Morgan, The Stamp Act Crisis: Prologue to Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1962), 6, 21–22.
36. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 24–25.
37. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 30–32.
38. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 72–74; Russell Bourne, Cradle of Violence: How Boston’s Waterfront Mobs Ignited the American Revolution (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2006), 95–98.
39. Lynne Oats and Pauline Sadler, “Accounting for the Stamp Act Crisis,” Accounting Historians Journal 35, no. 2 (December 2008): 117–22.
40. Oats and Sadler, “Accounting for the Stamp Act Crisis,” 124.
41. Benjamin Franklin to David Hall, 14 February 1765, in The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, Collected and Edited with a Life and Introduction by Albert Henry Smyth, 1760–1766 (New York: Macmillan, 1906), 4:363–64.
42. Background on Benjamin Edes is taken from Silver, “Benjamin Edes, Trumpeter of Sedition,” 248–68.
43. Jeffrey L. Pasley, The Tyranny of Printers: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2001), 33, 401–3.
44. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Prelude to Independence: The Newspaper War on Britain, 1764–1776 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1958), 303–4.
45. Schlesinger, Prelude to Independence, 52–55.
46. Schlesinger, Prelude to Independence, 58–61; Pasley, Tyranny of Printers, 31–32.
47. Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:2; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 8–10.
48. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 218.
49. Bernard Bailyn, Pamphlets of the American Revolution: 1750–1765 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 410–13; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 219.
50. John Adams to William Tudor, 29 March 1817, in The Works of John Adams, 10:248.
51. James Otis, The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved (Boston: J. Almon, 1764), 82.
52. Bailyn, Pamphlets, 415, 447, 454.
53. Bailyn, Pamphlets, 604; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 81.
54. Samuel Seabury, A View of the Controversy Between Great-Britain and her Colonies (New York: James Rivington, 1774), 10.
55. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 35–40.
56. Merrill Jensen, The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution, 1763–1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 254.
57. Colin Nicolson, The ‘Infamas Govener’: Francis Bernard and the Origins of the American Revolution (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 201), 11–13, 144.
58. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 127–28.
59. Henry Bass to Samuel P. Savage, 19 December 1765, in Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, October, 1910–June, 1911 (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1911), 44:688–89.
60. John Adams, diary entry, 3 September 1769, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, 1:342–43.
61. Boston Gazette, 16 September 1765.
62. Boston Gazette, 2 December 1765.
63. Boston Gazette, 2 December 1765.
64. Boston Evening-Post, 4 November 1765.
65. Boston Gazette, 23 September 1765.
66. Newport Mercury, 30 September 1765.
67. Lieutenant-Governor Colden to Secretary Conway, 23 September 1765, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York, ed. By E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1856), 7:759.
68. Boston Gazette, 13 May 1765.
69. Boston Evening-Post, 13 May 1765.
70. Francis Bernard to Thomas Pownall, 20 July 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:295–96.
71. For my discussion of the Virginia Resolves, I relied on Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 92–121; and Jensen, Founding of a Nation, 100–105.
72. ”Jefferson’s Recollections of Patrick Henry,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History 34, no. 4 (1910): 389, 400; Francis Bernard to Thomas Pownall, 20 July 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:296, note 3.
73. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 102.
74. Newport Mercury, 24 June 1765.
75. Boston Gazette, 1 July 1765.
76. Virginia Gazette, 30 August 1765; article also published in Maryland Gazette, 3 October 1765.
77. Francis Bernard to John Pownall, 20 July 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:295–96.
78. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 102–3.
79. Boston Gazette, 8 July 1765.
80. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 107–21.
81. Boston Gazette, 4 November 1765.
82. Schlesinger, Prelude to Independence, 73–74; Francis Bernard to the Board of Trade, 17 October 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:377–80.
83. Cadwallader Colden to Henry Seymour Conway, 12 October 1765, in Albert Matthews, “The Snake Devices, 1754–1776, and the Constitutional Courant, 1765,” Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, Transactions, 1906–1907 (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1910), 11:436.
84. Matthews, “Snake Devices,” 422–32.
85. Pennsylvania Gazette, 9 May 1754.
86. Massachusetts Spy, 7 July 1774.
87. Lester C. Olson, Benjamin Franklin’s Vision of American Community: A Study in Rhetorical Iconology (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004), 27–76.
88. Edwin Wolf II, “Benjamin Franklin’s Stamp Act Cartoon,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 99, no. 6 (December 15, 1955): 388–96.
89. Benjamin Franklin to Jane Mecom, 1 March 1766, in The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Leonard W. Labaree et al. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1969), 13:187–89.
90. Olson, Benjamin Franklin’s Vision, 77–111.
91. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 164.
92. Michael Kraus, Intercolonial Aspects of American Culture on the Eve of the Revolution, with Special Reference to the Northern Towns (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928), 91–105.
93. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 195; Kraus, Intercolonial Aspects of American Culture, 91–105.
94. Boston Gazette, 7 October 1765.
95. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 165–86.
96. For an excellent review of the reaction of colonial newspapers to the starting date of the Stamp Act, see Arthur M. Schlesinger, “The Colonial Newspapers and the Stamp Act,” New England Quarterly 8, no. 1 (March 1935): 74–80.
97. Boston Gazette, 4 November 1765; Schlesinger, “Colonial Newspapers,” 74.
98. Schlesinger, “Colonial Newspapers,” 77.
99. New-Hampshire Gazette, 31 October 1765.
100. Francis Bernard to Henry Seymour Conway, 28 February 1766, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 3:99.
101. Josiah Quincy Jr., ed., Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged in the Superior Court of Judicature of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, Between 1761 and 1772 (Boston, 1865), 237.
102. Quincy Jr., ed., Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged, 244–45; see also Levy, Emergence, 65–68; Boston Gazette, 27 April 1767.
103. Boston Gazette, 29 February 1768.
104. Quincy Jr., ed., Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged, 265–68.
105. Quincy Jr., ed., Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged, 270.
106. Francis Bernard to Earl of Shelburne, 12 March 1768, in Legal Papers of John Adams, ed. L. Kinvin Wroth and Hiller B. Zobel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 1:206–7, note 30.
107. Boston Gazette, 21 March 1768.
108. Quincy Jr., ed., Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged, 272–73.
109. Quincy Jr., ed., Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged, 274–75.
110. Boston Gazette, 14 March 1768.
111. Francis Bernard to the Earl of Hillsborough, 25 January 1769, and Bernard to John Pownall, 25 March 1769, The Papers of Francis Bernard, Governor of Colonial Massachusetts, 1760–69, vol. 5: 1768–1769, ed. Colin Nicolson (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2015), 5:173, 237.
112. Quincy Jr., ed., Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged, 305.
113. Quincy Jr., ed., Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged, 309.
Chapter 4: The Shoemaker
1. I relied on descriptions of the demonstrations of 14 August 1765 from sources, including Boston Gazette, 19 August 1765; Francis Bernard to the Board of Trade, 15 August 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard: Governor of Colonial Massachusetts 1760–1769, ed. Colin Nicolson (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2012), 2:301–5; John Avery to John Collins, 19 August 1765, in Extracts from the Itineraries and Other Miscellanies of Ezra Stiles, D.D., LL.D., 1755–1794 with a Selection of His Correspondence, ed. Franklin Bowditch Dexter (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1916); Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-Letter, 22 August 1765.
2. Boston Gazette, 16 September 1765.
3. George P. Anderson, “Ebenezer Mackintosh: Stamp Act Rioter and Patriot,” Colonial Society of Massachusetts Publications 26 (1927): 15–64.
4. I relied on descriptions of colonial Boston from a number of sources including: Commonwealth History of Massachusetts, vols. 1 and 2, ed. Albert Bushnell Hart (New York: Russell & Russell, 1966); Robin Carver, History of Boston (Boston: Lilly, Wait, Colman, and Holden, 1834); Mary Caroline Crawford, Old Boston in Colonial Days; or, St. Botolph’s Town (Boston: Page Company, 1922); Thomas H. O’Connor, The Hub: Boston Past and Present (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2001); and J. H. Benton Jr., Early Census Making in Massachusetts 1643–1765, with a Reproduction of the Lost Census of 1765 (Boston: Charles E. Goodspeed, 1905), 72–73.
5. Nathaniel B. Shurtleff, A Topographical and Historical Description of Boston (Boston: City Council of Boston, 1871), 68.
6. Anderson, “Ebenezer Mackintosh,” 16, 22–25.
7. Peter Shaw, American Patriots and the Rituals of Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 15–18, 69–70.
8. Boston News-Letter, 8 November 1764; Anderson, “Ebenezer Mackintosh,” 26.
9. Francis Bernard to John Pownall, 26 November 1765, in The Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:422–24.
10. Anderson, “Ebenezer Mackintosh,” 26–27.
11. Thomas Hutchinson to Thomas Pownall, 8 March 1766, quoted in Edmund S. Morgan, Prologue to Revolution: Sources and Documents on the Stamp Act Crisis, 1764–1766 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 125.
12. Gordon S. Wood, “The Democratization of Mind in the American Revolution,” in The Moral Foundations of the American Republic, 2nd ed., ed. Robert H. Horwitz (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1979), 106–7.
13. Lynne Oats and Pauline Sadler, “Accounting for the Stamp Act Crisis,” Accounting Historians Journal 35, no. 2 (December 2008): 120.
14. Anderson, “Ebenezer Mackintosh,” 30; David Hackett Fischer, Liberty and Freedom (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 21.
15. Anderson, “Ebenezer Mackintosh,” 30.
16. Boston Gazette, 19 August 1765.
17. Boston Gazette, 19 August 1765.
18. Francis Bernard to the Board of Trade, 15 August 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:301–5.
19. John Avery to John Collins, 19 August 1765, in Dexter, Extracts from the Itineraries.
20. Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-Letter, 22 August 1765.
21. Boston Gazette, 19 August 1765.
22. Boston Gazette, 16 September 1765.
23. ”A Discourse at the Dedication of the Tree of Liberty,” in The American Republic: Primary Sources, ed. Bruce Frohnen (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2002), http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/669/206135, accessed December 6, 2013.
24. Frohnen, The American Republic: Primary Sources, ; Fischer, Liberty and Freedom, 19–36; and Arthur M. Schlesinger, “Liberty Tree: A Genealogy,” New England Quarterly 25, no. 4 (December 1952): 435–58.
25. Sir Edward Coke, “The Case de Libellis Famosis,” in The Selected Writings and Speeches of Sir Edward Coke, ed. Steve Sheppard (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2003), 1:147, accessed April 8, 2013, http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/911/106331.
26. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4:150–53, 1769, in Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, ed., The Founders’ Constitution (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1987), 5: 119.
27. Eugene Volokh, “Symbolic Expression and the Original Meaning of the First Amendment,” Georgetown Law Journal 97 (2009): 1057–84.
28. Newport Mercury, 21 April 1766.
29. Fischer, Liberty and Freedom, 23; Schlesinger, “Liberty Tree,” 441–42.
30. John Adams, diary entry, May 4, 1766, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, ed. L. H. Butterfield (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1961), 1:311–12.
31. Fischer, Liberty and Freedom, 24.
32. Gage to Lt. Col. William Dalrymple, 8 January 1770, quoted in Fischer, Liberty and Freedom, 45.
33. For sources on the 14 August 1765 demonstration, see note 1.
34. Francis Bernard to the Board of Trade, 15 August 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:301–2.
35. Francis Bernard to the Board of Trade, 15 August 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:301–7.
36. Francis Bernard to the Board of Trade, 15 August 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:301–7.
37. Francis Bernard, Proclamation Concerning the Stamp Act Riot of 14 August 1765, issued 15 August 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:334–35.
38. Francis Bernard to the Board of Trade, 22 August 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:316–17.
39. Edmund S. Morgan and Helen M. Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis: Prologue to Revolution (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1962), 132–35.
40. Thomas Hutchinson to Richard Jackson, 30 August 1765, in Morgan, Prologue to Revolution, 108–9; Thomas Hutchinson, The History of the Colony and Province of Massachusetts-Bay, ed. Lawrence Shaw Mayo (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936), 90–91; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 132–35.
41. Francis Bernard to Thomas Gage, 27 August 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:323–24.
42. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 134–35.
43. Francis Bernard, Proclamation Concerning the Stamp Act Riot of 26 August 1765, issued 28 August 1765, Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:335–36.
44. Francis Bernard to Lord Colvill, 27 August 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2: 325–26.
45. Hutchinson to Richard Jackson, 30 August 1765, in Morgan, Prologue to Revolution, 108–9.
46. Boston Gazette, 2 September 1765.
47. Boston Gazette, 2 December 1765.
48. Francis Bernard to Henry Seymour Conway, 28 September 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:367–69; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 135.
49. Boston Gazette, 16 September 1765.
50. Anderson, “Ebenezer Mackintosh,” 29–30.
51. Jonathan Mayhew, A Discourse Concerning Unlimited Submission and Nonresistance to the Higher Powers, 1750, in Bernard Bailyn, ed. Pamphlets of the American Revolution: 1750-1765 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 228.
52. John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, 18 July 1818, in The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson & Abigail & John Adams, ed. Lester J. Cappon (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 527.
53. Francis Bernard to the Board of Trade, 22 August 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:315–17.
54. Bernard Bailyn, Faces of Revolution: Personalities and Themes in the Struggle for American Independence (New York: Random House, 1992), 127–32.
55. Jonathan Mayhew to Richard Clarke, 3 September 1765, in The New-England Historical and Genealogical Register, vol. 46 (Boston: New-England Historic Genealogical Society, 1892), 15–20.
56. See, for example, Francis Bernard to John Pownall, 1 November 1765, and Bernard to Richard Jackson, 7 November 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:395–401, 404–7.
57. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 137–38.
58. Boston Gazette, 4 November 1765.
59. Francis Bernard to John Pownall, 1 November, 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:395–401.
60. Boston Evening Post, 4 November 1765; Francis Bernard to John Pownall, 1 November 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:395–401.
61. Boston Gazette, 11 November 1765.
62. Descriptions of the Pope’s Day demonstration are taken from the Boston Gazette, 11 November 1765; Boston Evening-Post, 11 November 1765; and Francis Bernard to John Pownall, 26 November 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:422–26; Anderson, “Ebenezer Mackintosh,” 42.
63. Boston Gazette, 18 November 1765; Francis Bernard to John Pownall, 26 November 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:422–26, 424n7.
64. The events of December 16–17 are described in Andrew Oliver’s own words in several letters to Francis Bernard, 17 December 1765, and 19 December 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:434–41. I also relied on descriptions in the Boston Gazette, 16 December and 23 December 1765; Anderson, “Ebenezer Mackintosh,” 43; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 143–45; and James Truslow Adams, Revolutionary New England: The History of New England in Three Volumes (Boston: Little, Brown, 1927), 2:334.
65. Henry Bass to Samuel P. Savage, 19 December 1765, in Massachusetts Historical Society, Proceedings 44 (1911): 688–89.
66. Andrew Oliver to Francis Bernard, 19 December 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:441.
67. Lynne Oats and Pauline Sadler, “Accounting for the Stamp Act Crisis,” Accounting Historians Journal 35, no. 2 (December 2008): 120.
68. Newport Mercury, 2 September 1765 and 21 October 1765; William Almy to Elisha Story, 29 August 1765, in Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd ser., 55 (October 1921–June 1922): 234–36.
69. Newport Mercury, 2 September 1765.
70. Providence Gazette, 24 August 1765.
71. Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-Letter, 12 September 1765.
72. James McEvers to Barlow Trecothick, August 1765, in Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 158.
73. James McEwers to Lt. Gov. Colden, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1856), 761.
74. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 159.
75. Boston Gazette, 16 December 1765; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 160.
76. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 161.
77. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 161–63; Philip Davidson, Propaganda and the American Revolution, 1763–1783 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941) 176; W. Roy Smith, South Carolina as a Royal Province, 1719–1776 (New York: Macmillan, 1903), 351–53.
78. Henry Laurens, The Papers of Henry Laurens, September 1, 1765–July 31, 1768, ed. George C. Rogers Jr. et al. (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1976), 5:29.
79. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 163.
80. The protest of 20 February 1766 is described in the Boston Gazette, 24 February 1766.
81. Colin Nicolson, The “Infamas Govener”: Francis Bernard and the Origins of the American Revolution (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2001), 143–45.
82. Francis Bernard to the Earl of Halifax, 7 September 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:351–54.
83. Francis Bernard to Henry Seymour Conway, 28 September 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:367–72.
84. Francis Bernard to the Board of Trade, 30 November 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:426–30.
85. Francis Bernard to John Pownall, 1 November 1765; and Francis Bernard to Richard Jackson, 7 November 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:395–403, 404–7.
86. Francis Bernard to the Board of Trade, 30 November 1765, in Papers of Francis Bernard, 2:426–30.
87. Repeal of the Stamp Act is detailed in Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 271–92.
88. Georgia Gazette, 4 June 1766.
89. ”Great Britain: Parliament—The Declaratory Act,” March 18, 1766, in Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy, Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/declaratory_act_1766.asp.
90. Boston Gazette, 19 May 1766.
91. Boston Gazette, 26 May 1766.
92. Boston Gazette, 26 May 1766.
93. Jonathan Mayhew, The Snare Broken: A Thanksgiving Discourse Preached at the Desire of the West Church in Boston, Friday, May 23, 1766 Occasioned by the Repeal of the Stamp Act (Boston, 1766), 8.
94. Mayhew, The Snare Broken, 6, 36, 4, 6, 18, 36.
95. Mayhew, The Snare Broken, 36.
96. Adams, Diary and Autobiography, 1:312–13.
97. Adams, Diary and Autobiography, 1:263–65.
Chapter 5: The Merchant
1. New York Journal or the General Advertiser, 22 March 1770.
2. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 30 April 1770.
3. New York Journal or the General Advertiser, 29 March 1770.
4. Details about McDougall’s early life are available in William L. MacDougall, American Revolutionary: A Biography of General Alexander McDougall (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), 3–21; Roger J. Champagne, Alexander McDougall and the American Revolution in New York (Schenectady: New York State Bicentennial Commission and Union College Press, 1975), 5–10; Richard M. Ketchum, Divided Loyalties: How the American Revolution Came to New York (New York: Henry Holt, 2002), 218–19; and Patricia Bonomi, A Factious People: Politics and Society in Colonial New York (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971), 267–68.
5. ”A List of the Names, Ages, and Descriptions of the Men belonging to the Sloop Tyger,” commissioning papers, 26 November 1757, McDougall files, New York Historical Society.
6. New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy, 3 October 1757.
7. New York Mercury, 17 October 1757; MacDougall, American Revolutionary, 12–13.
8. MacDougall, American Revolutionary, 13–15.
9. MacDougall, American Revolutionary, 19–21; Champagne, Alexander McDougall, 8–10.
10. Alexander McDougall, Waste Book, June 1767, McDougall files, New York Historical Society.
11. Champagne, Alexander McDougall, 8–10.
12. MacDougall, American Revolutionary, 20.
13. MacDougall, American Revolutionary, 15.
14. Joseph S. Tiedemann, Reluctant Revolutionaries: New York City and the Road to Independence, 1763–1776 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 34–36, 133–37, 141–64; MacDougall, American Revolutionary, 18–19; Champagne, Alexander McDougall, 14–18.
15. James McEvers to Barlow Trecothick, August 1765, in Edmund S. Morgan and Helen M. Morgan, The Stamp Act Crisis: Prologue to Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 158, 206.
16. ”Declaration of Rights and Grievances,” First Congress of the American Colonies, 19 October 1765; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 111.
17. Robert R. Livingston to General Monckton, 8 November 1765, in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 4th ser., vol. 10 (Boston, 1871), 567; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 274.
18. Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 274.
19. Details about the 1 November 1765 protests in New York are available in a number of sources: Robert R. Livingston to General Monckton, 8 November 1765, in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 561–562; New York Mercury, 7 November 1765; Pauline Maier, From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765–1776 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 67–69.
20. Robert R. Livingston to General Monckton, 8 November 1765, in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 561.
21. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 7 November 1765; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 206–7.
22. Thomas Gage to Secretary Conway, 21 December 1765, in The Correspondence of General Thomas Gage with the Secretaries of State, 1763–1775, ed. Clarence E. Carter (New Haven, 1931), 1:79; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 192.
23. Champagne, Alexander McDougal, 13–15.
24. New York Journal, 1 March 1770.
25. Champagne, Alexander McDougall, 16–17.
26. Champagne, Alexander McDougall, 17–20; Tiedemann, Reluctant Revolutionaries, 141–42.
27. Frank Moore, Diary of the American Revolution from Newspapers and Original Documents (New York: Charles Scribner, 1860), 1:55–56; George Henry Payne, History of Journalism in the United States (New York: D. Appleton, 1920), 87–88.
28. Mason I. Lowance Jr. and Georgia B. Bumgardner, eds., Massachusetts Broadsides of the American Revolution (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1976), ix–xi, 1–3.
29. Beaumont Hotham to Portland, 10 May 1763, in John Brewer, Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 152.
30. John Wilkes, “A Letter to a Noble Member of the Club in Albemarle Street” (W. Nicoll, 1764), 2–3.
31. Noble E. Cunningham Jr., “Early Political Handbills in the United States,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 14, no. 1 (January 1957): 70–73; Worthington Chauncey Ford, “Broadsides, Ballads Printed in Massachusetts, 1639–1800,” Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society 75 (1922); Lowance and Bumgardner, Massachusetts Broadsides of the American Revolution, ix–xi, 1–3; “Declaring Independence: Drafting the Documents,” Library of Congress Exhibitions, http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/declara/declara4.html.
32. ”Benjamin Franklin in His Own Words,” American Treasures of the Library of Congress, Special Presentations, http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/franklin-cause.html.
33. Alexander McDougall, “To the Betrayed Inhabitants of the City and Colony of New York,” broadside, New York, 16 December 1769.
34. McDougall, “To the Betrayed Inhabitants.”
35. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 25 December 1769; New York Gazette and Weekly Post-Boy, 1 January 1770; Tiedemann, Reluctant Revolutionaries, 145.
36. ”Notes and Comments: The Constitutional Right to Anonymity: Free Speech, Disclosure and the Devil,” Yale Law Journal 70, no. 7 (June 1961): 1084–85; “A Note on Certain of Hamilton’s Pseudonyms,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 12, no. 2 (April 1955): 282.
37. Philip Davidson, Propaganda and the American Revolution, 1763–1783 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 5.
38. New York Journal, 4 August 1774.
39. Michael Patrick Marden, “Concealed Authorship on the Eve of the Revolution: Pseudonymity and the American Periodical Public Sphere, 1766–1776, appendix, 107–138 (master’s thesis, University of Missouri–Columbia, 2009).
40. Roger B. Berry, “John Adams: Two Further Contributions to the Boston Gazette, 1766–1768,” New England Quarterly 31, no. 1 (March 1958): 91.
41. Journal of the Votes and Proceedings of the General Assembly of the Colony of New-York From 1766 to 1776 Inclusive (Albany, NY: J. Buel, 1820), 42.
42. A Proclamation by the Honourable Cadwallader Colden, New York, 20 December 1769, Library of Congress, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe10/rbpe103/10302800/rbpe10302800.db&recNum=0&itemLink=D?rbpebib:2:./temp/~ammem_194T::&linkText=0.
43. The dispute over the Liberty Pole is discussed in “The Liberty Pole on the Commons,” New York Historical Society Quarterly Bulletin 3, no. 4 (January 1920).
44. For descriptions of Manhattan, I relied on Tiedemann, Reluctant Revolutionaries, 16–21.
45. ”Liberty Pole on the Commons,” 114–15.
46. Maier, From Resistance to Revolution, 6–7, 9–12, 20.
47. ”Liberty Pole on the Commons,” 127.
48. John Montresor, “Journals of Capt. John Montresor,” in The Montresor Journals, ed. G. D. Scull (New York: New York Historical Society, 1882), 382.
49. ”Liberty Pole on the Commons,” 110–12, 127.
50. New York Gazette and Weekly Post-Boy, 22 January 1770; “Liberty Pole on the Commons,” 115–19.
51. New York Journal, 1 March 1770.
52. New York Journal, 1 March 1770; “Liberty Pole on the Commons,” 116–121.
53. ”Liberty Pole on the Commons,” 121–126; New York Journal, 8 February 1770; New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 5 February 1770, 12 February 1770.
54. The description of events surrounding McDougall’s arrest is taken from his account, “To the Freeholders and Inhabitants of the Colony of New York, and to all the Friends of Liberty in North America,” New York Journal, 15 February 1770; See also New York Gazette or Weekly Post–Boy, 12 February 1770; Champagne, Alexander McDougall, 28; Tiedemann, Reluctant Revolutionaries, 150.
55. Lieutenant-Governor Colden to the Lords of Trade, 8 July 1763, in Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York (Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, 1856), 7:527–29, note 1; biography of Daniel Horsmanden, Historical Society of the New York Courts, http://www.nycourts.gov/history/legal-history-new-york/legal-history-eras-01/history-era-01-horsmanden.html.
56. Edward Hagerman Hall, The Old Martyrs’ Prison, New York (New York: American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society, 1902).
57. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 27 July 1772.
58. New York Journal, 15 February 1770; Boston Gazette, 26 February 1770.
59. Details about John Wilkes come from Maier, From Resistance to Revolution, 161–69; Pauline Maier, “John Wilkes and American Disillusionment with Britain,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 20, no. 3 (July 1963): 374–85; Leonard Levy, Emergence of a Free Press (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 145–47; Jack Lynch, “Wilkes, Liberty, and Number 45,” Colonial Williamsburg Journal (Summer 2003).
60. Committee of the Boston Sons of Liberty to John Wilkes, 6 June 1768, Papers of John Adams, September 1755–October 1773, ed. Robert J. Taylor (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), 1:214–216.
61. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 25 December 1769, 1 January 1770, 15 January 1770.
62. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 13 June 1768.
63. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 30 July 1770.
64. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 15 August 1768.
65. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 5 September 1768.
66. Boston Gazette, 16 October 1769.
67. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 29 May 1769, 18 December 1769.
68. Edward McCrady, The History of South Carolina Under the Royal Government, 1719–1779 (New York: Macmillan, 1899), 604–605.
69. Cadwallader Colden to Lord Hillsborough, 21 February 1770, in Thomas Jones, History of New York During the Revolutionary War (New York: New York Historical Society, 1879), 1:431–32.
70. New York Journal, 29 March 1770.
71. New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy, 19 February 1770.
72. New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy, 5 March 1770.
73. New York Journal, 15 February 1770.
74. New York Journal, 15 February 1770.
75. New York Journal, 29 March 1770.
76. Maier, From Resistance to Revolution, 169–170.
77. New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy, 2 April 1770.
78. New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy, 2 April 1770.
79. See, for example, New York Journal, 29 March 1770, 12 April 1770; New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 30 April 1770.
80. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 26 March 1770; Tiedemann, Reluctant Revolutionaries, 151.
81. New York Journal, 5 April 1770.
82. New York Journal, 16 February 1770, 29 March 1770.
83. New York Journal, 3 May 1770, 10 May 1770.
84. ”The Dougliad,” series begun in the New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury on 4 April 1770.
85. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 21 May 1770.
86. New York Journal, 15 March 1770.
87. New York Journal, 15 March 1770.
88. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 23 April 1770.
89. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 23 April 1770.
90. A Letter from Candor, to the Public Advertiser, 2nd ed. (London: J. Almon, 1764), 11, 14.
91. Father of Candor, A Letter Concerning Libels, Warrants, The Seisure of Papers . . . 7th ed. (London: J. Almon, 1771), 48; Levy, Emergence, 147–152.
92. Father of Candor, Concerning Libels, 16–17, 46–47.
93. Father of Candor, Concerning Libels, 161.
94. Father of Candor, Concerning Libels, 48.
95. New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy, 7 May 1770.
96. Father of Candor, A Letter Concerning Libels, 49.
97. Josiah Quincy Jr., ed., Reports of Cases Argued and Adjudged in the Superior Court of Judicature of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, Between 1761 and 1772 (Boston, 1865), 309.
98. Tiedemann, Reluctant Revolutionaries, 152; New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy, 7 May 1770.
99. Tiedemann, Reluctant Revolutionaries, 152.
100. New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy, 7 May 1770; Tiedemann, Reluctant Revolutionaries, 152; Champagne, Alexander McDougall, 34.
101. Levy, Emergence, 79.
102. Levy, Emergence, 79–80.
103. Leonard W. Levy, “Did the Zenger Case Really Matter? Freedom of the Press in Colonial New York,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 17, no. 1 (January 1960): 38–43; Levy, Emergence, 17–18; Harold L. Nelson, “Seditious Libel in Colonial America,” American Journal of Legal History 3, no. 2 (April 1959): 163–64; Michael E. Stevens, “Legislative Privilege in Post-Revolutionary South Carolina,” William and Mary Quarterly 46, no. 1 (January 1989): 71–92.
104. For details about McDougall’s appearance before the Assembly, I have relied on the official record and McDougall’s own account: Journal of the Votes and Proceedings of the General Assembly of the Colony of New-York From 1766 to 1776 Inclusive (Albany: J. Buel, 1820), 6–8; New York Journal, 20 December 1770, 24 January 1771, and 31 January 1771; New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy, 24 December 1770; Tiedemann, Reluctant Revolutionaries, 168.
105. New York Journal, 31 January 1771.
106. Champagne, Alexander McDougall, 43.
Chapter 6: The Silversmith
1. Details about the confrontation on the evening of March 5 were taken from Hiller B. Zobel, The Boston Massacre (New York: W. W. Norton, 1970), 180–205; Neil L. York, The Boston Massacre: A History with Documents (New York: Routledge, 2010), 26; Esther Forbes, Paul Revere and the World He Lived In (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1942), 147–51.
2. Paul Revere, Jonathan Singleton Copley, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/paul-revere-32401.
3. David Hackett Fischer, Paul Revere’s Ride (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 6; Forbes, Paul Revere, 3–8, 10, 13.
4. Fischer, Paul Revere’s Ride, 8–14; Forbes, Paul Revere, 21–22, 27–29.
5. Fischer, Paul Revere’s Ride, 14–19.
6. Forbes, Paul Revere, 113–15.
7. Forbes, Paul Revere, 116–19.
8. Clarence S. Brigham, Paul Revere’s Engravings (Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1954), 44–45.
9. Brigham, Paul Revere’s Engravings, 129–30.
10. Brigham, Paul Revere’s Engravings, 44.
11. Brigham, Paul Revere’s Engravings, 47–48.
12. Richard L. Bushman, “Caricature and Satire in Old and New England Before the American Revolution,” Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd ser., 88 (1976): 19–21; Isabel Simeral Johnson, “Cartoons,” Public Opinion Quarterly 1, no. 3 (July 1937): 21–22.
13. Charles Press, “The Georgian Political Print and Democratic Institutions,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 19, no. 2 (April 1977): 218.
14. Clare Walcot, “Hogarth’s The South Sea Scheme and the Topography of Speculative Finance,” Oxford Art Journal 35, no. 3 (2012): 413–16; The South Sea Scheme, National Portrait Gallery, http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw113127/The-South-Sea-Scheme.
15. Douglass Adair, “The Stamp Act in Contemporary English Cartoons,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 10, no. 1 (October 1953): 538–42; E. P. Richardson, “Stamp Act Cartoons in the Colonies,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 96, no. 3 (July 1972): 277–83.
16. Bushman, “Caricature and Satire,” 22–23.
17. Pennsylvania Gazette, 9 May 1754; Lester C. Olson, Benjamin Franklin’s Vision of American Community: A Study in Rhetorical Iconology (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004), 77–111.
18. Joseph Harrison to Charles Watson-Wentworth, second Marquis of Rockingham, 17 June 1768, in D. H. Watson, “Joseph Harrison and the Liberty Incident,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 20, no. 4 (October 1963): 585–595; York, The Boston Massacre, 14; Richard Archer, As If an Enemy’s Country: The British Occupation of Boston and the Origins of Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 85–89.
19. Wallace Brown and Henry Hulton, “An Englishman Views the American Revolution: The Letters of Henry Hulton, 1769–1776,” Huntington Library Quarterly 36, no. 1 (November 1972): 3–4.
20. Archer, As If an Enemy’s Country, 99–107.
21. Archer, As If an Enemy’s Country, 99–103.
22. Boston Evening-Post, 3 October 1768, 12 December 1768.
23. Boston Evening-Post, 3 October 1768; Boston Chronicle, 29 September 1768, 3 October 1768.
24. Thomas Gage to Council, 28 October 1768, in Boston Evening-Post, 31 October 1768.
25. ”The Sam Adams Regiments in the Town of Boston,” Atlantic Monthly 10 August 1862 (Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1862), 181.
26. Archer, As If an Enemy’s Country, xvi.
27. Archer, As If an Enemy’s Country, 127–33.
28. Jesse Lemisch, “Jack Tar in the Streets: Merchant Seamen in the Politics of Revolutionary America,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 25, no. 3 (July 1968): 400.
29. The publishing effort is described, and the articles reprinted, in Oliver Morton Dickerson, Boston Under Military Rule 1768–1769 as Revealed in a Journal of the Times (Boston: Mount Vernon Press, 1936); Zobel, Boston Massacre, 109–10.
30. Francis Bernard to Lord Hillsborough, 25 February 1769, in The Papers of Francis Bernard, Governor of Colonial Massachusetts, 1760–69, vol. 5: 1768–1769, ed. Colin Nicolson (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2015), 5:216.
31. Archer, As If an Enemy’s Country, 141–42.
32. Boston Gazette, 7 August 1769.
33. Archer, As If an Enemy’s Country, 142–43.
34. Zobel, Boston Massacre, 54–55, 173–78.
35. Thomas Hutchinson, The History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay from 1749 to 1774 (London: John Murray, 1828), 270; Boston Gazette, 26 February 1770, 5 March 1770.
36. John Adams, diary entry, 5 March 1770, Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/01-03-02-0016-0016.
37. Adams, diary entry, Founders Online.
38. Report of the Record Commissioners of the City of Boston, Containing the Boston Town Records, 1770 Through 1777 (Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, 1887), 1, 4.
39. Report of the Record Commissioners of the City of Boston, 3; Zobel, Boston Massacre, 206–10.
40. Zobel, Boston Massacre, 219–21.
41. Report of the Record Commissioners of the City of Boston, 10.
42. A Short Narrative of the Horrid Massacre in Boston Perpetrated in the Evening of the Fifth Day of March, 1770 by Soldiers of the 29th Regiment . . . (Boston: Edes and Gill, 1770), 7–8.
43. Thomas Hutchinson, History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay from 1749 to 1774 (London: John Murray, 1828), 277.
44. Report of the Record Commissioners of the City of Boston, 13–18.
45. William Dalrymple to Thomas Gage, 12 March 1770, in Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 47 (October 1937): 281–82.
46. William Dalrymple to Thomas Gage, 19 March 1770, in Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 47: 288–89.
47. Boston Gazette, 2 April 1770.
48. Brigham, Paul Revere’s Engravings, 51.
49. Boston Gazette, 12 March 1770; Thomas Gage to William Dalrymple, 17 June 1770; Gage to Dalrymple, 26 March 1770, in Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 47:310–11, 292–93.
50. Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, Transactions, (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1905), 7:2–21.
51. William Dalrymple to Thomas Gage, 27 March 1770; and Thomas Hutchinson to Thomas Gage, 18 March 1770, in Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 47: 294–95, 286–87.
52. Boston Gazette, 12 March 1770.
53. Boston Gazette, 19 March 1770.
54. Providence Gazette, 17 March 1770; Connecticut Courant, 19 March 1770; Massachusetts Gazette and Boston Weekly News-Letter, 15 March 1770; New Hampshire Gazette, 23 March 1770; Boston Gazette, 2 April 1770; Boston Evening-Post, 2 April 1770; Kurt William Ritter, “Rhetoric and Ritual in the American Revolution: The Boston Massacre Commemorations, 1771–1783” (PhD diss., Indiana University, 1974), 41–46.
55. New York Journal, 15 March 1770, 29 March 1770, 5 April 1770, 12 April 1770; Pennsylvania Chronicle, 26 March 1770; Pennsylvania Gazette, 22 March 1770; Arthur M. Schlesinger, Prelude to Independence: The Newspaper War on Britain 1764–1776 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1958), 117; Ritter, “Rhetoric and Ritual,” 43–44.
56. Schlesinger, Prelude to Independence, 126.
57. Georgia Gazette, 11 April 1770, 25 April 1770; Ritter, “Rhetoric and Ritual,” 41–46.
58. Forbes, Paul Revere, 152–53.
59. Forbes, Paul Revere, 153–54; Zobel, Boston Massacre, 198–99; Louise Phelps Kellogg, “The Paul Revere Print of the Boston Massacre,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 1, no. 4 (June 1918): 381–82.
60. Henry Pelham to Paul Revere, 29 March 1770, in Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 2nd ser., 8 (1894): 227; Brigham, Paul Revere’s Engravings, 41–43.
61. Brigham, Paul Revere’s Engravings, 41–45; Kellogg, “The Paul Revere Print of the Boston Massacre,” 381–35; Zobel, Boston Massacre, 211.
62. Brigham, Paul Revere’s Engravings, 46, 51–53.
63. Mason I. Lowance Jr. and Georgia B. Bumgardner, Massachusetts Broadsides of the American Revolution (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1976), 28–29.
64. ”A Verse Occasioned by the late horrid Massacre in King-Street”; “On the Death of Five young Men who was Murthered, March 5th 1770 By the 29th Regiment,” Library of Congress, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/rbpe.03700300; “A Particular Account of the Most Barbarous and horrid massacre Committed in King-Street, Boston, on Monday, March 5, by the Soldiery Quartered in Said Town,” broadside, Boston, 1770; Ritter, “Rhetoric and Ritual,” 40–41.
65. Trial of William Wemms et al., Superior Court of Judicature, Boston, November 29, 1770 (Boston and London: T. Evans, 1770), 77.
66. Boston Gazette, 16 October 1769, 16 April 1770; Brigham, Paul Revere’s Engravings, 59.
67. Brigham, Paul Revere’s Engravings, 58–64; “The Illustrated Inventory of Paul Revere’s Works at the American Antiquarian Society,” Revere Collection Box 2, http://www.americanantiquarian.org/Inventories/Revere/b2.htm; Catharina Slautterback, “A View of Part of the Town of Boston,” Boston Athenaeum, http://www.bostonathenaeum.org/view-part-town-boston.
68. James R. Gilmore, “Nathaniel Emmons and Mather Byles,” New England Magazine, New Series, 16, Old Series, 22 (March 1897 and August 1897); J. L. Bell, “Mather Byles, Sr., and ‘Three Thousand Tyrants,’ Boston 1775 (blog), March 11, 2007, http://boston1775.blogspot.com/2007/03/mather-byles-sr-and-three-thousand.html.
69. John Lathrop, “Innocent Blood Crying to God from the Streets of Boston” (London, 1770), 5–7, 12.
70. Edward M. Griffin, Old Brick: Charles Chauncy of Boston, 1705–1787 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980), 15, 24.
71. Griffin, Old Brick, 147–149
72. Boston Gazette, 4 June 1770; Boston Evening–Post, 18 June, 1770.
73. Peter Oliver, Peter Oliver’s Origin & Progress of the American Rebellion: A Tory View, ed. Douglass Adair and John A. Schutz (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1961), 91–92.
74. Oliver, Peter Oliver’s Origin & Progress of the American Rebellion, 91.
75. Zobel, Boston Massacre, 265, 294; Diary, 5 March 1773, The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1850), 2:317.
76. Boston Gazette, 21 January 1771.
77. Diary, 5 March 1773, in Works of John Adams, 317–18.
78. Thomas Gage to Thomas Preston, 26 March 1770, in Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 47:291–92.
79. Thomas Gage to William Dalrymple, 19 March 1770, in Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 47:289–90.
80. ”The City of Boston’s Account of their Conduct to Capt. Preston, after the Massacre of March the 5th,” Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts: Transactions (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1905), 7:15.
81. Pennsylvania Gazette, 6 September 1770.
Chapter 7: The Farmer
1. Thomas Jefferson, 1776–1818, Weather Record, The Thomas Jefferson Papers, 7th ser., Miscellaneous Bound Volumes, Library of Congress American Memory, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/mtj.mtjbib026574, accessed July 26, 2014.
2. Pauline Maier, American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 44–45.
3. Russell F. Weigley, ed., Philadelphia: A 300-Year History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1982), 128.
4. John Adams to Archibald Bulloch, 1 July 1776, in Letters of Delegates to Congress, ed. Paul H. Smith et al. (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1976–2000), 4:345.
5. Journals of the American Congress from 1774 to 1788, 8 July 1775 (Washington, DC: Way and Gideon, 1823) 1:391–392; John Dickinson and J. H. Powell, “Notes and Documents,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 65, no. 4 (October 1941): 461.
6. John Dickinson, “Arguments Against the Independence of These Colonies, in Congress,” 1 July 1776, in Dickinson and Powell, “Notes and Documents,” 468.
7. Milton E. Flower, John Dickinson: Conservative Revolutionary (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1983), 1–12; William Murchison, The Cost of Liberty: The Life of John Dickinson (Wilmington, DE: Intercollegiate Studies Institute, 2013), 7–10.
8. John Dickinson to Mary Cadwalader Dickinson, 8 March 1754 and 15 August 1754, in H. Trevor Colbourn and Richard Peters, “A Pennsylvania Farmer at the Court of King George: John Dickinson’s London Letters, 1754–1756,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Geography 86, no. 3 (July 1962): 261–64, 279–81.
9. Colbourn and Peters, “A Pennsylvania Farmer,” 246–48.
10. John Dickinson to Samuel Dickinson, 19 February 1755, in Colbourn, “A Pennsylvania Farmer at the Court of King George: John Dickinson’s London Letters, 1754–1756,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Geography 86, no. 4 (October 1962) 425–27.
11. John Dickinson to Samuel Dickinson, 21 January 1755, in Colbourn, “A Pennsylvania Farmer,” 86, no. 4, 420–22.
12. Flower, John Dickinson, 22–23, 28–30.
13. John Dickinson to George Read, 1 October 1762, in Life and Correspondence of George Read (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1870), 16–18.
14. Homer L. Calkin, “Pamphlets and Public Opinion During the American Revolution,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 64, no. 1 (January 1940): 23.
15. Calkin, “Pamphlets and Public Opinion,” 32–33.
16. Joad Raymond, Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 8.
17. ”Marprelate Controversy,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/366058/Marprelate-Controversy, accessed July 10, 2014.
18. Raymond, Pamphlets and Pamphleteering, 10, 331–41, 367–68.
19. Bernard Bailyn, ed., Pamphlets of the American Revolution: 1750–1765 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 11.
20. Bailyn, Pamphlets, 21, 23–24, 27–30.
21. Bailyn, Pamphlets, 447.
22. Edmund S. Morgan and Helen M. Morgan, The Stamp Act Crisis: Prologue to Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1962), 107–21.
23. John Dickinson to James Otis Jr., 5 December 1767, in Warren-Adams Letters, Being chiefly a correspondence among John Adams, Samuel Adams, and James Warren, 1743–1777 (Massachusetts Historical Society, 1917), 1:3–4.
24. For an interesting discussion of Dickinson’s strategy, see Carl F. Kaestle, “The Public Reaction to John Dickinson’s Farmer’s Letters,” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 78 (1969): 338–42.
25. Forrest McDonald, ed., Empire and Nation: Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (John Dickinson); Letters from the Federal Farmer (Richard Henry Lee) (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1962), 3.
26. I drew from Stephen H. Browne’s excellent analysis of the pastoral voice in the Farmer’s Letters. See Stephen H. Browne, “The Pastoral Voice in John Dickinson’s ‘First Letter from a Farmer in Pennsylvania,’” Quarterly Journal of Speech 76, no. 1 (1990): 46–57.
27. For this discussion of sovereignty, I am indebted to Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967), 198–229, also available in Bailyn, Pamphlets, 115–38; Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic 1776–1787 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 344–89; and Andrew C. McLaughlin, “The Background of American Federalism,” American Political Science Review 12, no. 2 (May 1918).
28. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1893), 1:48.
29. Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, Letter 5, in McDonald, Empire and Nation, 26, 28.
30. Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, Letter 9, in McDonald, Empire and Nation, 50.
31. William Franklin to Lord Hillsborough, 23 November 1768, in New Jersey in the American Revolution, 1763–1783: A Documentary History, ed. Larry R. Gerlach (New Jersey Historical Commission, 1975), http://www.njstatelib.org/slic_files/imported/NJ_Information/Digital_Collections/NJInTheAmericanRevolution1763-1783/2.5.pdf, accessed July 20, 2014.
32. Leland J. Bellot, William Knox: The Life & Thought of an Eighteenth-Century Imperialist (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977), 97–98.
33. Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 345.
34. John McPherson Jr. to William Patterson, 11 March 1768, in John Macpherson Jr., “Extracts from the Letters of John Macpherson, Jr. to William Patterson, 1766–1773,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 23, no. 1 (1899): 53–54.
35. Governor Francis Bernard to Lord Barrington, 28 January 1768, in The Barrington–Bernard Correspondence and Illustrative Matter, 1760–1770, ed. Edward Channing and Archibald Cary Coolidge (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1912), 135.
36. Benjamin Franklin to William Franklin, 13 March 1768, in The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Albert Henry Smyth, vol. 5 1767–1772 (New York: Macmillan, 1906), 5:113–114; Boston Gazette, 21 December 1767.
37. Pennsylvania Chronicle, 16 May 1768.
38. Kaestle, “The Public Reaction to John Dickinson’s Farmer’s Letters,” 325–29, 352–59.
39. Boston Gazette, 21 March 1768.
40. New-London Gazette, 29 April 1768.
41. Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-Letter, 24 March 1768; Boston Gazette, 4 April 1768; Boston News-Letter, 25 August 1768; Boston Evening-Post, 26 September 1768.
42. Pennsylvania Gazette, 1 September 1768.
43. New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury, 5 September 1768.
44. Pennsylvania Chronicle, 29 August 1768.
45. Pennsylvania Chronicle, 22 August 1768.
46. Boston Evening-Post, 15 May 1768.
47. Boston Evening-Post, 13 February 1768.
48. Boston Evening-Post, 5 June 1768.
49. John Dickinson to James Otis Jr., 4 July 1768, in The Writings of John Dickinson, ed. Paul Leicester Ford, vol. 1, Political Writings 1764–1774 (Philadelphia: Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1895), 1:421.
50. Boston Gazette, 18 July 1768; Ford, Writings of John Dickinson, 1:421–22.
51. Boston Gazette, 18 July 1768.
52. Evelyn Kendrick Wells, The Ballad Tree: A Study of British and American Ballads, Their Folklore, Verse, and Music (New York: Roland Press, 1950), 211–14.
53. Manual of the Corporation of the City of New-York, 1862 (New York: Edmund Jones, 1862), 703–4; The Memorial History of the City of New-York From Its First Settlement to the Year 1892, ed. James Grant Wilson (New York: New York History Company, 1892), 2:237–38.
54. Clyde Augustus Duniway, The Development of Freedom of the Press in Massachusetts (New York: Longmans, Green, 1906), 115.
55. Frank Moore, Songs and Ballads of the American Revolution (New York: D. Appleton, 1856), 48–50.
56. Ford, Writings of John Dickinson, 1:421–22.
57. Monday, 14 August 1769, Founding Families: Digital Editions of the Papers of the Winthrops and the Adamses, ed. C. James Taylor (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 2007).
58. Moore, Songs and Ballads, 95–96.
59. Boston Evening-Post, 22 August 1768.
60. Boston Gazette, 26 September 1768.
61. Boston Evening-Post, 3 October 1768.
62. Weigley, Philadelphia: A 300-Year History, 109–54; David McCullough, John Adams (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), 79–81; Craig Nelson, Thomas Paine: Enlightenment, Revolution, and the Birth of Modern Nations (New York: Viking, 2006), 53–54; John William Wallace, An Old Philadelphian, Colonel William Bradford, The Patriot Printer of 1776: Sketches of His Life (Philadelphia: Sherman & Company, 1884), 47–54, 95–101; Robert Earle Graham, “The Taverns of Colonial Philadelphia,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, n.s., 43, no. 1 (1953): 321; Flower, John Dickinson, 112.
63. John Adams, diary entry, 31 August 1774, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, ed. L. H. Butterfield (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961), 2:117–18.
64. John Adams, diary entry, 12 September 1774, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, 2:132–33.
65. John Adams, diary entry, 24 September 1774, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, 2:137.
66. John Adams, diary entry, 3 October 1774, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, 2:146–47.
67. William Murchison, The Cost of Liberty: The Life of John Dickinson (Wilmington, DE: Intercollegiate Studies Institute, 2013), 63–65; Flower, John Dickinson, 72–75.
68. Samuel Adams to John Dickinson, 27 March 1773, in Charles J. Stillé, The Life and Times of John Dickinson 1732–1808 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1891), 102–3.
69. John Dickinson, “A Letter from the Country, To a Gentleman in Philadelphia,” 27 November 1773, in The Writings of John Dickinson, 1:455–63.
70. John Dickinson, “An Essay on the Constitutional Power of Great Britain Over the Colonies in America,” 1774, Pennsylvania Archives, 2nd ser., 3 (1875): 565.
71. John Dickinson to George Logan, 15 September 1804, in Stillé, Life and Times of John Dickinson, 143–48.
72. John Adams, diary entry, 24 October 1774, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, 2:156–57.
73. James Warren to John Adams, 15 January 1775, in Warren-Adams Letters, 35–36.
74. Boston Gazette, 21 March 1774; John Adams to James Warren, 22 December 1773, 9 April 1774, in Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/06-02-02-0002 and http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/06-02-02-0009 (ver. 2014-05-09), source: “The Adams Papers,” Papers of John Adams, vol. 2, December 1773_–_April 1775, ed. Robert J. Taylor (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), 82–84.
75. Boston Gazette, 23 January 1775; Nancy Rubin Stuart, The Muse of the Revolution: The Secret Pen of Mercy Otis Warren and the Founding of a Nation (Boston: Beacon Press, 2008), 48–49, 51–52, 67–70.
76. Mercy Warren to John Adams, 30 January 1775, in Warren-Adams Letters, 1:36–39.
77. John Adams to Mercy Warren, 15 March 1775, in Warren-Adams Letters, 1:42–44.
78. Alexander Cowie, “John Trumbull as Revolutionist,” American Literature 3, no. 3 (November 1931): 290–293; Lennox Grey, “John Adams and John Trumbull in the ‘Boston Cycle,’” New England Quarterly 4, no 3 (July 1931): 510–11.
79. Bruce Ingham Granger, “Hudibras in the American Revolution,” American Literature 27, no. 4 (January 1956): 499–503.
80. Leonard W. Levy, Emergence of a Free Press (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 71.
81. Dwight L. Teeter, “‘King’ Sears, the Mob, and Freedom of the Press in New York, 1765–76,” Journalism Quarterly (fall 1964): 539–544.
82. I. N. Phelps Stokes, The Iconography of Manhattan Island (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1922), 4:885, 888.
83. Stokes, Iconography, 4:891.
84. Stokes, Iconography, 4:905–6.
85. ”The Letters of Novanglus,” editorial note, Papers of John Adams, vol. 2, Massachusetts Historical Society Digital Editions: Adams Papers, http://www.masshist.org/publications/apde/portia.php?&id=PJA02dg5, accessed July 27, 2014.
86. John Dickinson to Arthur Lee, 29 April 1775, in Life of Arthur Lee, ed. Richard Henry Lee (Boston: Wells and Lilly, 1829), 2:307–11.
87. Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, ed. L. H. Butterfield (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961), 3:314.
88. Maier, American Scripture, 19–20; Julian T. Boyd, “The Disputed Authorship of the Declaration on the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms, 1775,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 74, no. 1 (January 1950): 51–73; “A Declaration by the Representatives of the United Colonies . . . Setting Forth the Causes and Necessity of Their Taking Up Arms,” Avalon Project, Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/arms.asp.
89. The Works of Thomas Jefferson, Federal ed., ed. Paul Leicester Ford (New York and London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904–5), 1:17–19, in Online Library of Liberty, Liberty Fund, http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/800.
90. The Olive Branch Petition, 8 July 1775, Journals of the American Congress from 1774 to 1788 (Washington, DC: Way and Gideon, 1823), 1:104–6.
91. Butterfield, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, 3:320–21.
92. Ford, Works of Thomas Jefferson, 1:17–19.
93. Butterfield, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, 3:318.
94. John Adams to Abigail Adams, 23 July 1775, in Taylor, Founding Families.
95. John Adams to James Warren, 24 July 1775, in The Adams Papers Digital Edition, ed. C. James Taylor (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, Rotunda, 2008–2015), original source: Papers of John Adams, vol. 3, May 1775–January 1776; John Adams to Abigail Adams, 24 July 1775, in Adams Papers Digital Edition, original source: Adams Family Correspondence, vol. 1, December 1761–May 1776; Massachusetts Gazette and Boston Weekly News-Letter, 17 August 1775.
96. John Adams to James Warren, 24 July 1775, in Adams Papers Digital Edition, fn. 6.
97. John Adams, diary entry, 16 September 1775, in Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, 2:173–75.
98. Samuel Adams to James Warren, 12 December 1776, in Warren-Adams Letters, 1:279–81.
99. King George III, “A Proclamation for Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition,” 23 August 1775; King’s Speech to Both Houses, 26 October 1775, American Archives, ed. Peter Force (Washington, DC: 1833–1846), 6:1–2, at American Archives: Documents of the American Revolution, 1774–1776, http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/cgi-bin/amarch/getdoc.pl?/var/lib/philologic/databases/amarch/.15918.
100. Christopher Hitchens, Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man: A Biography (London: Atlantic Books, 2006), 19–29; Craig Nelson, Thomas Paine: Enlightenment, Revolution, and the Birth of Modern Nations (New York: Viking, 2006), 52–100.
101. Frank Smith, “New Light on Thomas Paine’s First Year in America, 1775,” American Literature 1, no. 4 (January 1930): 347–71.
102. Thomas Paine, “African Slavery in America,” Writings of Thomas Paine, ed. Moncure Daniel Conway (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1906), 1:4-9
103. Benjamin Rush, The Autobiography of Benjamin Rush: His “Travels Through Life” Together with his Commonplace Book for 1789–1813 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1948), 113–14.
104. Eric Foner, Tom Paine and Revolutionary America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 79.
105. Foner, Tom Paine, 75. For an excellent discussion of Paine and the public sphere, see xvi, 71–87.
106. Pennsylvania Packet and General Advertiser, 31 December 1778; Writings of Thomas Paine, 1:409.
107. For a study that compares the language used in Common Sense to fourteen other pamphlets of the time, see Lee Sigelman, Colin Martindale, and Dean McKenzie, “The Common Style of Common Sense,” Computers and the Humanities 30 (1997): 373–79.
108. Edmund Randolph, “Essay on the Revolutionary History of Virginia 1774–1782,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 43, no. 4 (October 1935): 306.
109. Many authors analyze Common Sense in depth. See, for example, Foner, Tom Paine, 71–87; Hitchens, Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man, 31–37; Harvey J. Kaye, Thomas Paine and the Promise of America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2005), 42–50; and David Freeman Hawke, Paine (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 41–46.
110. Common Sense, in Thomas Paine: Collected Writings, ed. Eric Foner (New York: Library of America, 1995), 15–17, 28, 34, 52.
111. Randolph, “Essay on the Revolutionary History of Virginia,” 306.
112. James Chalmers, Plain Truth: Addressed to the Inhabitants of America Containing Remarks on a late Pamphlet, Intitled Common Sense (Philadelphia, 1776).
113. ”To John Adams from Hugh Hughes, 31 March 1776,” Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/06-04-02-0030 (ver. 2014-05-09), source: The Adams Papers, Papers of John Adams, vol. 4, February–August 1776, ed. Robert J. Taylor (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 98–101; “A Crack-Brained Zealot for Democracy,” National Humanities Center Toolbox, Making the Revolution: America, 1763–1791, http://americainclass.org/sources/makingrevolution/rebellion/text7/inglisdeceiverunmasked.pdf, accessed July 14, 2014.
114. For descriptions of the work of the Continental Congress from 7 June through 4 July 1776, I relied on Journals of the American Congress, July 1–2, 391–93; Maier, American Scripture, 41–46; Flower, John Dickinson, 153–67; Murchison, Cost of Liberty, 149; Stillé, Life and Times, 196–97.
115. ”Resolution introduced in the Continental Congress by Richard Henry Lee (Virginia) proposing a Declaration of Independence, June 7, 1776,” http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/lee.asp, accessed July 23, 2014.
116. John Dickinson to Thomas Cushing, 11 December 1774, in Smith, Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1:264.
117. John Dickinson, “Arguments Against the Independence,” in Dickinson and Powell, “Notes and Documents,” 478–80.
118. John Adams, diary entry, 1 July 1776, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, 3:396.
119. Charles Thomson to John Dickinson, 16 August 1776, in Stillé, Life and Times of John Dickinson, 209–11.
120. John Adams to Abigail Adams, 23 June 1775, in Adams Family Correspondence, ed. L. H. Butterfield, Wendell D. Garrett, and Marjorie Sprague (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963), 1:226–27.
121. John Adams to Abigail Adams, 3 July 1776, in Adams Family Correspondence, 2:29–33.
122. John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, 12 November 1813, in The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson & Abigail & John Adams, ed. Lester J. Cappon (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 392–94.
Chapter 8: The Planter
1. Primary sources on ratification of the Constitution are collected in the multivolume set The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution, ed. John P. Kaminski, Gaspare J. Saladino, et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009), hereafter DHRC. Two excellent historical accounts on which I relied are Pauline Maier, Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010); and Jürgen Heideking, The Constitution Before the Judgment Seat: The Prehistory and Ratification of the American Constitution, 1787–1791, ed. John P. Kaminski and Richard Leffler (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2012).
2. Independent Gazetteer, 2 October 1787, in DHRC, 8:15–16, fn. 2.
3. George Washington to Patrick Henry, 24 September 1787, in DHRC, 8:15–16.
4. James Madison to George Washington, 18 October 1787, in DHRC, 8:77.
5. Patrick Henry to George Washington, 19 October 1787, in DHRC, 8:79.
6. George Washington to James Madison, 5 February 1788, in DHRC, 8:279–280.
7. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, 9 December 1787, in DHRC, 8:227.
8. For an extended discussion of the significance of the vigorous ratification debate to the meaning that the founding generation attached to the freedom of speech and press, see Akhil Reed Amar, “30th Annual Sullivan Lecture: How America’s Constitution Affirmed Freedom of Speech Before the First Amendment,” 38 Cap U.L. Rev.503, (2010).
9. For a discussion of public opinion and the ratification, see Heideking, Constitution Before the Judgment Seat, 53–61.
10. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, 6 June 1787, in DHRC, 13:84.
11. Archibald Stuart to John Breckinridge, 21 October 1787, in DHRC, 8:89.
12. DHRC, 22:1768.
13. Francis Hopkinson to Thomas Jefferson, 17 July 1788, in DHRC, 18:270.
14. Jeffrey L. Pasley, The Tyranny of Printers: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2001), 33.
15. DHRC, 13:xvii–xviii.
16. DHRC, 2:62–64.
17. James Madison to Edmund Randolph, 21 October 1787, in DHRC, 13:429–30.
18. DHRC, 13:xviii.
19. DHRC, 19:137–43.
20. DHRC, 21:1264–75; John Montgomery to James Wilson, 2 March 1788, in DHRC, 2:701–2; Pierce Butler to Elbridge Gerry, 3 March 1788, in DHRC, 16:300, note 4.
21. DHRC, 13:xviii.
22. Albany Gazette, 15 November, 1787, in DHRC, 14:117–19.
23. New York Daily Advertiser, 11 December 1787, in DHRC, 14:118, note 1.
24. Thomas S. Kidd, Patrick Henry: First Among Patriots (New York: Basic Books, 2011), 9–11; William Wirt, The Life of Patrick Henry, 4th ed. (New York: M’Elrath & Bangs, 1831), 22.
25. Kidd, Patrick Henry, 14–15; Wirt, Life of Patrick Henry, 25–29.
26. Kidd, Patrick Henry, 1, 17–19; Wirt, Life of Patrick Henry, 30–33.
27. Wirt, Life of Patrick Henry, 32–33.
28. Kidd, Patrick Henry, 22–25; Wirt, Life of Patrick Henry, 36.
29. Kidd, Patrick Henry, 27–28; Jon Kukla, “Patrick Henry (1736–1799),” Encyclopedia Virginia, Virginia Foundation for the Humanities, http://www.EncyclopediaVirginia.org/Henry_Patrick_1736–1799.
30. Edmund S. Morgan and Helen M. Morgan, The Stamp Act Crisis: Prologue to Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1962), 92–121; and Merrill Jensen, The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 1763–1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 100–105.
31. John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, 12 November 1813, in The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson & Abigail & John Adams, ed. Lester J. Cappon (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 392.
32. William Lee Miller, The First Liberty: America’s Foundation in Religious Freedom (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003), 71–72.
33. John P. Kaminski, The Great Virginia Triumvirate: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, & James Madison in the Eyes of Their Contemporaries (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010), 154.
34. Kaminski, Virginia Triumvirate, 154.
35. James Madison to William Bradford, 1 July 1774, in Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-01-02-0032 (last update: 2014-12-01), source: The Papers of James Madison, vol. 1, 16 March 1751_–_16 December 1779, ed. William T. Hutchinson and William M. E. Rachal (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 114–17.
36. James Madison to William Bradford, 24 January 1774, in Madison: Writings, ed. Jack N. Rakove (New York: Library of America, 1999), 5–6.
37. Madison to Bradford, 24 January 1774, in Madison: Writings; Miller, First Liberty, 5–7.
38. Miller, First Liberty, 5–7.
39. Garry Wills, James Madison (New York: Henry Holt, 2002), 17–18.
40. ”Notes on Ancient and Modern Confederacies, [April–June?] 1786,” Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-09-02-0001 (last update: 2014-12-01), original source: The Papers of James Madison, 9 April 1786_–_24 May 1787 and supplement 1781–1784, ed. Robert A. Rutland and William M. E. Rachal (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975), 9:3–23; “Vices of the Political System of the United States, April 1787,” Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-09-02-0187 (last update: 2014-12-01), original source: Papers of James Madison, 9:345–58.
41. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, 24 October 1787, in Madison: Writings, 146.
42. Edmund Randolph to Patrick Henry, 6 December 1786, and Henry to Randolph, 13 February 1787, in William Wirt Henry, Patrick Henry: Life, Correspondence and Speeches (Harrisonburg, VA: Sprinkle Publications, 1993), 2:310–11.
43. Madison to Edmund Randolph, 25 March 1787, in William Wirt Henry, Patrick Henry: Life, 2:312–13.
44. Leonard W. Levy, Emergence of a Free Press (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 183.
45. Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789, January 2, 1776 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office 1906), 4:18, 20; Claude Halstead Van Tyne, The Loyalists in the American Revolution (New York: Macmillan, 1902), 198–202, 327–29; William Walter Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large, Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia, 1619–1792 (Richmond, 1809–23), 9:170–71; Levy, Emergence, 177–79.
46. Levy, Emergence, 188–89.
47. Levy, Emergence, 183–89; Leonard W. Levy, Origins of the Bill of Rights (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999), 120.
48. Levy, Emergence, 163–65.
49. Massachusetts Spy, 5 December 1771; Levy, Origins, 162.
50. James Burgh, Political Disquisitions, 3:246–52, in The Founders’ Constitution, ed. Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1987), 5:120–21.
51. Levy, Emergence, 167–68; Jeremy Bentham, A Fragment on Government, ed. Ross Harrison and H. L. A. Hart (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 97–98.
52. Freeman’s Journal, 26 September 1787; Independent Gazetteer, 28 September 1787; Independent Gazetteer, 29 September 1787; in DHRC, 2:146–49.
53. DHRC, 13:xviii.
54. Heideking, Constitution Before the Judgment Seat:, 84–85; also, see DHRC, 13:xvii–xx.
55. DHRC, 13:293–94; DHRC, 15:7–13.
56. DHRC, 13:326–37.
57. DHRC, 13:255–57, 411–21; James Madison to Edmund Randolph, 21 October 1787, in DHRC, 13:429–30.
58. DHRC, 15:156.
59. James Madison to George Washington, 18 November 1787, DHRC, 8:167.
60. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, 9 December 1787, DHRC, 8:226–28.
61. DHRC, 8:260.
62. DHRC, 8:260–75.
63. James Madison to Edmund Randolph, 10 January 1788, DHRC, 8:288–91.
64. DHRC, 8:40–41.
65. DHRC, 8:40–42; George Mason to George Washington, 7 October 1787, DHRC, 8:43.
66. DHRC, 13:339–340.
67. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 20 December 1787, DHRC, 8:250–51.
68. Heideking, Constitution Before the Judgment Seat, 102, 101, 94–104.
69. Heideking, Constitution, 95.
70. Heideking, Constitution, 102.
71. DHRC, 8:110.
72. Edward Carrington to James Madison, 10 February 1788, in DHRC, 8:359.
73. Edward Carrington to Henry Knox, 10 February 1788, in DHRC, 9:606.
74. John Blair Smith to James Madison, 12 June 1788, in DHRC, 9:607–8.
75. DHRC, 9:595–96.
76. Edmund Randolph to James Madison, 3 January 1788, in DHRC, 9:598.
77. James Gordon Jr., to James Madison, 18 February 1788, in DHRC, 9:600.
78. James Madison Sr., to James Madison, 30 January 1788, in DHRC, 9:599.
79. James Madison to Eliza House Trist, 25 March 1788, in DHRC, 9:603.
80. Hannah Tracy Emery to Mary Carter, 17 February 1788, in Supplements to the Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution, vols. 4–7—Massachusetts, Document 730, microfiche.
81. Massachusetts Gazette, 23 May 1788.
82. Heideking, Constitution Before the Judgment Seat, 347–49; Massachusetts Gazette, 23 May 1788.
83. Massachusetts Gazette, 23 May 1788.
84. Heideking, Constitution Before the Judgment Seat, 504n33.
85. Mary Newton Stanard, Richmond: Its People and Its Story (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1923), 37, 49–52.
86. James Duncanson to James Maury, 7 June and 13 June 1788, in DHRC, 10:1583–84.
87. Henry Jackson to Henry Knox, 20 January 1788, in DHRC, 7:1536–37.
88. Ezra Stiles, diary entry, 3 January 1788, in DHRC, 3:523.
89. DHRC, 8:525–29; Maier, Ratification, 256–57.
90. DHRC, 8:xix–xxi.
91. Richard Henry Lee to George Mason, 7 May 1788, in DHRC, IX:784.
92. DHRC, 9:929.
93. DHRC, 9:929–31.
94. DHRC, 9:931–36.
95. DHRC, 9:936–40.
96. James Madison to George Washington, 4 June 1788, in DHRC, 10:1574.
97. Massachusetts Centinel, 25 June 1788, in DHRC, 10:1684.
98. For a discussion of oratory early in American history, see Sandra M. Gustafson, Eloquence Is Power: Oratory & Performance in Early America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).
99. John Adams, Draft of a Letter to Richard Cranch, October–December 1758, Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/02-01-02-0010-0001-0003.
100. Thomas Jefferson and William Wirt, “Jefferson’s Recollections of Patrick Henry,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 34, no. 4 (1910): 387, 409.
101. Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 20.
102. Hugh Blair Grigsby, The History of the Virginia Federal Convention of 1788 (Richmond: Virginia Historical Society, 1890), 1:119.
103. James Breckinridge to John Breckinridge, 13 June 1788, in DHRC, 10:1621.
104. DHRC, 9:951–52.
105. DHRC, 9:963–64.
106. DHRC, 9:1036–37, 1042.
107. DHRC, 9:989.
108. DHRC, 9:990.
109. DHRC, 9:992.
110. DHRC, 9:1028–32.
111. DHRC, 9:1031.
112. William Grayson to John Lamb, 9 June 1788, in DHRC, 9:816; James Madison to Rufus King, 13 June 1788, in DHRC, 10:1619.
113. DHRC, 9:811–13.
114. Pennsylvania Herald, 26 May 1788, quoted in DHRC, 16:540–41.
115. DHRC, 10:1709.
116. Edward Carrington to James Madison, 10 February 1788, in DHRC, 8:359.
117. John Adams to Abigail Adams, 17 or 18 January 1777, in Founding Families: Digital Editions of the Papers of the Winthrops and the Adamses, ed. C. James Taylor (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 2015), http://www.masshist.org/publications/apde2/view?id=ADMS-04-02-02-0103.
118. The Adams Papers: Adams Family Correspondence, March 1797–April 1798, ed. Sara Martin et al. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015) 12:117.
119. DHRC, 16:540–42; DHRC, 20: 582–84; and DHRC, 8:517–18.
120. George Washington to John Jay, 18 July 1788, in DHRC, 16:595.
121. DHRC, 10:1673.
122. Gaspare J. Saladino, “The Federalist Express,” in New York and the Union, ed. Stephen L. Schechter and Richard B. Bernstein (Albany: New York State Commission on the Bicentennial of the United States Constitution, 1990), 327–29.
123. DHRC, 18:33.
124. James Madison to Alexander Hamilton, 9 June 1788, in DHRC, 10:1589.
125. James Madison to Alexander Hamilton, 16 June 1788, in DHRC, 10:1630.
126. Patrick Henry to John Lamb, 9 June 1788, DHRC, 9:817.
127. DHRC, 10:1335, fn. 2; 10:1337, fn. 29.
128. DHRC, 13:196–97.
129. Levy, Emergence, 221; DHRC, 1:337–39.
130. DHRC, 10:1326.
131. DHRC, 10:1328, 1331-32.
132. DHRC, 10:1345, 1352.
133. James Madison to Rufus King, 18 June 1788, in DHRC, 10:1637.
134. DHRC, 10:1473–74; Maier, Ratification, 294.
135. DHRC, 10:1474, 1476–77.
136. DHRC, 10:1479, 1485–87, 1500.
137. DHRC, 10:1503.
138. DHRC, 10:1506.
139. DHRC, 10:1512.
140. New York Daily Advertiser, 3 July 1788, in DHRC, 10:1698–99.
141. DHRC, 10:1537–42.
142. DHRC, 10:1541, 1551–53.
143. Richard Henry Lee to John Lamb, 27 June 1788, in DHRC, 18:58.
144. DHRC, 8:xix–xxi; 13:xl–xlii.
145. DHRC, 21:1210–11.
146. Various accounts of the event are in DHRC, 21:1264–75.
147. DHRC, 22:1669–75.
Chapter 9: The Framer
1. Adrienne Koch and Harry Ammon, “The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: An Episode in Jefferson’s and Madison’s Defense of Civil Liberties,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 5, no. 2 (April 1948): 145–76; Ralph Ketchum, James Madison: A Biography (New York: Macmillan, 1971), 394.
2. Ketchum, James Madison, 394.
3. John P. Kaminski, The Great Virginia Triumvirate: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, & James Madison in the Eyes of Their Contemporaries (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010), 153–54; Richard Brookhiser, James Madison (New York: Basic Books, 2011), 15–16; Matthew G. Hyland, Montpelier and the Madisons: House, Home and American Heritage (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2007), 11–26; James Madison’s Montpelier: Home of the Father of the Constitution, ed. Evelyn Bence (Orange, VA: Montpelier Foundation, 2008), 8–10; Bryan Clark Green, Ann L. Miller, with Conover Hunt, Building a President’s House: The Construction of James Madison’s Montpelier (Orange, VA: Montpelier Foundation, 2007), 2–5.
4. ”Notes on Ancient and Modern Confederacies,” [April–June?] 1786,” Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-09-02-0001 (last update: 2015-9-29), source: The Papers of James Madison, 9 April 1786_–_24 May 1787 and supplement 1781–1784, ed. Robert A. Rutland and William M. E. Rachal (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975), 9:3–23.
5. James Madison to Margaret B. Smith, September 1830, in The Writings of James Madison, ed. Gaillard Hunt (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1910), 9:405; Andrew Burstein and Nancy Isenberg, Madison and Jefferson (New York: Random House, 2010), 56–67; James Madison: Writings, ed. Jack N. Rakove (New York: Library of America, 1999), 894–95.
6. Margaret Bayard Smith to Susan B. Smith, March 1809, in The First Forty Years of Washington Society, ed. Gaillard Hunt (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1906), 63.
7. Thomas Jefferson to Elizabeth Wayles Eppes, 3 October 1782, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 21 May 1781–1 March 1784, ed. Julian P. Boyd et al. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1952), 6:198.
8. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 14 April 1783, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 6:262; Madison to Jefferson, 22 April 1783, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 6:262.
9. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, 11 August 1783, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 6:333; Jefferson to Madison, 31 August 1783, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 6:335–36; Richard Beeman, Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution (New York: Random House, 2009), 24–25.
10. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 20 February 1784, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 6:550; Madison to Jefferson, 16 March 1784, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 7:37.
11. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 20 February 1784, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 6:550; Madison to Jefferson, 16 March 1784, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 7:39.
12. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, 25 December 1797, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 29:591; Jefferson to Madison, 3 January 1798, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:9.
13. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 17 November 1798, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:579–80.
14. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, 11 December 1798, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:603.
15. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 8 January 1797, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 29:255.
16. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, 12 March 1798, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:175.
17. Neil H. Cogan, The Complete Bill of Rights: The Drafts, Debates, Sources, and Origins, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 165.
18. Cogan, Complete Bill of Rights 163.
19. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, 17 October 1788, in James Madison: Writings, 420.
20. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 15 March 1789, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 14:659–60.
21. Gaillard Hunt, The Life of James Madison (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1902), 162–65; Richard Labunski, James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 134–36, 139–40, 148–52.
22. James Madison to Thomas Mann Randolph, 13 January 1789, in Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-11-02-0304 (last update: September 29, 2015), source: The Papers of James Madison, 7 March 1788-1 March 1789, ed. Robert A. Rutland and Charles F. Hobson (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1977), 11:415–41.
23. Labunski, James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights, 162–66, 174.
24. Speech of James Madison, June 8, 1789, Annals of Congress, 1st Cong., 1st Sess., 449, 451, 456, 457.
25. James Madison to Richard Peters, 19 August 1789, in James Madison: Writings, 471.
26. Speech of James Madison, August 17, 1789, Annals of Congress, 1st Cong., 1st Sess., 783–84; Leonard W. Levy, Emergence of a Free Press (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 262.
27. Levy, Emergence, 257–66.
28. Thomas Jefferson to Edward Carrington, 16 January 1787, in Cogan, Complete Bill of Rights, 178.
29. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 31 July 1788, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 13:442; Jefferson to Madison, 28 August 1789, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 15:367.
30. The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution, ed. John P. Kaminski, Gaspare J. Saladino et al. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009), 2:455.
31. David A. Anderson, “The Origins of the Press Clause,” UCLA L. Rev. 30 (February 1983): 455, 476, 480; Levy, Emergence, 257–63.
32. Anderson, “Origins of the Press Clause,” 483–86; Levy, Emergence, 262–67.
33. Levy, Emergence, 198–201.
34. Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969), 282–283; David M. Rabban, “The Ahistorical Historian: Leonard Levy on Freedom of Expression in Early American History,” review of Emergence of a Free Press, by Leonard Levy, Stanford Law Review 37, no. 3 (February 1985): 828–829.
35. ”Continental Congress to the Inhabitants of the Province of Quebec,” 26 October 1774, in The Founders’ Constitution, ed. Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1987), 442
36. Independent Gazetteer, 14 December 1782.
37. Independent Gazetteer, 9 November 1782; Levy, Emergence, 208–9.
38. Cogan, Complete Bill of Rights, 173.
39. Cogan, Complete Bill of Rights, 167.
40. Hortensius, An Essay on the Liberty of the Press (Richmond, 1803), 25.
41. Hunt, Writings of James Madison, 5:380–381.
42. See Burt Neuborne, Madison’s Music: On Reading the First Amendment (New York: New Press, 2015), 17–20.
43. Speech of James Madison, 15 August 1789, Annals of Congress, 1st Cong., 1st Sess., 766.
44. Speech of James Madison, 27 November 1794, Annals of Congress, 3rd Cong., 2nd Sess., 934.
45. Ron Chernow, Washington: A Life (New York: Penguin, 2010), 671.
46. Chernow, Washington, 677, 680.
47. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 7 July 1793, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 26:444.
48. Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, The Pacificus-Helvidius Debates of 1793–1794: Toward the Completion of the American Founding, ed. Morton J. Frisch (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2007), http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/1910, accessed February 26, 2015.
49. Chernow, Washington, 671, 686; Brookhiser, James Madison, 101–2.
50. The Argus, or Greenleaf’s New Daily Advertiser, 26 December 1795.
51. Joseph J. Ellis, His Excellency: George Washington (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006), 227–29.
52. Ellis, His Excellency, 231.
53. George Washington to Thomas Jefferson, 6 July 1796, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 29:142.
54. John C. Miller, Crisis in Freedom: The Alien and Sedition Acts (Boston: Little, Brown, 1951), 4.
55. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 4–5.
56. The Works of Alexander Hamilton, Federal ed., ed. Henry Cabot Lodge (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904), 6:301.
57. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 4–7.
58. Works of Alexander Hamilton, 6:302.
59. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 6.
60. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 11–12.
61. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 40–43.
62. Works of Alexander Hamilton, 6:318–19.
63. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 26–29.
64. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 211, 214, 216.
65. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 55.
66. Columbian Centinel, 29 December 1798.
67. Thomas Jefferson to John Taylor, 4 June 1798, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:389.
68. John Adams to Tristam Dalton, 19 January 1797, in The Magazine of American History (New York: Historical Publication Co., 1883), 9:470.
69. John Adams, “To the Mayor, Aldermen, and Citizens of the City of Philadelphia,” April 1798, in The Works of John Adams (Boston: Little, Brown, 1854), 9:182.
70. John Adams, “To the Inhabitants of the Town of Braintree, Massachusetts,” in Works of John Adams, 9:197.
71. Abigail Adams to Mary Cranch, 26 April 1798 and 26 May 1798, in New Letters of Abigail Adams 1788–1801, ed. Stewart Mitchell (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1947), 165, 179. See also David McCullough, John Adams (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), 506–507.
72. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, 20 May 1798, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:359.
73. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 7 June 1798, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:393.
74. Henry Tazewell to James Madison, 28 June 1798, in Papers of James Madison, ed. David B. Mattern, J. C. A. Stagg, Jeanne K. Cross, and Susan Holbrook Perdue (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1991), 17:159.
75. ”The Alien Act—An Act Respecting Alien Enemies,” Avalon Project, Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/alien.asp, accessed March 12, 2015; “The Sedition Act—An Act in Addition to the Act, Entitled ‘An Act for the Punishment of Certain Crimes Against the United States,” Avalon Project, Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/sedact.asp, accessed March 12 2015.
76. Phillip I. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence in the Early American Republic: The First Amendment and the Legacy of English Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 85–86.
77. Speech of Robert Goodloe Harper, 5 July 1798, in Annals of Congress, 5th Cong., 2nd Sess., 2102.
78. Speech of Harrison Otis, 10 July 1798, in Annals of Congress, 5th Cong., 2nd Sess., 2148, 2150.
79. Speech of Albert Gallatin, 5 July 1798, in Annals of Congress, 5th Cong., 2nd Sess., 2110.
80. Speech of John Nicholas, 10 July 1798, in Annals of Congress, 5th Cong., 2nd Sess., 2144.
81. Speech of Albert Gallatin, 10 July 1798, in Annals of Congress, 5th Cong., 2nd Sess., 2158–2160.
82. Speech of Albert Gallatin, 10 July 1798, in Annals of Congress, 5th Cong., 2nd Sess., 2162.
83. Speech of Albert Gallatin, 5 July 1798, in Annals of Congress, 5th Cong., 2nd Sess., 2110.
84. Speech of Albert Gallatin, 10 July 1798, in Annals of Congress, 5th Cong., 2nd Sess, 2162.
85. Speech of Albert Gallatin, 10 July 1798, in Annals of Congress, 2162.
86. Speech of Albert Gallatin, 10 July 1798, in Annals of Congress, 2141.
87. For my account of Madison’s and Jefferson’s secret work in opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts, including the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, I relied on the excellent scholarship of Koch and Ammon, “Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions,” 145–76; and Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:529–35.
88. Thomas Jefferson to Thomas Mann Randolph, 9 May 1798, and Jefferson to James Madison, 26 April 1798, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:341, 300.
89. Barbara B. Oberg, “A New Republican Order, Letter by Letter,” Journal of the Early Republic 25, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 7–9.
90. Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, 23 January 1799, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:636.
91. Wilson Cary Nicholas to Thomas Jefferson, 4 October 1798, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:556.
92. Thomas Jefferson to Wilson Cary Nicholas, 5 October 1798, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:557; Koch and Ammon, “Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions,” 155–56.
93. Koch and Ammon, “Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions,” 156–58; Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:529–56.
94. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 17 November 1798, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:580.
95. Koch and Ammon, “Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions,” 160–61; Madison: Writings, 589–91.
96. Thomas Jefferson to Wilson Cary Nicholas, 29 November 1798, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:590; Koch and Ammon, “Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions,” 158–60; Madison, Madison: Writings, 589–91.
97. Joseph McGraw, “‘To Secure These Rights’: Virginia Republicans on the Strategies of Political Opposition, 1788–1800,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 91, no. 1 (January 1983): 62–63; Frank Maloy Anderson, “Contemporary Opinion of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions I,” American Historical Review 5, no. 1 (October 1899): 46; Thomas Jefferson to Edmund Pendleton, 14 February 1799, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 31:36–37.
98. Jeffrey L. Pasley, The Tyranny of Printers: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2001), 105–7.
99. Richard N. Rosenfeld, American Aurora: A Democratic-Republican Returns. The Suppressed History of Our Nation’s Beginnings and the Heroic Newspaper That Tried to Report It (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 44. For a discussion of Cobbett, see Eric Burns, Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), 338–50.
100. American, 18 May 1799; Pasley, Tyranny of Printers, 161–62.
101. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 5 February 1799, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 31:10.
102. Pasley, Tyranny of Printers, 405, 407–9; Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 222–23.
103. Aurora, 28 August 1798; Pasley, Tyranny of Printers, 129–30.
104. Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, 19 October 1823, in The Works of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Paul Leicester Ford (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1905), 12:316.
105. Thomas Jefferson to Thomas Mann Randolph, 9 May 1798 and note, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:341–42; Eugene Volokh, “Symbolic Expression and the Original Meaning of the First Amendment,” Georgetown Law Journal 97 (2009): 1061.
106. John Adams to Abigail Adams, 28 April 1777, in Familiar Letters of John Adams and His Wife Abigail Adams During the Revolution, ed. Charles Francis Adams (New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1876), 267–68.
107. Porcupine’s Gazette, 15 August 1798; Massachusetts Mercury, 19 June 1798.
108. Aurora, 18 July 1798.
109. Independent Chronicle, 3 December to 6 December 1798; Bee, 12 December 1798; Gazette of the United States, 17 December 1798.
110. Abigail Adams to Mary Cranch, 11 December 1799, in New Letters of Abigail Adams 1788–1801, 221.
111. Geoffrey R. Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 46.
112. I drew from several excellent accounts of the prosecution of David Brown: James Morton Smith, “The Federalist ‘Saints’ versus ‘The Devil of Sedition’: The Liberty Pole Cases of Dedham, Massachusetts,” 1798–1799, New England Quarterly 28, no. 2 (June 1955): 198–215; Frank Maloy Anderson, “The Enforcement of the Alien and Sedition Laws,” Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1912 (Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1914), 122–25.
113. Columbian Centinel (Boston), 7 November 1798.
114. Stone, Perilous Times, 58.
115. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence, 101–2; Stone, Perilous Times, 48, 63.
116. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence, 102–5; Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 3 November 1798, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 30:576.
117. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence, 126; Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 136–37.
118. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence, 125–31.
119. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence, 77–79.
120. Frank Maloy Anderson, “Contemporary Opinion of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions,” American Historical Review 5, no. 2 (December 1899): 241; Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 177.
121. Frank Maloy Anderson, “Contemporary Opinion of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions I,” American Historical Review 5, no. 1 (October 1899): 45–61.
122. Anderson, “Contemporary Opinion,” 235.
123. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 23 August 1799, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 31:173–74; Koch and Ammon, “Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions,” 165–67.
124. Koch and Ammon, “Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions,” 165–70; Thomas Jefferson to Wilson Cary Nicholas, 5 September 1799, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 31:178–79.
125. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, 29 December 1799, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 31:278.
126. Speech of John Nicholas, Annals of Congress, 5th Cong., 3rd Sess., 25 February 1799, 3003–14.
127. Madison: Writings, 612.
128. Madison: Writings, 645–46.
129. Madison: Writings, 652, 655.
130. Madison: Writings, 648–50.
131. Madison: Writings, 654.
132. Madison: Writings, 647.
133. Madison: Writings, 647.
134. Madison: Writings, 647–48.
135. Madison: Writings, 647.
136. For a comprehensive account of freedom of expression during wartime, see Geoffrey R. Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime, From the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004).
137. Anderson, “Origins of the Press Clause,” 455, 516–19.
138. Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 33:134–35.
139. Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 33:148–52.
140. Miller, Crisis in Freedom, 227.
141. Abigail Adams to Thomas Jefferson, 1 July 1804; Jefferson to Abigail Adams, 22 July 1804, in Adams-Jefferson Letters, 273, 275.
142. Boston Patriot, 7 June 1809.
Afterword
1. Thomas Jefferson to Levi Lincoln, 24 March 1802, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Barbara B. Oberg (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 37:119.
2. Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: First Term, 1801–1805 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1970), 4:208–18.
3. Jefferson: Writings, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Library of America, 1984), 521.
4. Thomas Jefferson to Abigail Adams, 11 September 1804, in The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson & Abigail & John Adams, ed. Lester J. Cappon (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), 279.
5. Second Inaugural Address, March 4, 1805, Jefferson: Writings, 521.
6. Phillip I. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence in the Early American Republic: The First Amendment and the Legacy of English Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 149–50.
7. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence, 204–9.
8. Thomas McKean to Thomas Jefferson, 7 February 1803, in Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 39:473; Jefferson to McKean, 19 February 1803, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 39:553; Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence, 151, 185, 192–94.
9. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence, 151, 156–166.
10. James Madison: Writings, ed. Jack N. Rakove (New York: Library of America, 1999), 651.
11. See generally Leonard W. Levy, Jefferson and Civil Liberties: The Darker Side (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1989).
12. Thomas Jefferson to John Norvell, 11 June 1807, in Memoirs, Correspondence, and Private Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Thomas Jefferson Randolph (London: Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley, 1829), 4:82–83.
13. Thomas Jefferson to Walter Jones, 2 January 1814, in Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-07-02-0052 (last update: 2015-03-20), source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Retirement Series, vol. 7, 28 November 1813 to 30 September 1814, ed. J. Jefferson Looney (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 100–104.
14. Boston Patriot, 7 June 1809.
15. John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, 24 August 1815, in Adams-Jefferson Letters, 455.
16. Thomas Jefferson to Monsieur A. Coray, 31 October 1823, in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. H. A. Washington (Washington, DC: Taylor & Maury, 1854), 7:323–24.
17. Madison: Writings, 647.
18. Gitlow v. New York, 268 U.S. 652 at 666 (1925).
19. Patterson v. Colorado, 205 U.S. 454 at 462 (1907).
20. Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919).
21. For an excellent discussion of Holmes’s change in his views of freedom of speech, see Thomas Healy, The Great Dissent: How Oliver Wendell Holmes Changed His Mind—and Changed the History of Free Speech in America (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2013).
22. Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616 at 630 (1919) (Holmes, J., dissenting).
23. Abrams, 250 U.S. at 628, 630 (1919) (Holmes, J., dissenting).
24. Abrams, 250 U.S. at 630 (Holmes, J., dissenting).
25. For a discussion of Justice Brandeis’s concurring opinion, see Vincent Blasi, “The First Amendment and the Ideal of Civic Courage: The Brandeis Opinion in Whitney v. California,” Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 29 (summer 1988): 653.
26. Blasi, “Civic Courage,” 671–72.
27. Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357 at 375–77 (1927) (Brandeis, J., concurring).
28. Whitney, 274 U.S. at 375–77 (Brandeis, J., concurring).
29. New York Times v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 at 279–80.
30. New York Times, 376 U.S. at 276.
31. New York Times, 376 U.S. at 273.
32. New York Times, 376 U.S. at 270.
33. New York Times, 376 U.S. at 275.