Notes

INTRODUCTION: BAD TOBACCO

1. 1. John Carter Brown Library (hereafter JCBL), BFBR B.513 F.6, extracts from Martin Benson’s Journal, Ship Charlotte, November 29, 1794.

2. 2. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, folder 13, September 15, 1796. Suzanne Schwarz, Zachary Macaulay and the Development of the Sierra Leone Company, 1793–4 (Leipzig, 2000) is an invaluable source for anyone interested in Macaulay’s involvement in Sierra Leone.

3. 3. JCBL, BFBR B.513 F.6, extracts from Martin Benson’s Journal, Ship Charlotte, November 29, 1794.

4. 4. https://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/relativevalue.php.

5. 5. Huntington Library, MSS MY 489, July 2, 1799, to Selina; Catherine Hall, Macaulay and Son (New Haven, 2012).

6. 6. Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (Oxford, 1962), 166.

7. 7. A Letter to His Royal Highness the Duke of Gloucester President of the African Institution from Zachary Macaulay, Esq. Occasioned by a Pamphlet Lately Published by Dr. Thorpe, Late Judge of the Colony of Sierra Leone, 2nd ed. (London, 1815), 44.

8. 8. Edward Baptist, The Half Has Never Been Told (New York, 2014); Sven Beckert and Seth Rockman, eds., Slavery’s Capitalism (Philadelphia, 2016); Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton (New York, 2014); Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams (Cambridge, MA, 2013).

9. 9. Julie Holcomb, Moral Commerce (Ithaca, NY, 2016); Martha Katz-Hyman, “Doing Good while Doing Well: The Decision to Manufacture Products That Supported the Abolition of the Slave Trade and Slavery in Great Britain,” Slavery and Abolition 29, no. 2 (2008): 219–231; Lawrence Glickman, “ ‘Buy for the Sake of the Slave’: Abolitionism and the Origins of American Consumer Activism,” American Quarterly 56, no. 4 (2004): 889–912; Charlotte Sussman, Consuming Anxieties (Stanford, 2000); Clare Midgley, Women against Slavery: The British Campaigns, 1780–1870 (Oxford, 1992).

10. 10. For instance, Emily Conroy-Krutz, Christian Imperialism (Cornell, 2015); Rosemary Zagarri, “The Significance of the ‘Global Turn’ for the Early American Republic,” Journal of the Early Republic 31 (2011): 1–37; Caitlin Fitz, Our Sister Republics (New York, 2016); Nancy Shoemaker, “The Extraterritorial United States to 1860,” Diplomatic History 42, no. 1 (2018): 36–54.

11. 11. Walter Johnson, “The Pedestal and the Veil: Rethinking the Capitalism / Slavery Question,” Journal of the Early Republic 24, no. 2 (2004): 304.

12. 12. Gareth Austin, “Capitalism and Colonies,” in The Cambridge History of Capitalism, ed. Larry Neal and Jeffrey Williamson (Cambridge, 2014), 309; Sven Beckert, “Emancipation and Empire,” American Historical Review 109, no. 5 (2004): 1405–1438; Padraic Scanlan, Freedom’s Debtors (New Haven, 2017).

13. 13. John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1680 (Cambridge, 1998); Mariana Candido, An African Slaving Port in the Atlantic World (Cambridge, 2015); Roquinaldo Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Atlantic World: Angola and Brazil during the Era of the Slave Trade (Cambridge, 2014); Jose C. Curto, “Alcohol under the Context of the Atlantic Slave Trade,” Cahiers d’etudes africaines 201 (2011): 51–85; Toby Green, The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589 (Cambridge, 2012); James Sweet, Domingos Álvares, African Healing, and the Intellectual History of the Atlantic World (Chapel Hill, NC, 2011); Mouser, “Trade, Coasters, and Conflict in the Rio Pongo from 1790 to 1808,” Journal of African History 14, no. 1 (1973): 45–64; and George E. Brooks, Yankee Traders, Old Coasters, and African Middlemen: A History of American Trade with West Africa in the Nineteenth Century (Boston, 1970).

14. 14. For instance, Christina Mobley, “The Kongolese Atlantic: Central African Slavery and Culture from Mayombe to Haiti” (PhD diss., Duke University, 2015); Laurent Dubois, “An Enslaved Enlightenment: Rethinking the Intellectual History of the French Atlantic,” Social History 31, no. 1 (2006): 1–14. For more on the integration of the French Atlantic, see Bradley Bond, French Colonial Louisiana and the Atlantic World (Baton Rouge, 2005); Brett Rushforth, Bonds of Alliance: Indigenous and Atlantic Slaveries in New France (Chapel Hill, NC, 2012); Jennifer L. Palmer, Intimate Bonds: Family and Slavery in the French Atlantic (Philadelphia, 2016); James Searing, West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce (Cambridge, 2003); Sara E. Johnson, “ ‘Your Mother Gave Birth to a Pig’: Power, Abuse, and Planter Linguistics in Baudry des Lozière’s Vocabulaire Congo,” Early American Studies 16, no. 1 (2018): 7–40.

15. 15. Joseph E. Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development (Cambridge, 2002), xvii.

16. 16. Beckert and Rockman, Slavery’s Capitalism; Joseph Inikori and Stanley Engerman, The Atlantic Slave Trade (Raleigh, NC, 1992); Nick Draper, The Price of Emancipation (Cambridge, 2013); Ian Baucom, Specters of the Atlantic (Raleigh, NC, 2005); Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery (Cambridge, MA, 2007); Kenneth Morgan, Slavery, Atlantic Trade and the British Economy, 1660–1800 (Cambridge, 2000).

17. 17. Joseph Inikori, “The Credit Needs of the African Trade and the Development of the Credit Economy in England,” Explorations in Economic History 27 (1990): 197–231.

18. 18. Robin Pearson and David Richardson, “Social Capital, Institutional Innovation and Atlantic Trade before 1800,” Business History 50, no. 6 (2008): 765–780.

19. 19. Walter Rodney, A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 1545–1800 (Oxford, 1970), 171–172; A. G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973); Marion Johnson, Henry Gemery, and Jan Hogendorn, “Evidence on English / African Terms of Trade in the Eighteenth Century,” Explorations in Economic History 27, no. 2 (1990): 157–177; Toby Green, Fistful of Shells (London, 2019). I have found Jeremy Prestholdt, Domesticating the World, particularly instructive here.

20. 20. Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006), 262; François Manchuelle, “The ‘Regeneration’ of Africa: An Important and Ambiguous Concept in 18th and 19th Century French Thinking about Africa,” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 36, no. 44 (1996): 559–588; Philip Curtin, The Image of Africa (Madison, WI, 1973).

21. 21. For instance, Holcomb, Moral Commerce; Katz-Hyman, “Doing Good while Doing Well”; Lawrence Glickman, “ ‘Buy for the Sake of the Slave’: Abolitionism and the Origins of American Consumer Activism,” American Quarterly 56, no. 4 (2004): 889–912; Robin Law, ed., From Slave Trade to “Legitimate” Commerce (Cambridge, 1995); Martin Lynn, Commerce and Economic Change in West Africa (Cambridge, 1997); K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830–1885 (Oxford, 1956). For instance, Philip Curtin, Economic Change in Precolonial Africa: Senegambia in the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison, WI, 1975); James Searing, West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce: The Senegal River Valley, 1700–1860 (Cambridge, 1993); Walter Rodney, A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 1545–1800 (Oxford, 1970); Boubacar Barry, Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge, 1998); Brooks, Yankee Traders. This is an emerging field, as revealed in the chapters by George E. Brooks, Philip J. Havik, Marika Sherwood, and José Lingna Nafafé in Brokers of Change: Atlantic Commerce and Cultures in Pre-Colonial Western Africa, ed. Toby Green (Oxford, 2012), and in Christopher Brown’s current research in the Senegambia gum arabic trade.

22. 22. See Dike, Trade and Politics; A. G. Hopkins, “Economic Imperialism in West Africa, Lagos 1880–92,” Economic History Review 21 (1968): 580–606; Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973); Patrick Manning, “Slaves, Palm Oil and Political Power on the West African Coast,” African Historical Studies 2 (1969); Law, From Slave Trade to “Legitimate” Commerce; Martin Lynn, Commerce and Economic Change in West Africa (Cambridge, 1997); Paul Lovejoy and David Richardson, “The Initial ‘Crisis of Adaptation’: The Impact of British Abolition on the Atlantic Slave Trade in West Africa, 1808–1820,” in Law, From Slave Trade, to “Legitimate” Commerce, 32–56; Brooks, Yankee Traders.

23. 23. Ralph Austen, “The Abolition of the Overseas Slave Trade: A Distorted Theme in African History,” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 5, no. 2 (1970): 270.

24. 24. Ann Brower Stahl, “Colonial Entanglements and the Practices of Taste: An Alternative to Logocentric Approaches,” American Anthropologist, n.s., 104, no. 3 (2002): 827–845; Ann Brower Stahl and Adria LaViolette, “Introduction: Current Trends in the Archaeology of African History,” Journal of African History 42, no. 3 (2009): 354; Ibrahima Thiaw, “Atlantic Impacts on Inland Senegambia: French Penetration and African Initiatives in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Gajaaga and Bundu (Upper Senegal River),” in Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives, ed. J. Cameron Monroe and Akinwumi Ogundiran (Cambridge, 2012), 57; Sherene Baugher and Robert W. Venables, “Ceramics as Indicators of Status and Class in Eighteenth-Century New York,” in Consumer Choice in Historical Archaeology, ed. Suzanne M. Spencer-Wood (New York, 1987), 31–53.

25. 25. Stanley Engerman, “Mercantilism and Overseas Trade, 1700–1800,” in The Economic History of Britain since 1700, ed. R. Floud and D. N. McCloskey (Cambridge, 1994), 194; C. W. Newbury, “Credit in Early Nineteenth Century West African Trade,” Journal of African History 13, no. 1 (1972): 84; Robin Law, Ouidah: The Social History of a West African Slaving Port, 1727–1892 (Athens, OH, 2004), 133–135; Paul G. E. Clemens, “The Consumer Culture of the Middle Atlantic, 1760–1820,” William and Mary Quarterly 62, no. 4 (2005): 580; Frank Trentmann, “Beyond Consumerism: New Historical Perspectives on Consumption,” Journal of Contemporary History 39, no. 3 (2004): 378; Robin Pearson and David Richardson, “Social Capital, Institutional Innovation and Atlantic Trade before 1800,” Business History 50, no. 6 (2008): 767; Joseph Inikori, “The Credit Needs,” 199.

26. 26. Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill, NC, 1944); Ralph Austen and Woodruff Smith, “Images of Africa and British Slave-Trade Abolition: The Transition to an Imperialist Ideology, 1787–1807,” African Historical Studies 2, no. 1 (1969): 69–83; Curtin, The Image of Africa; Brown, Moral Capital; Austen, “Abolition of the Overseas Slave Trade.”

27. 27. Albert O. Hirschmann, The Passions and the Interests (Princeton, 1977, 2013).

28. 28. Richard Thaler, Misbehaving: The Making of Behavioral Economics (New York, 2015).

29. 29. David Todd, Free Trade and Its Enemies in France, 1814–1851 (Cambridge, 2015).

30. 30. James Huston, “Economic Landscapes Yet to Be Discovered: The Early American Republic and Historians’ Unsubtle Adoption of Political Economy,” Journal of the Early Republic 24, no. 2 (2004): 219–231; Christopher Clark, “The Agrarian Context of American Capitalist Development,” in Capitalism Takes Command, ed. Michael Zakim and Gary Kornblith (Chicago, 2011).

31. 31. Helen Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory: Empire, Development and the Problem of Scientific Knowledge, 1870–1950 (Chicago, 2011). See also Sujit Sivasundaram, Nature and the Godly Empire (Cambridge, 2005); Richard Drayton, Nature’s Government (New Haven, 2000).

32. 32. Philip Curtin, The Image of Africa (Madison, WI, 1969).

33. 33. The term “West Africa” will refer throughout to the region as defined by the United Nations: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. It does not include West Central Africa (Cameroon through Angola).

34. 34. This is a West Africa–oriented periodization, although somewhat ironically inspired by J. F. Ade Ajayi and B. O. Oloruntimehin, who argue that the overemphasis on the subject of abolitionism in European writing about West Africa in this period reflects their, and not West Africa’s, preoccupations. “West Africa in the Anti-Slave Trade Era,” in The Cambridge History of Africa, ed. John E. Flint (Cambridge, 1977), 5:200. See also Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau, ed., From Slave Trade to Empire (Oxford, 2004).

35. 35. Randy M. Browne, Surviving Slavery in the British Caribbean (Philadelphia, 2017); Justin Roberts, Slavery and the Enlightenment in the British Atlantic (Cambridge, 2013); J. R. Oldfield, Transatlantic Abolitionism in the Age of Revolution (Cambridge, 2013); David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution (Oxford, 1999).

36. 36. Todd, Free Trade, 124.

37. 37. Carol Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil: Free Produce and Radical Antislavery, 1820–1860,” Journal of the Early Republic 27, no. 3 (2007): 377–405.

38. 38. Paul Finkelman, ed., Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895 (Oxford, 2009). In 1829–1830 Lundy’s partner was William Lloyd Garrison, who would go on to be a much more radical antislavery voice.

39. 39. Lawrence Jennings, French Anti-Slavery (Cambridge, 2000); Patricia Motylewski, La Société pour l’abolition de l’esclavage, 1834–1850 (L’Harmattan, 1998); Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau, La Révolution abolitionniste (Paris, 2017).

40. 40. Emma Rothschild, The Inner Lives of Empires (Princeton, 2011), 124–125.

41. 41. Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence (Princeton, 2000); Gareth Austin, “Reciprocal Comparison and African History,” African Studies Review 50, no. 3 (2007): 1–28; Polly Hill, Studies in Rural Capitalism (Cambridge, 1970), 3–17; Jean Comaroff and John Comaroff, “Theory from the South,” Anthropological Forum 22, no. 2 (2012): 113–131.

42. 42. For challenges to this, see Morten Jerven, Africa: Why Economists Get It Wrong (London, 2015); Jerven, “The History of African Poverty by Numbers: Evidence and Vantage Points,” Journal of African History 59, no. 3 (2018): 449–461; Gareth Austin, “The ‘Reversal of Fortune’ Thesis and the Compression of History: Perspectives from African and Comparative Economic History,” Journal of International Development 20, no. 8 (2008): 996–1027; Ewout Frankema and Marlous van Waijenburg, “Africa Rising? A Historical Perspective,” African Affairs 117, no. 469 (2018): 543–568.

43. 43. Austin, “Reciprocal Comparison”; also Comaroff and Comaroff, Theory from the South.

44. 44. Klas Ronnback, “Living Standards on the Pre-Colonial Gold Coast: A Qualitative Estimate of African Laborers’ Welfare Rations,” European Review of Economic History 18 (2014): 185–202; A. G. Hopkins, “The New Economic History of Africa,” Journal of African History 50, no. 2 (2009): 155–177; Morten Jerven, “African Growth Recurring: An Economic History Perspective on African Growth Episodes, 1690–2010,” Economic History of Developing Regions 25 (2010): 127–154; Morten Jerven, “Capitalism in Pre-Colonial Africa: A Review,” African Economic History Network Working Paper no. 27.

45. 45. See Rhiannon Stephens, “Poverty’s Pasts: A Case for Longue Durée Studies,” Journal of African History 59, no. 3 (2018): 399–409.

46. 46. Thomas Haskell, “Capitalism and the Origins of the Humanitarian Sensibility, Parts 1 and 2,” in The Antislavery Debate: Capitalism and Abolitionism as a Problem in Historical Interpretation, ed. Thomas Bender (Berkeley, 1992); Williams, Capitalism and Slavery.

47. 47. Jonathan Connolly, “Indentured Labor Migration and the Meaning of Emancipation,” Past & Present 238, no. 1 (2018): 85–119; Richard Huzzey, Freedom Burning (Ithaca, NY, 2012); Padraic Scanlan, “The Colonial Rebirth of British Anti-Slavery,” American Historical Review 121, no. 4 (2016): 1085–1113; Andrea Major, Slavery, Abolitionism, and Empire in India (Liverpool, 2012).

1. ANXIOUS CONSUMERS

1. 1. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, Macaulay’s journal, folder 15, October 20, 1796.

2. 2. Albert O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests (Princeton, 1977, 2013).

3. 3. John Ashworth, “The Relationship between Capitalism and Humanitarianism,” American Historical Review 92, no. 4 (1987): 824; Philip Gould, Barbaric Traffic: Commerce and Antislavery in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, MA, 2009).

4. 4. Thomas Haskell, “Capitalism and Humanitarian Sensibility, 1,” reprinted in The Antislavery Debate, ed. Thomas Bender (Berkeley, 1992), 111; Debra Satz, Why Some Things Should Not Be for Sale (Oxford, 2010), 192–195.

5. 5. Haskell, “Capitalism and Humanitarian Sensibility,” 112.

6. 6. Michael Sandel, What Money Can’t Buy (New York, 2012), 121, citing Fred Hirsch.

7. 7. David Brion Davis, “What the Abolitionists Were Up Against” (Oxford, 1999), reprinted in Bender, The Antislavery Debate, 19.

8. 8. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests, 105.

9. 9. Ann Brower Stahl, “Colonial Entanglements and the Practices of Taste: An Alternative to Logocentric Approaches,” American Anthropologist, n.s., 104, no. 3 (2002): 827–845.

10. 10. Akinwumi Ogundiran, “Of Small Things Remembered: Beads, Cowries, and Cultural Translations of the Atlantic Experience in Yorubaland,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 35, nos. 2–3 (2002): 427–457; Neil Norman, “Hueda (Whydah) Country and Town: Archaeological Perspectives on the Rise and Collapse of an African Atlantic Kingdom,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 42, no. 3 (2009): 387–410.

11. 11. Philip Misevich, “The Sierra Leone Hinterland and the Provisioning of Early Freetown, 1792–1803,” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 3 (2008). Philip Curtin, Economic Change in Precolonial Africa: Senegambia in the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison, WI, 1975); Boubacar Barry, Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge, 1998); Rebecca Shumway, The Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade (Rochester, NY, 2011); Robin Law, Ouidah: The Social History of a West African Slaving Port (Athens, OH, 2005); Silke Strickrodt, Afro-European Trade in the Atlantic World (Rochester, NY, 2015); Mariana Candido, An African Slaving Port in the Atlantic World (Cambridge, 2013).

12. 12. John Atkins, A Voyage to Guinea, Brasil and the West Indies (London, 1735), 159. See also Chris Evans and Göran Rydén, “ ‘Voyage Iron’: An Atlantic Slave Trade Currency, Its European Origins, and West African Impact,” Past & Present 239, no. 1 (2018): 41–70; Harvey Feinberg and Marion Johnson, “The West African Ivory Trade during the Eighteenth Century: The ‘… and Ivory’ Complex,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 15, no. 3 (1982): 435–453.

13. 13. Francois Richard, “Recharting Atlantic Encounters: Object Trajectories and Histories of Value in the Siin (Senegal) and Senegambia,” Archaeological Dialogues 17, no. 1 (2010): 12; Jane Guyer, “Wealth in People and Self-Realization in Equatorial Africa,” Man 28 (1993): 243–265; Jan de Vries, The Industrious Revolution (Cambridge, 2008), 25–37; Arjun Appadurai, The Social Life of Things (New York, 1986).

14. 14. Beverly Lemire, Global Trade and the Transformation of Consumer Cultures (Cambridge, 2018), 190–247.

15. 15. Anna Maria Falconbridge, Narrative of Two Voyages to the River Sierra Leone during the years 1791–1792–1793 (London, 1794), February 10, 1791.

16. 16. J. Montefiore, An Authentic Account of the late Expedition to Bulam on the Coast of Africa, with a description of the present settlement of Sierra Leone and the Adjacent Country (London, 1794), Sierra Leone, November 28, 1792, 42.

17. 17. Robert DuPlessis, The Material Atlantic (Cambridge, 2016).

18. 18. Ty Reese, “Liberty, Insolence, Rum: Cape Coast and the American Revolution,” Itinerario 28, no. 3 (2004), 18–38; George E. Brooks, Yankee Traders, Old Coasters, and African Middlemen: A History of American Trade with West Africa in the Nineteenth Century (Boston, 1970), 7; Jay Coughtry, Notorious Triangle (Philadelphia, 1981), 6–7.

19. 19. The National Archives, United Kingdom (hereafter cited as TNA), CUST 17 / 10; John Carter Brown Library (hereafter cited as JCBL), BFBR B.523 F.5, Isles de Loss, July 14, 1817, W. Leigh and Samuel Samo to Brown & Ives; Colleen Kriger, “ ‘Guinea Cloth’: Production and Consumption of Cotton Textiles in West Africa before and during the Atlantic Slave Trade,” in The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 1200–1850, ed. Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 105–126.

20. 20. George E. Brooks, “ ‘Artists’ Depictions of Senegalese Signares: Insights concerning French Racist and Sexist Attitudes in the Nineteenth Century,” Genéve Afrique / Geneva Africa 18, no. 1 (1980): 75–90; René Claude Geoffroy de Villeneuve, L’Afrique, ou histoire, moeurs, usages et coutumes des africains: Le Sénégal (Paris, 1814); Bronwen Everill, “All the Baubles They Needed: ‘Industriousness’ and Slavery in Saint-Louis and Gorée,” Early American Studies (Fall 2017): 714–739; Hilary Jones, The Metis of Senegal (Bloomington, IN, 2013).

21. 21. For instance, Kazuo Kobayashi, “Indian Textiles and Gum Arabic in the Lower Senegal River,” African Economic History 45, no. 2 (2017): 27–53; Jody Benjamin, “The Texture of Change: Cloth, Commerce, and History in Western Africa, 1700–1850” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2016); Anne Ruderman, “Supplying the Slave Trade: How Europeans Met African Demand for European Manufactured Products, Commodities and Re-exports, 1670–1790” (PhD diss., Yale University, 2016); DuPlessis, The Material Atlantic; Colleen Kriger, Cloth in West African History; Toyomu Masaki, “Export of Indian Guinée to Senegal via France: Intercolonial Trade in the Long Nineteenth Century,” Socio-Economic History 81, no. 2 (2015): 239–260; Richard Roberts, “Guinée Cloth: Linked Transformations within France’s Empire in the Nineteenth Century,” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 32, no. 128 (1992): 597–627.

22. 22. Marion Johnson, “Commodities, Customs, and the Computer,” History in Africa 11 (1984): 10; Jan Hogendorn and Philip Gemery, “The ‘Hidden Half’ of the Anglo-African Trade in the Eighteenth Century: The Significance of Marion Johnson’s Research,” in West African Economic and Social History: Studies in Memory of Marion Johnson, ed. Devid Henige and T.C. McCaskie (Madison, 1990), 83; Katharine Frederick, “Global Competition in the Local Marketplace: The Impact of Foreign Cotton Cloth Imports on British West African Cotton Textile Industries during the Pre-Colonial and Colonial Eras” (PhD diss., Utrecht University, 2013).

23. 23. François Richard, “Political Transformations and Cultural Landscapes in Senegambia during the Atlantic Era: An Alternative View from the Siin (Senegal)?,” in Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa, ed. J. Cameron Monroe and Akin Ogundiran, (Cambridge, 2012), 100–101.

24. 24. Curtin, Economic Change, 323.

25. 25. James F. Searing, “God Alone Is King”: Islam and Emancipation in Senegal (Portsmouth, NH, 2002), 4–9; Michael Gomez, Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad (Cambridge, 1992).

26. 26. Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, “Research on an African Mode of Production,” Critique of Anthropology 2, no. 4 / 5 (1975): 38–71.

27. 27. J. Cameron Monroe and Akin Ogundiran, eds., Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa (Cambridge, 2012), 2.

28. 28. Stahl, “Colonial Entanglements,” 827–845; Ann Brower Stahl and Adria LaViolette, “Introduction: Current Trends in the Archaeology of African History,” Journal of African History 42, no. 3 (2009): 354.

29. 29. Ibrahima Thiaw, “Atlantic Impacts on Inland Senegambia: French Penetration and African Initiatives in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Gajaago and Bundu (Upper Senegal River),” in Monroe and Ogundiran, Power and Landscape, 57.

30. 30. Susan Keech Mcintosh and Ibrahima Thiaw, “Tools for Understanding Transformation and Continuity in Senegambian Society, 1500–1900,” in West Africa during the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives, ed. Christopher DeCorse (Leicester, 2001), 30–31.

31. 31. Richard, “Political Transformations,” 100; Jordan Goodman, Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence (Routledge, 2005).

32. 32. J. A. LeBrasseur, Mémoire pouvant servir de réponse à la letter de Monseigneur de Sartines (1776), as quoted in Francois Richard, “Political Transformations and Cultural Landscapes in Senegambia during the Atlantic Era: An Alternative View from the Siin (Senegal)?” in Power and Landscape, ed. Monroe and Ogundiran, 100.

33. 33. Gomez, Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad, 77–79.

34. 34. Archives Nationale du Senegal (hereafter cited as ANS), AOF 13G1, Traites, “Articles convenus entre Mr le General et Ordonnateur Dumentel de Clergeau et les marchands de boeufs de St Louis,” August 26, 1782.

35. 35. Mark Hinchman, “House and Household on Gorée, Senegal, 1758–1837,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 65, no. 2 (2006): 166–187; Ibrahima Thiaw, “Slaves without Shackles: An Archaeology of Everyday Life on Gorée Island, Senegal” in Slavery in Africa: Archaeology and Memory, ed. Paul Lane and Kevin MacDonald, (Oxford, 2011), 147–166; Monroe and Ogundiran, Power and Landscape.

36. 36. John Thornton, “African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade,” in Abolitionism and Imperialism in Britain, Africa, and the Atlantic, ed. Derek Peterson (Athens, OH, 2010), 39.

37. 37. J. Matthews, A Voyage to the River Sierra Leone (London, 1788), 122–129; Thomas Winterbottom, An Account of the Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone (London, 1803), 238; Alexander Gordon Laing, Travels in the Timannee, Kooranko and Soolima Countries, in Western Africa (London, 1825), 85–86, as cited in Rosalind Shaw, Memories of the Slave Trade: Ritual and the Historical Imagination in Sierra Leone (Chicago, 2002), 218.

38. 38. Eltis and Jennings, “Trade between Western Africa and the Atlantic World in the Pre-Colonial Era,” American Historical Review 93, no. 4 (1988): 936–959.

39. 39. Not to mention demographics: Paul Lovejoy, “Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature,” Journal of African History 30 (1989): 365–394; Candido, An African Slaving Port; James Searing, West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce (Cambridge, 1993); Roquinaldo Ferreira, Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Atlantic World (Cambridge, 2012); Toby Green, The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa (Cambridge, 2011); Robin Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa, 1550–1750 (Oxford, 1991); G. Ugo Nwokeji, The Slave Trade and Culture in the Bight of Biafra: An African Society in the Atlantic World (Cambridge, 2010).

40. 40. Adama Gueye, “The Impact of the Slave Trade on Cayor and Baol: Mutations in Habitat and Land Occupancy,” in Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies, ed. Sylviane A. Diouf (Athens, OH, 2003), 50–61.

41. 41. An Account of the Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone (London, 1803); Adam Afzelius, Sierra Leone Journal, 1795–1796 (Uppsala, 1967), 14.

42. 42. Fajara Oral Archive, The Gambia. 200A 27 / 2 / 73.

43. 43. Kevin C. MacDonald and Seydou Camara, “Segou, Slavery, and Sifinso,” in Monroe and Ogundiran, Power and Landscape, 177–178.

44. 44. Paul Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery (Cambridge, 1983, 2011); Candido, An African Slaving Port; Nwokeji, The Slave Trade and Culture in the Bight of Biafra, 117.

45. 45. Christopher DeCorse, “Fortified Towns of the Koinadugu Plateau: Northern Sierra Leone in the Pre-Atlantic and Atlantic Worlds,” in Monroe and Ogundiran, Power and Landscape, 278–308; Ray Kea, “The Local and the Global: Historiographical Reflections on West Africa in the Atlantic Age,” in Monroe and Ogundirun, Power and Landscape, 339–375.

46. 46. James Searing, West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce (Cambridge, 1993), 129–162; interviews with Yammar Diagne, Saloum, February 2015; Klas Rönnbäck and Dimitrios Theodoridis, “African Agricultural Productivity and the Transatlantic Slave Trade: Evidence from Senegambia in the Nineteenth century,” Economic History Review 72, no. 1 (2019): 209–232.

47. 47. Gomez, Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad, 75.

48. 48. Transatlantic Slave Voyages Database, www.slavevoyages.org.

49. 49. Compiled from tables in David Richardson, “West African Consumption Patterns and Their Influence on the Eighteenth Century English Slave Trade,” in The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, ed. Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn (New York, 1979), 312–315.

50. 50. Rudolph T. Ware III, The Walking Quran: Islamic Education, Embodied Knowledge, and History in West Africa (Chapel Hill, NC, 2014), 118.

51. 51. Ty M. Reese, “ ‘Eating’ Luxury: Fante Middlemen, British Goods, and Changing Dependencies on the Gold Coast,” William and Mary Quarterly 66, no. 4 (2009): 864. This is different from local inflation, a hotly debated topic in African economic history. See Marion Johnson, “The Cowrie Currencies of West Africa, Parts I and II,” Journal of African History 11, no. 1 (1970): 17–49, and 11,no. 3 (1970): 331–353; Karl Polanyi, Dahomey and the Slave Trade (Seattle, 1966); Robin Law, “Posthumous Questions for Karl Polanyi,” Journal of African History 33 (1992): 387–420; Toby Green, “Africa and the Price Revolution,” Journal of African History 57, no. 1 (2016): 1–24; Klas Ronnback, “The Challenge of Studying Inflation in Precolonial Africa,” History in Africa 45 (2018): 5–18; Toby Green, “The Challenge of Studying Inflation in Precolonial Africa: a Response,” History in Africa 45 (2018): 19–28.

52. 52. H. A. Gemery, Jan Hogendorn and Marion Johnson, “Evidence on English / African Terms of Trade in the Eighteenth Century,” Explorations in Economic History 27 (1990): 168.

53. 53. Paul Lovejoy and David Richardson, “British Abolition and Its Impact on Slave Prices along the Atlantic Coast of Africa, 1783–1850,” Journal of Economic History 55, no. 1 (1995): table 3, 113.

54. 54. Report of the Committee Managing a Fund Raised by some Friends, for the Purpose of Promoting African Instruction; with an account of a visit to the Gambia and Sierra Leone (London, 1822), 47.

55. 55. Shaw, Memories of the Slave Trade, 205. See also John Thornton, “Cannibals, Witches, and Slave Traders in the Atlantic World,” William and Mary Quarterly 60, no. 2 (2003): 273–294.

56. 56. Jean Boyd and Beverly Blow Mack, The Collected Works of Nana Asma’u in English (Ann Arbor, 1997), 387.

57. 57. Ralph Austen, “The Moral Economy of Witchcraft: An Essay in Comparative History,” in Modernity and Its Malcontents, ed. Jean Comaroff and John Comaroff (Chicago, 1993), 94; E. P. Thompson, “The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century,” Past & Present 50 (1971): 76–136; Tim Rogan, The Moral Economists (Princeton, 2017).

58. 58. Winterbottom, An Account; Adam Afzelius, Sierra Leone Journal, 1795–1796, ed. Alexander Peter Kup (Uppsala, 1967), 14; Matthews, A Voyage, 154–155.

59. 59. Matthews, A Voyage, 154.

60. 60. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, Macaulay’s journal, June 30, 1793; Bruce Mouser, “Rebellion, Marronage and Jihad: Strategies of Resistance to Slavery on the Sierra Leone Coast, c. 1783–1796,” Journal of African History 48 (2007): 38–39.

61. 61. Ismail Rashid, “Escape, Revolt, and Marronage in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Sierra Leone Hinterland,” Canadian Journal of African Studies 34, no. 3 (2000): 666–670; Rashid, “ ‘A Devotion to the Idea of Liberty at Any Price’: Rebellion and Antislavery in the Upper Guinea Coast in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” in Diouf, Fighting the Slave Trade, 132–151; Walter Rodney, “Jihad and Social Revolution in Futa Djalon in the Eighteenth Century,” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 4, no. 2 (1968): 283–284.

62. 62. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, Macaulay’s journal, December 12, 1793.

63. 63. Rashid, “Escape, Revolt, and Marronage,” 659; H. F. C. Smith, “A Neglected Theme of West African History: The Islamic Revolutions of the 19th Century,” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 2, no. 2 (1961): 174–175; Paul E. Lovejoy, Jihad in West Africa during the Age of Revolutions (Athens, OH, 2016), 42.

64. 64. P. B. Clarke, “Islamic Millenarianism in West Africa: A ‘Revolutionary’ Ideology?,” Religious Studies 16, no. 3 (1980): 339; Ware, The Walking Qur’an, 339; Jerry Muller, The Mind and the Market (New York, 2002), 151.

65. 65. Ware, The Walking Qur’an, 129; Dominique Lamiral, L’Affrique et le people affriquain consideres sous tous leurs rapports avec notre commerce et nos colonies (Paris, 1789), 174; Clarke, “Islamic Millenarianism,” 317–339.

66. 66. Emma Rothschild, “An Alarming Commercial Crisis in Eighteenth-Century Angouleme: Sentiments in Economic History,” Economic History Review 51, no. 2 (1998): 268–293; Muller, Mind and the Market; Ellen Hartigan-O’Connor, The Ties That Buy (Philadelphia, 2009).

67. 67. Frank Trentmann, Empire of Things (London, 2016); Lemire, Global Trade.

68. 68. H. V. Bowen, The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756–1833 (Cambridge, 2005), 6; Stanley Chapman, Merchant Enterprise in Britain (Cambridge, 1992), 280; William Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt (Chapel Hill, NC, 2014).

69. 69. John Styles and Amanda Vickery, “Introduction,” in Gender, Taste, and Material Culture in Britain and North America, 1700–1830, ed. Styles and Vickery (New Haven, 2006), 2; Neil McKendrick, John Brewer, and J. H. Plumb, The Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth-Century England (London, 1982), 2.

70. 70. Maxine Berg, “In Pursuit of Luxury: Global History and British Consumer Goods in the Eighteenth Century,” Past & Present 182 (2004): 92.

71. 71. William M. Reddy, “The Structure of a Cultural Crisis: Thinking about Cloth,” in The Social Life of Things, ed. Arjun Appadurai (Cambridge, 1986), 268; Felicia Gottmann, Global Trade, Smuggling, and the Making of Economic Liberalism (Basingstoke, 2016).

72. 72. De Vries, The Industrious Revolution, 181.

73. 73. P. J. Marshall, “The British in Asia: Trade to Dominion, 1700–1765,” in The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 2, ed. P. J. Marshall (Oxford, 2002), 487. His source is the statistical tables compiled in K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company, 1660–1760 (Cambridge, 1978), 547–548.

74. 74. Ellen Hartigan-O’Connor, The Ties That Buy (Philadelphia, 2009), 50–51.

75. 75. James Deetz, In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of Early American Life (New York, 1977, 1996), 62.

76. 76. James Axtell, “The First Consumer Revolution,” in Consumer Society in American History: A Reader, ed. Lawrence Glickman (Ithaca, NY, 1999), 85–99; David Jaffee, A New Nation of Goods: The Material Culture of Early America (Philadelphia, 2010), 2; Martha Zierden, “A Trans-Atlantic Merchant’s House in Charleston: Archaeological Exploration of Refinement and Subsistence in an Urban Setting,” Historical Archaeology 33, no. 3 (1999): 73–87; Deetz, In Small Things Forgotten, 83–88; Billy G. Smith, “The Material Lives of Laboring Philadelphians, 1750 to 1800,” William and Mary Quarterly 38, no. 2 (1981): 163–202; Bettye Hobbs Pruitt, “Self-Sufficiency and the Agricultural Economy of Eighteenth Century Massachusetts,” William and Mary Quarterly 41, no. 3 (1984): 333–364; Jennifer Van Horn, The Power of Objects in Eighteenth-Century British America (Chapel Hill, NC, 2017).

77. 77. Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn, Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice, 3rd ed. (London, 2000), chap. 3.

78. 78. De Vries, Industrious Revolution, 181, 185.

79. 79. Deetz, In Small Things Forgotten, 84–85; Lemire, Global Trade, 85; Robert DuPlessis, “Cloth and the Atlantic Economy,” in The Atlantic Economy during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, ed. Peter Coclanis (Columbia, SC, 2005), 83.

80. 80. McKendrick, Brewer, and Plumb, Birth of a Consumer Society, 14–15.

81. 81. McKendrick, Brewer, and Plumb, Birth of a Consumer Society, 14–15.

82. 82. De Vries, Industrious Revolution, 70, 65; Cathy D. Matson and Peter S. Onuf, A Union of Interests: Political and Economic Thought in Revolutionary America (Lawrence, KS, 1990), 20.

83. 83. Hartigan-O’Connor, The Ties That Buy, 164–165; Jane Guyer, Marginal Gains: Monetary Transactions in Atlantic Africa (Chicago, 2004).

84. 84. Emma Rothschild, The Inner Lives of Empires (Princeton, 2012), 121–125; Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, The Age of Homespun (New York, 2001), 199.

85. 85. Hartigan-O’Connor, The Ties That Buy, 124.

86. 86. Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, A Midwife’s Tale (New York, 1990); see the debates between Davis, Haskell, and Ashworth in Bender, The Antislavery Debate.

87. 87. Tillman Nechtman, Nabobs: Identity and Empire in Eighteenth Century Briton (Cambridge, 2010). I am indebted to Brennan Monaco for his insight here.

88. 88. Historical Society of Philadelphia, 9455.F, “West India Luxury,” George 11132 Afr-465 Cartoons 1808 Wes.

89. 89. Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement: Influence of Evangelicalism on Social and Economic Thought, 1785–1865 (Oxford, 1988); Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006); Richard Huzzey, Freedom Burning (Ithaca, NY, 2012).

90. 90. Muller, Mind and the Market, 126.

91. 91. Paul Cheney, Revolutionary Commerce (Cambridge, MA, 2010), 199.

92. 92. Muller, Mind and the Market, 42–43.

93. 93. Madeleine Dobie, Trading Places: Colonization and Slavery in Eighteenth-Century French Culture (Ithaca, NY, 2010), 14–15; François Manchuelle, “The ‘Regeneration of Africa’: An Important and Ambiguous Concept in 18th and 19th Century French Thinking about Africa,” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 36, no. 144 (1996): 559–588.

94. 94. Thomas Clarkson, An Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, 3rd ed. (London, printed in Philadelphia,1787), 103–104; Ian Baucom, Specters of the Atlantic (Durham, NC, 2005); James Walvin, The Zong (New Haven, 2011). See also Charlotte Sussman, Consuming Anxieties (Stanford, 2000), 24–25; Clare Midgley, “Slave Sugar Boycotts, Female Activism and the Domestic Base of British Anti-Slavery Culture,” Slavery & Abolition 17, no. 3 (1996): 137–162.

95. 95. Baucom, Specters of the Atlantic, 109–112.

96. 96. Charles Rappeleye, Sons of Providence: The Brown Brothers, the Slave Trade and the Revolution (New York, 2007); Voyage of the Slave Ship Sally, Documents http://cds.library.brown.edu/projects/sally/.

97. 97. Lovejoy, Jihad in West Africa; Manuel Barcia, “An Atlantic Islamic Revolution: Dan Fodio’s Jihad and Slave Rebellion in Bahia and Cuba, 1804–1844,” Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage 2, no. 1 (2013): 6–18; Jennifer Lofkrantz, “Protecting Freeborn Muslims: The Sokoto Caliphate’s Attempts to Prevent Illegal Enslavement and Its Acceptance of the Strategy of Ransoming,” Slavery & Abolition 32, no. 1 (2011): 109–127.

98. 98. Lovejoy, Jihad in West Africa, 88–89; see also William Gervase Clarence-Smith, Islam and the Abolition of Slavery (London, 2006); Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau, La Révolution abolitionniste (Paris, 2017), 37–46.

99. 99. Ware, The Walking Quran, 126; Lovejoy, Jihad in West Africa, 91.

100. 100. Nana Asma’u, “The Way of the Pious” (Tanbīh al-ghāfilīn), in Boyd and Mack, Collected Works of Nana Asma’u, 24, 26–27.

101. 101. Ghyslaine Lydon, On Trans-Saharan Trails (Cambridge, 2009), 310.

102. 102. Stephanie Smallwood, “Commodified Freedom,” Journal of the Early Republic 24, no. 2 (2004): 296.

103. 103. JCBL, BFBR B.513 F.7, Freetown, January 30, 1795, Martin Benson to Brown, Benson & Ives.

104. 104. Transatlantic Slave Voyages Database, http://slavevoyages.org/tast/database/search.faces?yearFrom=1514&yearTo=1866&ptdepimp=20100.

105. 105. Sire-Abbas-Soh, Chroniques du Fouta Senegalais (Paris, 1913); Curtin, Economic Change, 23; David Robinson, “The Islamic Revolution of Futa Toro,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 8, no. 2 (1975): 185–221; Martin Klein, “Social and Economic Factors in the Muslim Revolution in Senegambia,” Journal of African History 13, no. 3 (1972): 419–441; Searing, “God Alone Is King”; Michael A. Gomez, Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad: The Precolonial State of Bundu (Cambridge, 1992), 72.

106. 106. Joseph C. Miller, “The Dynamics of History in Africa and the Atlantic ‘Age of Revolutions,’ ” in The Age of Revolutions in Global Context c.1760–1840, ed. David Armitage and Sanjay Subrahmanyam (Basingstoke, 2009), 119. Mariana Candido has recently argued of Central Africa that, “invested in the Atlantic economy, local traders were the primary impetus for the expansion of slavery and the creation of a colonial society that did not differ much from others around the Atlantic.” Candido, An African Slaving Port, 13.

107. 107. ANS, Dakar, 13G 9, Section 5, Agreement of March 31, 1785; Thiernor Diallo, Les Institutions politique du Fouta Dyalon au XIXe siècle (Dakar, 1972).

108. 108. ANS, Dakar, 13G 9, Section 5, Agreement of March 31, 1785.

109. 109. Transatlantic Slave Voyages Database, http://slavevoyages.org/tast/database/search.faces?yearFrom=1514&yearTo=1866&mjbyptimp=60100.60200.

110. 110. Robinson, “Islamic Revolution of Futa Toro,” 202–203, 211; ANS, Dakar, Coutumes, AOF 13G1, March 31, 1785.

111. 111. TNA T70 / 1550; Coughtry, Notorious Triangle, 111; Rebecca Shumway, The Fante and the Atlantic Slave Trade (Rochester, NY, 2011).

112. 112. Robert Harms, The Diligent (New York, 2008), chap. 18.

113. 113. Coughty, Notorious Triangle, 31; Matson and Onuf, A Union of Interests, 25.

114. 114. T. H. Breen, “ ‘Baubles of Britain’: The American and Consumer Revolutions of the Eighteenth Century,” Past & Present 119 (1988): 76.

115. 115. See the large literature on “gentlemanly capitalism,” beginning with P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins, British Imperialism, 1688–2000 (London, 1993).

116. 116. Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt; Stanley Chapman, Merchant Enterprise in Britain (Cambridge, 1995); Ann Carlos and Frank Lewis, Commerce by a Frozen Sea (Philadelphia, 2010).

117. 117. Joanna Cohen, Luxurious Citizens: The Politics of Consumption in Nineteenth-Century America (Philadelphia, 2017); T. H. Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution: How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence (Oxford, 2005); Terrence H. Witkowski, “Colonial Consumers in Revolt: Buyer Values and Behavior during the Nonimportation Movement, 1764–1776,” Journal of Consumer Research 16, no. 2 (1989): 216–226; Ulrich, The Age of Homespun; Lawrence Glickman, Buying Power: A History of Consumer Activism in America (Chicago, 2009), 31–60.

118. 118. ANS, Dakar, Coutumes, AOF 13G13, Coutumes du Cayor; Searing, West African Slavery, 74; Richard, “Recharting Atlantic Encounters,” 1–27.

119. 119. The alcohol trade directly resulted in 400,000 slave exports from Luanda, in Angola, for instance: Jose Curto, “Alcohol under the Context of the Atlantic Slave Trade: The Case of Benguela and Its Hinterland (Angola),” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 201, no. 1 (2011): 52; C. H. Ambler, “Alcohol and the Slave Trade in West Africa, 1400–1850,” in Drugs, Labor and Colonial Expansion, ed. W. Jankowiak and D. Bradburd (Tucson, 2003), 75.

120. 120. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, Macaulay’s journal, May 8, 1797. “Palaver” derives from the Portuguese crioulo, which was the lingua franca along much of the eighteenth-century West African coast. See Colleen Kriger, Making Money (Athens, OH, 2017), 67.

121. 121. Ahmed Reid, “Sugar, Slavery and Productivity in Jamaica, 1750–1807,” Slavery & Abolition 37, no. 1 (2016): 159–182; Trevor Burnard and John Garrigus, The Plantation Machine: Atlantic Capitalism in French Saint-Domingue and British Jamaica (Philadelphia, 2016); Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill, NC, 1944); Seymour Dresher, Econocide: British Slavery in the Era of Abolition (Chapel Hill, NC, 1977, 2010).

122. 122. An Account of the Quantity of British Plantation Sugar and Rum Imported into and Exported from Great Britain, House of Commons Papers, vol. 121.

123. 123. J. R. Oldfield, Transatlantic Abolitionism in the Age of Revolution (Cambridge, 2013), 96.

124. 124. William Fox, An Address to the Peoples of Great Britain, on the Propriety of Abstaining from West India Sugar and Rum, 10th ed. (London, printed in Philadelphia, 1792), 1.

125. 125. National Portrait Gallery D12417 Gillray 1792, “Barbarities in the West Indies”; Sussman, Consuming Anxieties, 115–116; Huntington Library, Historical Print Collection, Trade Cards, 347.12; 347.14 / 1–29.

126. 126. Cooper, Considerations on the Slave Trade; and the Consumption of West Indian Produce (London, 1791), “Advertisement.”

127. 127. Emphasis added. This quotation was actually further extracted from Cooper’s Letters on the Slave Trade, published in 1787. See Peckham Ladies African and Anti-Slavery Association, Reasons for Using East India Sugar (London, 1828), 8; Julie Holcomb, “Blood Stained Sugar: Gender, Commerce, and the British Slave-Trade Debates,” Slavery & Abolition 35, no. 4 (2014): 619; New York Journal and Patriotic Register, April 25, 1792, as cited in Holcomb, “Blood Stained Sugar,” n20; Midgley, “Slave Sugar Boycotts,” 138; TNA CUST 17 / 10, Exports from Britain to Africa 1787.

128. 128. Elias Hicks, Observations on the Slavery of Africans and Their Descendants, and on the Use of the Produce of Their Labour (New York, 1811); Julie Holcomb, Moral Commerce (Ithaca, NY, 2016), 73.

129. 129. Holcomb, Moral Commerce, 13.

130. 130. Elizabeth Heyrick, Immediate, not Gradual Abolition; or, An Inquiry into the Shortest, Safest, and Most Effectual Means of Getting Rid of West-Indian Slavery (London, 1824), 4.

131. 131. For more on Heyrick, see Midgley, “The Dissenting Voice of Elizabeth Heyrick: An Exploration of the Links between Gender, Religious Dissent, and Anti-Slavery Radicalism,” in Women, Dissent, and Anti-Slavery in Britain and America, 1790–1865, ed. Elizabeth Clapp and Julie Roy Jeffrey (Oxford, 2011), 88–110; Clare Midgley, Women Against Slavery: The British Campaigns, 1780–1870 (London, 1992), 61; Holcomb, Moral Commerce, 89–106.

132. 132. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, bk. 4, chap. 8, v. ii, para. 49.

133. 133. An Address to the Members of the Religious Society of Friends, on the Propriety of Abstaining from the Use of the Produce of Slave Labour (Philadelphia, 1838), 5–6.

134. 134. Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Committee on Requited Labor, Minutes, 1837–1839 (Ams 841); Glickman, “Buy for the Sake of the Slave,” American Quarterly 56, no. 4 (2004): 894.

135. 135. Smith, Wealth of Nations, bk. 4, chap. 2, p. 456, para. 9.

136. 136. Dupont de Nemours, cited in David Allen Harvey, “Slavery on the Balance Sheet: Pierre-Samuel Dupont de Nemours and the Physiocratic Case for Free Labor,” Journal of the Western Society for French History 42 (2014): 80–81.

137. 137. Fox, “Address to the people of Great Britain and Ireland to abstain from the use of West India Sugar, &c.” (1791), as quoted in Genius of Universal Emancipation, September 1830, 112.

138. 138. “Tea-Table Talk” by Agnes, Genius of Universal Emancipation, November 1832, 14–15.

139. 139. Amy Dru Stanley, “Wages, Sin and Slavery,” Journal of the Early Republic 24, no. 2 (2004): 285.

2. GOODS OF QUESTIONABLE MORALITY

1. 1. Huntington Library, MSS 418, box 20, folder 20, January 30–May 27, 1797, May 8.

2. 2. Huntington Library, MSS 418, box 20, folder 20, January 30–May 27, 1797, May 8.

3. 3. Albert O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests (Princeton, 1977, 2013); Paul Cheney, Revolutionary Commerce (Cambridge, MA, 2010), 65.

4. 4. Eric Noreen, “The Economics of Ethics: A New Perspective on Agency Theory,” Accounting, Organizations and Society 13, no. 4 (1988): 359–369; Cheryl S. McWatters and Yannick Lemarchand, “Accounting for Triangular Trade,” in French Accounting History: New Contributions, ed. Yves Levant (London, 2011), 133–135; Albane Forestier, “Principal-Agent Problems in the Slave Trade: The Case of the Rochelais Armateurs and Their Agents,” Working Paper no. 13 / 05, London School of Economics, http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/22478/1/wp13.pdf; Robin Pearson and David Richardson, “Social Capital, Institutional Innovation, and Atlantic Trade before 1800,” Business History 50, no. 6 (2008): 765–780; Thomas M. Jones, “Instrumental Stakeholder Theory: A Synthesis of Ethics and Economics,” Academy of Management Review 20, no. 2 (1995): 404–437; Stephen Behrendt, “Merchant Decision Making in the British Slave Trade,” William and Mary Quarterly 58, no. 1 (2001): 196.

5. 5. A. G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973), 109; V. R. Dorjahn and Christopher Fyfe, “Landlord and Stranger: Change in Tenancy Relations in Sierra Leone,” Journal of African History 3 (1962): 391–397.

6. 6. Rebecca Shumway, The Fante and the Atlantic Slave Trade (Rochester, NY, 2011); Randy Sparks, Where the Negroes Are Masters (Cambridge, MA, 2014), 68–121; Robert Harms, The Diligent (New York, 2008); Margaret Priestley, West African Trade and Coast Society (Oxford, 1969); Hilary Jones, The Metis of Senegal (Bloomington, IN, 2013); Philip Havik, Silences and Soundbytes (Munster, 2004); Emily Lynn Osborn, Our New Husbands Are Here (Athens, OH, 2011); Pernille Ipsen, Daughters of the Trade (Philadelphia, 2015); Colleen Kriger, Making Money (Athens, OH, 2017).

7. 7. Olatunji Ojo, “The Atlantic Slave Trade and Local Ethics of Slavery in Yorubaland,” African Economic History 41 (2013): 81.

8. 8. G. Ugo Nwokeji, The Slave Trade and Culture in the Bight of Biafra (Cambridge, 2010), 137–138.

9. 9. Jennifer Lofkrantz and Paul Lovejoy, “Maintaining Network Boundaries: Islamic Law and Commerce from Sahara to Guinea Shores,” Slavery & Abolition 36, no. 2 (2015): 219; Vincent Hiribarren, History of Borno (London, 2017).

10. 10. Lofkrantz and Lovejoy, “Maintaining Network Boundaries,” 214–215.

11. 11. Ghyslaine Lydon, On Trans-Saharan Trails (Cambridge, 2009), 313–314.

12. 12. Lydon, On Trans-Saharan Trails, 312–313, n160.

13. 13. Philip Curtin, Economic Change in Precolonial Africa: Senegambia in the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison, WI, 1975), 327.

14. 14. The “geegaw myth”: Curtin, Economic Change, 312; Stanley Alpern, “What Africans Got for Their Slaves: A Master List of European Trade Goods,” History in Africa 22 (1995): 6; Maxine Berg, “In Pursuit of Luxury: Global History and British Consumer Goods in the Eighteenth Century,” Past & Present 182 (2004): 110–112.

15. 15. The National Archives, UK (hereafter cited as TNA) T 70 / 1268, Accra, July 15, 1791.

16. 16. Marion Johnson, “The Ounce in Eighteenth-Century West African Trade,” Journal of African History 7, no. 2 (1966): 214.

17. 17. Karl Polanyi, “Sortings and Ounce Trade in the West African Slave Trade,” Journal of African History 5, no. 3 (1964): 383; Adam Jones, From Slaves to Palm Kernels: A History of the Galinhas Country (West Africa), 1730–1890 (Wiesbaden, 1983), 28; Hopkins, Economic History of West Africa.

18. 18. James Searing, West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce (Cambridge, 2003), 69.

19. 19. Malachy Postlethwayt, Britain’s Commercial Interest (London, 1772), 222; William A. Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt: The Royal African Company and the Politics of the Atlantic Slave Trade (Chapel Hill, NC, 2013), 206–207; Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006), 272–273.

20. 20. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African (London, 1789), reprinted in Africa Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade, ed. Philip D. Curtin (Long Grove, IL, 1997), 77. Whether Equiano had ever actually lived in Africa has been a subject of long-standing historical debate. For our purposes, the answer is somewhat irrelevant, because the abolitionists at the time believed he had, and they shaped their arguments about African consumerism around his narrative.

21. 21. Curtin, Economic Change, 156–157.

22. 22. Curtin, Economic Change, 155.

23. 23. Jennifer Lofkrantz, “Protecting Freeborn Muslims: The Sokoto Caliphate’s Attempts to Prevent Illegal Enslavement and its Acceptance of the Strategy of Ransoming,” Slavery & Abolition 32, no. 1 (2011): 109–127; Bruce Hall, A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600–1960 (Cambridge, 2011); Lofkrantz and Lovejoy, “Maintaining Network Boundaries,” 213.

24. 24. John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1680 (Cambridge, 1998), 314.

25. 25. A. D. H. Bivar, “The Wathiqat ahl al-Sudan: A Manifesto of the Fulani Jihad,” Journal of African History 11, no. 2 (1961): 240–241.

26. 26. Bivar, “The Wathiqat ahl al-Sudan,” 240–241.

27. 27. Nana Asma’u, “Be Sure of God’s Truth (Tabbat hakika),” verse 20, in Jean Boyd and Beverly Blow Mack, The Collected Works of Nana Asma’u in English (Ann Arbor, 1997), 51.

28. 28. Bivar, “The Wathiqat ahl al-Sudan,”: 241; Jennifer Lofkrantz, “Idealism and Pragmatism: The Related Muslim West African Discourses on Identity, Captivity and Ransoming,” African Economic History, 42 (2014): 90.

29. 29. Nana Asma’u, “Be Sure of God’s Truth (Tabbat hakika),” verse 27, in Boyd and Mack, Collected Works of Nana Asma’u, 52; Lofkrantz, “Idealism and Pragmatism,” 90; William Gervase Clarence-Smith, Islam and the Abolition of Slavery (Oxford, 2005), 152–155.

30. 30. Thomas Clarkson, The History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave-Trade by the British Parliament (London, 1839), 167.

31. 31. Report of the Committee Managing a Fund Raised by Some Friends, for the Purpose of Promoting African Instruction; with an Account of a Visit to the Gambia and Sierra Leone (London, 1822), 32–33.

32. 32. Julie Holcomb, Moral Commerce (Ithaca, NY, 2016), 17–19. Holcomb cites significant protests in 1688, 1693, and 1698 that support this line of argument.

33. 33. John Locke, Second Treatise on Government (London, 1689), V.28.

34. 34. Locke, Second Treatise on Government, IV.23.

35. 35. Historical Society of Pennsylvania (hereafter cited as HSP) AM 6825, “A Report on the State of the Slave Trade on the Western Coast of Africa by Commodore Sir Robert Mends,” 1822.

36. 36. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, Macaulay’s journal, July 14, 1793.

37. 37. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, V.I.19.

38. 38. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Collection 490, London, August 1, 1809, Zachary Macaulay to Benjamin Rush, chairman.

39. 39. Thomas Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population, 6th ed. (London, 1826), appendix.

40. 40. Frederic Shoberl, ed., Africa: Containing a Description of the Manners and Customs, with Some Historical Particulars of the Moors of the Zahara, and of the Negro Nations between the Rivers Senegal and Gambia: Illustrated with Two Maps, and Forty-Five Coloured Engravings (London, 1821), 4:1–2; Seymour Drescher, The Mighty Experiment (Oxford, 2002), 221.

41. 41. Shoberl, Africa, 4:1–2.

42. 42. Ralph Austen and Woodruff Smith, “Images of Africa and British Slave-Trade Abolition: The Transition to an Imperialist Ideology, 1787–1807,” African Historical Studies 2, no. 1 (1969): 69–83; Philip Curtin, Image of Africa (London, 1965).

43. 43. James Stanfield, Observations on a Guinea Voyage (London, 1788), 22.

44. 44. Catherine Hall, Macaulay and Son (New Haven, 2014), 29.

45. 45. Lawrence Glickman, Buying Power: A History of Consumer Activism in America (Chicago, 2009), 61.

46. 46. Robin Law, Suzanne Schwarz, and Silke Strickrodt, “Introduction,” in Commercial Agriculture, the Slave Trade, and Slavery in Atlantic Africa, ed. Robin Law, Suzanne Schwarz, and Silke Strickrodt (Rochester, NY, 2013), 2; Christopher Brown, “The Origins of ‘Legitimate Commerce,’ ” in Law, Schwarz, and Strickrodt, Commercial Agriculture, 138–157. Legitimate commerce has been the subject of much writing on West Africa, but is largely focused on the Bights of Benin and Biafra in the period of palm oil expansion.

47. 47. The National Archives, United Kingdom (henceforth cited as TNA) T 70 / 35, Governor and Council to African Committee, December 26, 1809; Ty M. Reese, “ ‘Eating’ Luxury: Fante Middlemen, British Goods, and Changing Dependencies on the Gold Coast, 1750–1821,” William and Mary Quarterly, 66, no. 4 (2009): 869.

48. 48. See Mary Louise Clifford, From Slavery to Freetown (Jefferson, NC, 1999); Gibril Cole, The Krio of Sierra Leone (Athens, OH, 2013); Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (Oxford, 1962); Bronwen Everill, Abolition and Empire in Sierra Leone and Liberia (Basingstoke, 2013); Padraic Scanlan, Freedom’s Debtors (New Haven, 2017); Maya Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles (New York, 2011).

49. 49. Bruce Mouser, “Accommodation and Assimilation in the Landlord-Stranger Relationship,” available at http://www.tubmaninstitute.ca/sites/default/files/file/accommodation_80.pdf.

50. 50. Mouser, “Accommodation.”

51. 51. Suzanne Schwarz, “Commerce, Civilization and Christianity: The Development of the Sierra Leone Company,” in Liverpool and Transatlantic Antislavery, ed. David Richardson, Suzanne Schwarz, and Anthony Tibbles (Liverpool, 2007), 268.

52. 52. TNA CUST 5 / 2, 1812.

53. 53. John Carter Brown Library (hereafter cited as JCBL) BFBR B.513 F.6, Newport, August 9, 1794, Martin Benson to Brown, Benson & Ives.

54. 54. Archive National du Senegal (hereafter cited as ANS), Dakar, O1 Navigation, 1809.

55. 55. JCBL BFBR B.611, Schooner Olive Branch.

56. 56. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, box 20, folder 19, January 18–May 20, 1797, February 22.

57. 57. JCBL BFBR B.591 F.7, Disbursements at Sierra Leone, Trade Book.

58. 58. Compare to later purchasing power in nineteenth-century Freetown, Everill, Abolition and Empire in Sierra Leone and Liberia (Basingstoke, 2013), 42–45; or to Gold Coast standards of living in the first half of the eighteenth century, Klas Ronnback, “Living Standards on the Pre-colonial Gold Coast: A Quantitative Estimate of African Laborers’ Welfare Ratios,” European Review of Economic History 18 (2014): 185–202.

59. 59. Anna Maria Falconbridge, Narrative of Two Voyages to the River Sierra Leone during the years 1791–1792–1793 (London, 1794), December 28, 1792; James L. A. Webb Jr. “On Currency and Credit in the Western Sahel, 1700–1850,” in Credit, Currencies, and Culture: African Financial Institutions in Historical Perspective, ed. Endre Stiansen and Jane Guyer (Uppsala, 2000), 40.

60. 60. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, box 20, folder 21, June 7, 1797, “Remarks on the Health, Trade, Cultivation, and Civilization of Sierra Leone.”

61. 61. JCBL BFBR B.611, Schooner Olive Branch.

62. 62. JCBL BFBR B.611 F.8, Schooner Olive Branch.

63. 63. E. Frances White, Freetown’s Women Traders (Ann Arbor, 1987).

64. 64. Assuming 8½ yards of fabric for a typical, fashionable late eighteenth-century gown.

65. 65. France Magrabi, Young Sook Chung, Sanghee Sohn Cha, and Se-Jeong Yang, The Economics of Household Consumption (New York, 1991).

66. 66. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, folder 21, June 7, 1797, “Remarks on the Health, Trade, Cultivation, and Civilization of Sierra Leone.”

67. 67. Falconbridge, Two Voyages to the River Sierra Leone, letter 9, Sierra Leone, August 25, 1792.

68. 68. In Freetown, in the Gambia River, and in the Senegal River, the going rate for pilotage was the equivalent of £2. JCBL BFBR B.636; Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, Macaulay’s Papers, “Trade In and Out.”

69. 69. JCBL B.611 F.8, Schooner Olive Branch, bill for 1802 for Martin Benson, “bought of the S. L. Company Store,” June 14.

70. 70. Warren Whatley, “The Gun-Slave Hypothesis and the 18th Century Slave Trade,” African Economic History Working Paper Series, No. 35 / 2017.

71. 71. Walter Hawthorne, “Strategies of the Decentralized: Defending Communities from Slave Raiders in Coastal Guinea-Bissau, 1450–1815,” in Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies, ed. Sylviane A. Diouf (Ohio, 2003), 161; Alvares, Ethiopia Minor, cited by Hawthorne, “Strategies of the Decentralized,” 163; Paul Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, 2011), 66–68; Randy Sparks, Where the Negroes Are Masters (Cambridge, MA, 2014), 126.

72. 72. National Center for Arts and Culture, The Gambia, Fajara Oral Archive, the Gambia: 306A 15 / 9 / 74; Alhaji Kemo Kuyate; Niumi History … Slave Trade; Banjul; B. Km Sidibe and D. Wright; account of Kemo Kutate, griot of the Singate and Maskalo families of Baddibu Saba.

73. 73. P. E. H. Hair, Adam Jones, and Robin Law, eds., Barbot on Guinea: The Writings of Jean Barbot on West Africa, 1678–1712 (London, 1962); J. Montefiore, An Authentic Account of the late Expedition to Bulam on the Coast of Africa, with a description of the present settlement of Sierra Leone and the Adjacent Country (London, 1794), 46.

74. 74. Christopher DeCorse, “Fortified Towns of the Koinadugu Plateau: Northern Sierra Leone in the Pre-Atlantic and Atlantic Worlds,” in Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa, ed. J. Cameron Monroe and Akinwumi Ogundiran (Cambridge, 2012), 293–294.

75. 75. Osborn, Our New Husbands Are Here, 69–70.

76. 76. Rudolph T. Ware III, The Walking Qur’an (Chapel Hill, NC, 2014), 118.

77. 77. David Richardson, “West African Consumption Patterns and Their Influence on the Eighteenth Century English Slave Trade,” in The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, ed. Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn (New York, 1979); Jeremy Prestholdt, “On the Global Repercussions of East African Consumerism,” American Historical Review 109, no. 3 (2004): 755–781.

78. 78. Gavin White, “Firearms in Africa: An Introduction,” Journal of African History 12, no. 2 (1971): 179; Walter Rodney, A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 1545–1800 (Oxford, 1970), 175.

79. 79. Joseph Inikori, “The Import of Firearms into West Africa 1750–1807: A Quantitative Analysis,” Journal of African History 18, no. 3 (1977): 355.

80. 80. Inikori, “Quantitative Analysis,” 355; Rory Pilossof, “ ‘Guns Don’t Colonise People …’: The Role and Use of Firearms in Pre-colonial and Colonial Africa,” Kronos 36, no. 1 (2010); Robin Law, “Horses, Firearms, and Political Power in Pre-colonial West Africa,” Past & Present 72 (1976): 112–132.

81. 81. Rodney, A History, 171–172. See also Hopkins, Economic History of West Africa, chap. 3; Curtin, Economic Change; Toby Green, ed. Brokers of Change: Atlantic Commerce and Cultures in Pre-colonial Western Africa (Oxford, 2012).

82. 82. TNA CUST 17 / 10.

83. 83. Inikori, “Quantitative Analysis,” 346.

84. 84. TNA CUST 8 / 3.

85. 85. ANS, Dakar AOF S1 2, “Notes sur le services des douanes a Gorée: Ils se procurent des Americains du rhum, du tombac, du farine, et du plancher” and “Les Anglais du comptoir du St Marie leur fournissent du fer, de la poudre.”

86. 86. TNA CUST 8 / 1.

87. 87. Falconbridge, Two Voyages to Sierra Leone; Robin Law, Suzanne Schwarz, and Silke Strickrodt, “Introduction,” in Law, Schwarz, and Strickrodt, Commercial Agriculture, 2.

88. 88. JCBL BFBR B.591 F.6, list of goods on freight for the Sierra Leone Company; Martin Benson memorandum for Sierra Leone Cargo. Brown, Benson & Ives was the first partnership, which lasted from 1792 to 1796. Brown & Ives was its successor, operating from 1796 to 1914.

89. 89. JCBL, BFBR B.591 F.7, Disbursements at Sierra Leone.

90. 90. Marion Johnson, “Polanyi, Peukert and the Political Economy of Dahomey,” Journal of African History 21 (1980): 396; Law, “Horses, Firearms,” 112–132.

91. 91. TNA T70 / 1262.

92. 92. Richardson, “West African Consumption Patterns,” 312–315.

93. 93. ANS, Dakar Coutumes, AOF G 13G15, 1807.

94. 94. Stanley Alpern, “What Africans Got for Their Slaves,” 21; Ray Kea, “Firearms and Warfare on the Gold and Slave Coasts from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries,” Journal of African History 12, no. 2 (1971): 185–213; Priya Satia, Empire of Guns (New York, 2018), 187–188.

95. 95. William Shaler, Sketches of Algiers (Boston, 1826), 261.

96. 96. Berg, “In Pursuit of Luxury,” 85–142.

97. 97. Inikori, “Quantitative Analysis,” 361.

98. 98. Jean-Pierre Warnier, “Trade Guns in the Grassfields of Cameroon,” Paideuma 26 (1980): 85.

99. 99. Jeremy Prestholdt, Domesticating the World (Berkeley, CA, 2008) 7; Daniel Headrick, Tools of Empire (Oxford, 1981), 106–107.

100. 100. Curtin, Economic Change, 153.

101. 101. Holcomb, Moral Commerce; Glickman, Buying Power.

102. 102. Simon Heap, “The Quality of Liquor in Nigeria During the Colonial Era,” Itinerario 23, no. 2 (1999): 29–47.

103. 103. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, box 20, folder 19, January 18–May 20, 1797, February 25, 1797.

104. 104. Hogg’s Instructor, vol. 1, July–December 1853, “Recent Discoveries in South Africa,” 432.

105. 105. Hogg’s Instructor, “Recent Discoveries in South Africa.”

106. 106. Michael Gomez, Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad (Cambridge, 1992), 124–132.

107. 107. Bruce Mouser, “Trade and Politics in the Nunez and Pongo Rivers, 1790–1865” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin–Lacrosse, 1972); TNA CO 271 / 2, January 26, 1822.

108. 108. Reports from Committees, 1865, vol. 1, House of Commons, June 26, 1865, “Report from the Select Committee Appointed to Consider the State of the British Establishments on the Western Coast of Africa, Minutes of Evidence Taken Before the Select Committee on Africa (Western Coast),” April 27, 1865, 95–96.

109. 109. Lamin Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad (Cambridge, MA, 1999), 127; Kristin Mann, Slavery and the Birth of an African City (Bloomington, IN, 2007), 91–102; Parliamentary Papers, 1852, LIV (221), Papers relative to the reduction of Lagos by Her Majesty’s forces on the west coast of Africa, 191–192.

110. 110. Heap, “The Quality of Liquor,” 29.

111. 111. James F. Searing, “God Alone Is King”: Islam and Emancipation in Senegal (Portsmouth, NH, 2002); Martin Klein, Islam and Imperialism in Senegal (Stanford, 1968).

112. 112. Justin Willis, “Drinking Power: Alcohol and History in Africa,” History Compass 3 (2005): 1.

113. 113. Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt.

3. PROTECTING ETHICAL BRANDS

1. 1. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, box 19, folder 2, October 5–December 12, 1793, October 19, 1793.

2. 2. Huntington Library, MSS MY 404, November 23, 1828, Selina to Zachary Macaulay.

3. 3. Anna Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement, and British Anti-Slavery campaigns: the Free Labor Cotton Depot in Street,” (PhD diss., University of Brighton, 2012), 105; The Friend, 6th month, 1846; “Free Labour Warehouse,” The Slave, January 1851, 3.

4. 4. Historical Society of Pennsylvania (hereafter cited as HSP), “Constitution of the American Free Produce Association,” Preamble.

5. 5. Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 1831, 154.

6. 6. Genius of Universal Emancipation, February 1831, 169.

7. 7. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, letter from Mary Johnson, Buckingham Female Anti-Slavery Society, August 4, 1837, to Mary Grew.

8. 8. John Carter Brown Library (hereafter cited as JCBL) BFBR B.637, November 23, 1819, set of instructions for John Bowers and Jeremiah Goff.

9. 9. The National Archives, UK (hereafter cited as TNA) CO 270 / 1, Gazette, January 17, 1818.

10. 10. William Novak, The People’s Welfare (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), 88–90, 287–288. A huge variety of regulations were on the books for governing the labeling or marking of barrels and other shipped goods.

11. 11. Hannah Farber, “The Marks of War,” paper presented at the conference “Coming to Terms?,” McNeil Center for Early American Studies, November 8–10, 2018.

12. 12. Maxine Berg, “From Imitation to Invention: Creating Commodities in Eighteenth-Century Britain,” Economic History Review 55 (2002): 1–30. This is basically the opposite argument of many institutionalists: see Douglass North, Structure and Change in Economic History (New York, 1981); Keith E. Maskus, Intellectual Property Rights in the Global Economy (Washington, DC, 2000).

13. 13. Charles Rappeleye, Sons of Providence: The Brown Brothers, the Slave Trade and the Revolution (New York, 2007).

14. 14. Maxine Berg, “In Pursuit of Luxury: Global History and British Consumer Goods in the Eighteenth Century,” Past & Present 182 (2004); Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton (New York, 2014).

15. 15. Nora Slonimsky, “ ‘The Engine of Free Expression’: The Political Economy of Copyright in the Colonial British Atlantic and Early National United States” (PhD diss, City University of New York, 2017); Steven Mihm, A Nation of Counterfeiters (Cambridge, MA, 2007); Oren Bracha, “Early American Printing Privileges: The Ambivalent Origins of Authors’ Copyright in America,” in Privilege and Property: Essays on the History of Copyright (Cambridge, 2010), 89–114.

16. 16. Phil Handler, “Forgery and the End of the ‘Bloody Code’ in Early Nineteenth Century England,” Historical Journal 48, no. 3 (2005): 689.

17. 17. Randall McGowan, “From Pillory to Gallows: The Punishment of Forgery in the Age of the Financial Revolution,” Past & Present 165 (1999): 107.

18. 18. Mihm, Nation of Counterfeiters; Teresa da Silva Lopes and Mark Casson, “Brand Protection and the Globalization of British Business,” Business History Review 86 (2012): 287–310; Berg, “From Imitation to Invention; Toyin Falola, “ ‘Manufacturing Trouble’: Currency Forgery in Colonial Southwestern Nigeria,” African Economic History 25 (1997): 128.

19. 19. Jane Guyer, Marginal Gains (Chicago, 2004), 93.

20. 20. Paul G. E. Clemens, “The Consumer Culture of the Middle Atlantic, 1760–1820,” William and Mary Quarterly 62, no. 4 (2005): 609.

21. 21. Mark Dodgson, “Exploring New Combinations in Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Social Networks, Schumpeter, and the Case of Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795),” Industrial and Corporate Change 20, no. 4 (2011): 1133–1139.

22. 22. Martha Katz-Hyman, “Doing Good while Doing Well: The Decision to Manufacture Products That Supported the Abolition of the Slave Trade and Slavery in Great Britain,” Slavery & Abolition 29, no. 2 (2008): 219–231; Lawrence Glickman, “ ‘Buy for the Sake of the Slave’: Abolitionism and the Origins of American Consumer Activism,” American Quarterly 56, no. 4 (2004): 889–912; Deirdre Coleman, “Conspicuous Consumption: White Abolitionism and English Women’s Protest Writing in the 1790s,” ELH 61, no. 2 (1994): 341–362; Clare Midgley, “Slave Sugar Boycotts, Female Activism and the Domestic Base of British Anti-Slavery Culture,” Slavery & Abolition 17, no. 3 (1996): 137–162; Julie Holcomb, “Blood Stained Sugar: Gender, Commerce, and the British Slave-Trade Debates,” Slavery & Abolition 35, no. 4 (2014): 620; Terry Newholm, Sandra Newholm, and Deirdre Shaw, “A History for Consumption Ethics,” Business History 57, no. 2 (2015): 6; Sam Margolin, “ ‘And Freedom to the Slave’: Antislavery Ceramics, 1787–1865,” Ceramics in America (2002): 80–109; L. A. Compton, “Josiah Wedgwood and the Slave Trade: A Wider View,” Northern Ceramic Society 100 (1995): 50–69; Mimi Sheller, “Bleeding Humanity and Gendered Embodiments: From Antislavery Sugar Boycotts to Ethical Consumers,” Humanity 2, no. 2 (2011): 176–177; Mary Guyatt, “The Wedgwood Slave Medallion: Values in Eighteenth-Century Design,” Journal of Design History 13 (2000): 93–105; Carol Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil: Free Produce and Radical Antislavery, 1820–1860,” Journal of the Early Republic 27, no. 3 (2007): 377–405.

23. 23. T. H. Breen, “An Empire of Goods: The Anglicization of Colonial America, 1690–1776,” Journal of British Studies 25, no. 4 (1986): 476; Jon Stobart, “Selling (through) Politeness: Advertising Provincial Shops in Eighteenth Century England,” Cultural and Social History 5, no. 3 (2008): 309–328; E. Robinson, “Eighteenth-Century Commerce and Fashion: Matthew Boulton’s Marketing Techniques,” Economic History Review (1963): 39–60.

24. 24. Joanna Cohen, Luxurious Citizens (Philadelphia, 2017), 149–180; David Jaffee, A New Nation of Goods (Philadelphia, 2010).

25. 25. Katz-Hyman, “Doing Good while Doing Well,” 219–231.

26. 26. Society of Friends Library, London. East India sugar basins. B Henderson, china-warehouse, Rye-Lane, Peckham. Printed at the Camberwell Press, by J. B. G. Vogel (ca. 1828) and B. Henderson.

27. 27. Julie Holcomb, Moral Commerce (Ithaca, NY, 2016), 36–62; Midgley, “Slave Sugar Boycotts,” 137–162.

28. 28. Compare to modern theory: “Fair trade labels are not only purveyors of ‘choice’ information but important signifiers providing the material symbolism required for self and social identity communication,” in John Connolly and Deirdre Shaw, “Identifying Fair Trade in Consumption Choice,” Journal of Strategic Marketing 14, no. 4 (2006): 361.

29. 29. Katz-Hyman, “Doing Good by Doing Well,” 225.

30. 30. Ashli White, “Selling Revolution across the Atlantic,” paper presented at the CRE Annual Conference, February 2014.

31. 31. “Taste is caught up in the politics of value and, often intimately, though not invariably, involved in practices of distinction,” in Ann Brower Stahl, “Colonial Entanglements and the Practices of Taste: An Alternative to Logocentric Approaches,” American Anthropologist, n.s., 104, no. 3 (2002): 833–834. Cary Carson, Face Value (Charlottesville, VA, 2017), 184; Arjun Appadurai, ed., The Social Life of Things (New York, 1986); Pierre Bourdieu, “The Aesthetic Sense as the Sense of Distinction,” reprinted in The Consumer Society Reader, ed. Juliet B. Schor and Douglas B. Holt (New York, 2000), 206.

32. 32. Simon Gikandi, Slavery and the Culture of Taste (Princeton, 2011), 55–56; Lawrence Glickman, Buying Power: A History of Consumer Activism in America (Chicago, 2009), 72.

33. 33. James Bartholemew claims credit for the invention of this phrase: “I Invented ‘Virtue Signalling.’ Now It’s Taking Over the World,” The Spectator, October 10, 2015. Philip Corr and Anke Plagnol, Behavioural Economics: The Basics (Basingstoke, 2018), 21; Martha A. Starr, “The Social Economics of Ethical Consumption: Theoretical Considerations and Empirical Evidence,” Journal of Socio-Economics 38 (2009): 916–925.

34. 34. Thomas Clarkson, The History of the Rise, Progress and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave-Trade by the British Parliament (London, 1808), 2:191–192.

35. 35. W. P. Garrison, “Free Produce among the Quakers,” Atlantic Monthly, 22 (1868): 485–494.

36. 36. Library of the Society of Friends, London, n.d. (1790s), East India Sugar Sold, Raw and Refined, by Smith and Leaper, No. 43 Bishopsgate Street Within, and No. 157, Bishopsgate Without London.

37. 37. Haverford College Quaker Special Collections (hereafter HCQSC), George W. Taylor letterbooks, August 10, 1853, to Josias F. Browne & Co.

38. 38. All prices from Carroll D. Wright, “Comparative Wages, Prices, and Cost of Living,” from the sixteenth annual report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, for 1885, 91. HCQSC, George W. Taylor letterbook, October 27, 1853.

39. 39. Wright, “Comparative Wages,” 118.

40. 40. HCQSC, George W. Taylor account books, 2:28.

41. 41. HCQSC, George W. Taylor letterbooks, September 7, 1852; and Report of the Board of Managers of the Free Produce Association of Friends of New-York Yearly Meeting, New York, 1853.

42. 42. HCQSC, George W. Taylor letterbook, October 30, 1860, “To His Excellency, S. A. Benson, President Republic of Liberia.”

43. 43. Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement and British Anti-Slavery Campaigns,” 13; Katz-Hyman, “Doing Good while Doing Well,” 219–231; Coleman, “Conspicuous Consumption,” 341–362.

44. 44. Elizabeth Margaret Chandler, “Domestic Economy,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 1831.

45. 45. Chandler, “Domestic Economy.”

46. 46. Glickman, Buying Power, 82–83.

47. 47. Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement,” 57.

48. 48. Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 26, 1828, “Free Cotton Goods.”

49. 49. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, letter from Joseph Bancroft, Wilmington, DE, November 4, 1839.

50. 50. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, American Free Produce Association Correspondence, incoming: 1838–1840, letter from Samuel Hill, Randolph County, North Carolina, December 4, 1839.

51. 51. Genius of Universal Emancipation, August 1830.

52. 52. Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement,” 106; Deborah Rossi, “The Stuff of History: American Free Produce Association Label 1839–1847,” Connecticut History 47, no. 2 (2009): 252–255.

53. 53. “Free Labour Warehouse”; Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement,” 106.

54. 54. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, letter from Samuel Hill, Randolph County, North Carolina, December 4, 1839; letter from Thomas Kennedy, Wayne County, North Carolina, to DLM, December 13, 1839; letter from Pindar Anbrim, Woodbury, NJ, to DLM, December 18, 1839; letter from Borden White, Galen County, North Carolina, May 12, 1839.

55. 55. HCQSC, George W. Taylor letterbooks, August 8, 1852, to Joel Parker.

56. 56. Katherine Carté Engel, “The Stranger’s Store: Moral Capitalism in Moravian Bethlehem, 1753–1775,” Early American Studies 1, no. 1 (2003): 90–126.

57. 57. James L. Huston, “Abolitionists, Political Economists, and Capitalism,” Journal of the Early Republic 20, no. 3 (2000): 489.

58. 58. Library of the Society of Friends, London, MS box 8.3 / 1–2, MS box 8.4; Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement”; Anna P. Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women and Anti-Slavery Activism: Eleanor Clark and the Free Labor Cotton Deport in Street,” Quaker Studies 19, no. 1 (2014): 137–156.

59. 59. Ruth Ketring Nuermberger, The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest against Slavery (Durham, NC, 1942), 119.

60. 60. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, letter from W. Hance, Galena, Delaware County, Ohio, to DLM, November 18, 1839.

61. 61. Robert Purvis and Frederick Hinton, “Colored Free Produce Society, Report of the Committee,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, May 1831; The Liberator, April 5, 1834; Julie Winch, ed. The Elite of Our People: Joseph Willson’s Sketches of Black Upper-Class Life in Antebellum Philadelphia (University Park, PA, 2000), 136–139.

62. 62. HSP, Fifth Annual Report of the American Free Produce Assoc., 1843. Lydia White is listed as a grocer in the 1840 Philadelphia Directory, based at 219 N 2. A. McElroy’s Philadelphia Directory for 1840 (Philadelphia, 1840), 271. For 1844 she is listed at NW 5th and Cherry (337), and is not listed in 1833.

63. 63. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, letter from Esther Jones, North Carolina (a Quaker), November 14, 1839.

64. 64. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, letter from Elizabeth Kent, March 30, 1840.

65. 65. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, letter from Joshua Ely, Attlebon, March 13, 1840.

66. 66. Genius of Universal Emancipation, August 11, 1827.

67. 67. O’Brien’s Commercial Intelligencer (Philadelphia, 1840).

68. 68. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, December 5, 1837, Society of Friends, Philadelphia yearly meeting, Committee on Requited Labor, minutes, 1837–1839, Ams 841.

69. 69. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, box 20A, folder 28, August 8, 1798.

70. 70. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, Macaulay’s journal, June 30 1793.

71. 71. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, box 20, folder 20, January 30–May 27, 1797, May 8.

72. 72. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, box 19, folder 2, October 5–December 12, 1793, October 19, 1793.

73. 73. Farber, “The Marks of War.”

74. 74. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, box 19, folder 2, October 5–December 12, 1793, October 19, 1793.

75. 75. Jane Guyer, ed., Money Matters: Instability, Values and Social Payments in the Modern History of West African Communities (Heinemann, 1994), 22.

76. 76. Frank Trentmann, “Crossing Divides: Consumption and Globalization in History,” Journal of Consumer Culture 9, no. 2 (2009): 192; Jeremy Prestholdt, “On the Global Repercussions of East African Consumerism,” American Historical Review 109, no. 3 (2004): 755–781.

77. 77. Frederic Shoberl, ed., Africa: Containing a Description of the Manners and Customs, with Some Historical Particulars of the Moors of the Zahara, and of the Negro Nations between the Rivers Senegal and Gambia: Illustrated with Two Maps, and Forty-Five Coloured Engravings (London, 1821), 1:161–166.

78. 78. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, August 13, 1796. See Falola, “ ‘Manufacturing Trouble,’ ” for a later example.

79. 79. Sara Horrell, “Consumption, 1700–1870,” in The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain, vol. 1, 1700–1870, ed. Roderick Floud, Jane Humphries, and Paul Johnson (Cambridge, 2014), 248.

80. 80. A. J. H. Goodwin, “Archaeology and Benin Architecture,” Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 1, no. 2 (1957): 65–85.

81. 81. Berg, “From Imitation to Invention,” 14; Neil De Marchi and Hans J. Van Miegroet, “Ingenuity, Preference, and the Pricing of Pictures: The Smith-Reynolds Connection,” in Economic Engagements with Art, ed. Neil De Marchi and Draufurd D. W. Goodwin (Durham, NC, 1999), 383–385.

82. 82. Guyer, Marginal Gains, 91–92.

83. 83. Guyer, Marginal Gains, 92.

84. 84. Georg Simmel, The Sociology of Georg Simmel (Glencoe, IL, 1950), 318; Sara Horrell, “Consumption, 1700–1870,” 252–253.

85. 85. Nana Asma’u, “Be Sure of God’s Truth (Tabbat hakika),” verse 28, in Jean Boyd and Beverly Blow Mack, The Collected Works of Nana Asma’u in English (Ann Arbor, 1997), 52.

86. 86. Anne Ruderman, “Supplying the Slave Trade: How Europeans Met African Demand for European Manufactured Products, Commodities and Re-exports, 1670–1790” (PhD diss., Yale University, 2016); Jody Benjamin, “The Texture of Change: Cloth, Commerce, and History in Western Africa, 1700–1850” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 2016); Kazuo Kobayashi, Indian Cotton Textiles in West Africa (Basingstoke, 2019). See also David Richardson, “West African Consumption Patterns and Their Influence on the Eighteenth-Century English Slave Trade,” in The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, ed. Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn (New York, 1979), 308. For more on African consumerism, see Prestholdt, “On the Global Repercussions,” 755–781; Ty M. Reese, “ ‘Eating’ Luxury: Fante Middlemen, British Goods, and Changing Dependencies on the Gold Coast, 1750–1821,” William and Mary Quarterly, 66, no. 4 (2009): 851–872; George Metcalf, “A Microcosm of Why Africans Sold Slaves: Akan Consumption Patterns in the 1770s,” Journal of African History 28 (1987): 377–394; Basil Davidson, The African Slave Trade (Oxford, 1960, 1996), 108; Stanley B. Alpern, “What Africans Got for Their Slaves: A Master List of European Goods,” History in Africa 22 (1995): 5–43; Walter Rodney, A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 1545–1800 (Oxford, 1970), 171–172.

87. 87. Anna Maria Falconbridge, Narrative of Two Voyages to the River Sierra Leone during the years 1791–1792–1793 (London, 1794), January 11, 1793.

88. 88. Suzanne Schwarz, “A Just and Honourable Commerce: Abolitionist Experimentation in Sierra Leone in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries,” African Economic History 45, no. 1 (2017): 1–45.

89. 89. JCBL BFBR B.513, Ship Charlotte, F.7, account of sales in Sierra Leone.

90. 90. JCBL BFBR B.513, Ship Charlotte, F.7, Freetown, January 30, 1795.

91. 91. Jan Hogendorn, “Mechanisms to Assure the Quality of Imported Goods in Precolonial West African Trade,” African Economic History 27 (1999): 29–30, 26–27.

92. 92. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, journal of Zachary Macaulay, box 19, folder 1, June 16, 1793.

93. 93. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, box 19, folder 1, June 16–October 15, 1793, September 26, 1793.

94. 94. JCBL BFBR B.513, Ship Charlotte, F.6, bought by John Tilley, Bance Island.

4. ROTTEN CREDIT

1. 1. Huntington Library, MSS MY 369, August 16–September 7, 1830, Henry William Macaulay to Zachary Macaulay.

2. 2. Nana Asma’u, “Be Sure of God’s Truth (Tabbat hakika),” verse 38, in Jean Boyd and Beverly Blow Mack, The Collected Works of Nana Asma’u in English (Ann Arbor, 1997), 55.

3. 3. Gareth Austin, “Indigenous Credit Institutions in West Africa, c. 1750–1960,” in Local Suppliers of Credit in the Third World, 1750–1960, ed. Gareth Austin and Kaoru Sugihara (Chippenham, 1993), 114.

4. 4. Colin W. Newbury, “Credit in Early Nineteenth Century West African Trade,” Journal of African History 13, no. 1 (1972): 94.

5. 5. Jan Hogendorn, “Mechanisms to Assure the Quality of Imported Goods in Precolonial Africa,” African Economic History 27 (1999): 23–43; Stephen Behrendt, A. J. H. Latham, and David Northrup, The Diary of Antera Duke: An Eighteenth-Century African Slave Trader (Oxford, 2010), 79.

6. 6. Philip Curtin, Economic Change in Precolonial Africa: Senegambia in the Era of the Slave Trade (Madison, WI, 1975), 302.

7. 7. James L. A. Webb, “On Currency and Credit in the Western Sahel, 1700–1850,” in Credit, Currencies, and Culture: African Financial Institutions in Historical Perspective, ed. Endre Stiansen and Jane Guyer (Uppsala, 2000), 40; Robin Law, “Cowries, Gold, and Dollars: Exchange Rate Instability and Domestic Price Inflation in Dahomey in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” in Money Matters: Instability, Values and Social Payments in the Modern History of West African Communities, ed. Jane Guyer (Heinemann, 1994), 53–73.

8. 8. Gareth Austin, “Indigenous Credit Institutions in West Africa, c. 1750–1960,” in Local Suppliers of Credit in the Third World, 1750–1960, ed. Gareth Austin and Kaoru Sugihara (Chippenham, 1993), 108; Gareth Austin, Labour, Land, and Capital in Ghana: From Slavery to Free Labor in Asante, 1807–1956 (Rochester, NY, 2005), 138.

9. 9. Ghyslaine Lydon, On Trans-Saharan Trails (Cambridge, 2009), 336–337.

10. 10. Austin, Labour, Land and Capital, 138.

11. 11. Michael Zakim and Gary Kornblith, “An American Revolutionary Tradition,” in Capitalism Takes Command, ed. Michael Zakim and Gary Kornblith (Chicago, 2012), 3.

12. 12. Wendy Woloson, “In Hock: Pawning in Early America,” Journal of the Early Republic 27, no. 1 (2007): 39.

13. 13. James Searing, West African Slavery and Atlantic Commerce (Cambridge, 2003), 128; Paul Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, 2011), 133; Paul Lovejoy and Toyin Falola, eds., Pawnship, Slavery, and Colonialism in Africa (Trenton, 2003); Austin, Labour, Land and Capital, 140.

14. 14. Curtin, Economic Change, 307.

15. 15. Bonnie Martin, “Neighbor-to-Neighbor Capitalism: Local Credit Networks and the Mortgaging of Slaves,” in Slavery’s Capitalism, ed. Sven Beckert and Seth Rockman (Philadelphia, 2016), 112. See also Edward Baptist, “Toxic Debt, Liar Loans, Collateralized and Securitized Human Beings, and the Panic of 1837,” in Capitalism Takes Command, ed. Michael Zakim and Gary Kornblith (Chicago, 2012); Jessica Lepler, The Many Panics of 1837 (Cambridge, 2015); Jay Sexton, Debtor Diplomacy (Oxford, 2004).

16. 16. Austin, Labour, Land, and Capital, 140–150. Curtin, Economic Change, 303–304; Paul E. Lovejoy, “Pawnship, Debt, and ‘Freedom’ in Atlantic Africa during the Era of the Slave Trade: A Reassessment,” Journal of African History 55, no. 1 (2014): 55–78; Judith Spicksley, “Pawns on the Gold Coast: The Rise of Asante and Shifts in Security for Debt, 1680–1750,” Journal of African History 54, no. 2 (2013): 147–175; Webb, “On Currency and Credit,” 47–48.

17. 17. J. Matthews, A Voyage to the River Sierra Leone (London, 1788), 155.

18. 18. David Richardson, “Anglo-African Credit Relations,” in From Slave Trade to Empire, ed. Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau (Oxford, 2004), 55–57.

19. 19. Austin, “Indigenous Credit Institutions,” 104–105; 101; Kwame Arhin, “Aspects of the Shanti Northern Trade in the Nineteenth Century,” Africa 60 (1970): 365.

20. 20. Duncan Foley, Adam’s Fallacy (Cambridge, MA, 2006), 116; Martin, “Neighbor-to-Neighbor Capitalism”; Baptist, “Toxic Debt”; Bronwen Everill, “All the Baubles They Needed: ‘Industriousness’ and Slavery in Saint-Louis and Gorée,” Early American Studies (Fall 2017): 714–739.

21. 21. Thomas Cooper, Facts Illustrative of the Condition of the Negro Slaves in Jamaica (London, 1824), 26.

22. 22. Joseph Hawkins, A History of a Voyage to the Coast of Africa (Philadelphia, 1797), 112. For more on the onerous debt of the slave trade in the Angolan trade, see Joseph Miller, Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730–1830 (Madison, WI, 1988), 226–241.

23. 23. The National Archives, United Kingdom (hereafter cited as TNA), WO 1 / 352, “Report from the Committee on the Petition of the Court of Directors of the Sierra Leone Company,” 1802, 16–17.

24. 24. Rebecca Shumway, The Fante and the Atlantic Slave Trade (Rochester, NY, 2011), 59.

25. 25. Nathalie Sarthou-Lejous, L’Ethique de la dette (Paris, 1997), 2, quoted in Janet Roitman, Fiscal Disobedience: An Anthropology of Economic Regulation in Central Africa (Princeton, 2005), 75.

26. 26. Roy Dilley, “The Visibility and Invisibility of Production among Senegalese Craftsmen,” in Social Life of Things, ed. Arjun Appadurai (New York, 1986), 231.

27. 27. Charles Piot, “Of Slaves and the Gift: Kabre Sale of Kin,” Journal of African History 37 (1996): 36.

28. 28. Craig Muldrew, The Economy of Obligation: The Culture of Credit and Social Relations in Early Modern England (Basingstoke, 1998); E. P. Thompson, “The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century,” Past & Present 50 (1971): 76–136.

29. 29. Laurence Fontaine, The Moral Economy (Cambridge, 2014), 186–187.

30. 30. Fontaine, The Moral Economy, 205–206.

31. 31. Jerry Muller, The Mind and the Market (New York, 2002), 94.

32. 32. Muldrew, The Economy of Obligation, 150.

33. 33. Haverford College Quaker Special Collections (hereafter cited as HCQSC), Free Produce Society of Friends, “At an Adjourned Meeting of the Board of Managers Held at No 231 High Street 10th Month 4th 1845,” 13.

34. 34. TNA CO 270 / 2, Minutes of Council, November 4, 1793; Suzanne Schwarz, “Commerce, Civilization and Christianity: The Development of the Sierra Leone Company,” in Liverpool and Transatlantic Antislavery, ed. David Richardson, Suzanne Schwarz, and Anthony Tibbles (Liverpool, 2007), 264.

35. 35. Angus Dalrymple-Smith and Pieter Woltjer, “Commodities, Prices and Risk: The Changing Market for Non-Slave Products in Pre-abolition West Africa,” African Economic History Working Paper, No. 31 / 2016.

36. 36. George E. Brooks, Yankee Traders,, Old Coasters, and African Middlemen: A History of American Trade with West Africa in the Nineteenth Century (Boston, 1970), 17; Lepler, The Many Panics of 1837; Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams (Cambridge, MA, 2013), 44.

37. 37. Huntington Library, MSS MY 584, January 30, 1816; MY 586, July 16, 1816; MY 673, July 18, 1816; MY 587, July 23, 1816; MY 619, January 23, 1822.

38. 38. Huntington Library, MSS MY 134, January 31, 1822.

39. 39. Huntington Library, MSS MY 428, March 26, 1815.

40. 40. Huntington Library, MSS MY 105, MY 153, MY 954, MY 436.

41. 41. TNA CO 270 / 1, Sierra Leone Gazette, “A List of Merchant Vessels and Their Burthen,” January 31, 1818.

42. 42. Newbury, “Credit,” 87.

43. 43. Austin, “Local Suppliers of Credit”; Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (Oxford, 1962), 143.

44. 44. JCBL BFBR B.513, Newport, September 11, 1794, Martin Benson to Brown, Benson & Ives; Rappeleye, Sons of Providence; Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice; The Voyage of the Slave Ship Sally, http://cds.library.brown.edu/projects/sally/; finding aids compiled by Catherine Osborne DeCesare and Carole Foster, 1996, John Carter Brown Library.

45. 45. Between 1801 and 1811, twenty-two ships left Philadelphia for West African ports, primarily Senegal, Historical Society of Pennsylvania (hereafter cited as HSP), Maritime Records Arrivals and Clearances, sec. 3, vols. 2–5. Many of these were probably still participating in the slave trade to the Caribbean, because the slave and legitimate trades occurred simultaneously and, as George Brooks has described, symbiotically. George E. Brooks, Western Africa and Cabo Verde, 1790s–1830s: Symbiosis of Slave and Legitimate Trades (Bloomington, IN, 2010); James Fichter, So Great a Proffit (Cambridge, MA, 2010); Norman Bennett and George Brooks, eds., New England Merchants in Africa (Boston, 1965), xxviii–xxix.

46. 46. Sierra Leone National Archives, Fourah Bay College, Freetown (hereafter cited as SLNA), Secretary of State Despatches, April 3, 1809; Fichter, So Great a Profitt, 3; see also Nathan Perl-Rosenthal, Citizen Sailors: Becoming American in the Age of Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 2015).

47. 47. Gambia National Archives, Banjul, CSO 1 / 1, July 12, 1815.

48. 48. Fichter, So Great a Profitt, 107.

49. 49. JCBL BFBR Vessels, Brigantine Pilgrim, B.631, F.2, July 30, 1811–December 28, 1811, Thomas Carew account current with Brig Pilgrim. TNA CO / 270, journal of Smith’s voyage to Kisi Kisi, 1802; Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 147.

50. 50. JCBL BFBR B.631 F.4, Brigantine Pilgrim papers, 2nd voyage to Gorée, Gideon Young master, April 4, 1812–August 7, 1812.

51. 51. JCBL BFBR B.629, Schooner Peacock, Cape Coast Castle, September 11, 1817, W. H. Leigh to B&I; Elmina, October 10, 1817, Jan Neiser at Elmina to B&I; BFBR B.636 Brigantine Richard, Elmina Castle, April 17, 1819, Jan Neiser to B&I.

52. 52. E. Frances White, Sierra Leone’s Settler Women Traders (Ann Arbor, 1987); Gibril Cole, The Krio of West Africa (Athens, OH, 2013); Kristin Mann, “Owners, Slaves and the Struggle for Labor in the Commercial Transition at Lagos,” in From Slave Trade to “Legitimate” Commerce, ed. Robin Law (Cambridge, 2002), 147; Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone; Bronwen Everill, Abolition and Empire in Sierra Leone and Liberia (Basingstoke, 2013).

53. 53. JCBL BFBR B.637 F.4, Providence, August 11, 1821, B&I to Dailey.

54. 54. JCBL BFBR B.637, March 4, 1820, Jan Nieser, Elmina to B&I.

55. 55. JCBL BFBR B.637 F.2, Elmina, March 4, 1820, Jan Neiser to B&I.

56. 56. JCBL BFBR B.637 F.4, Providence, August 11, 1821, B&I to Dailey.

57. 57. Marion Johnson, Henry Gemery, and Jan Hogendorn, “Evidence on English / African Terms of Trade in the Eighteenth Century,” Explorations in Economic History 27, no. 2 (1990): 157–177; Dalrymple-Smith and Woltjer, “Commodities, Prices and Risk”; Robin Law, Suzanne Schwarz, and Silke Strickrodt, eds., Commercial Agriculture, the Slave Trade and Slavery in Atlantic Africa (Rochester, NY, 2013); Toby Green, ed., Brokers of Change: Atlantic Commerce and Cultures in Pre-colonial Western Africa (Oxford, 2012).

58. 58. Christopher Leslie Brown, “The Origins of Legitimate Commerce,” in Law, Schwarz, and Strickrodt, Commercial Agriculture, 138–157.

59. 59. Anthony Benezet, Some Historical Account of Guinea (Philadelphia, 1771), 143–144; Brown, “Origins of Legitimate Commerce,” 156–157; Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital (Chapel Hill, 2006), 324.

60. 60. Thomas Clarkson, The History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave-Trade by the British Parliament (London, 1808), 373. See Marcus Wood, “Packaging Liberty and Marketing the Gift of Freedom: 1807 and the Legacy of Clarkson’s Chest,” Parliamentary History 26, suppl. (2007): 203–223. The chest is on display at the Wisbech and Fenland Museum, Cambridgeshire.

61. 61. JCBL BFBR B.513 F.6, Newport, August 9, 1794, Martin Benson to Brown Benson & Ives.

62. 62. JCBL BFBR B.513 F.6, Newport, September 11, 1794, Martin Benson to BB&I; John McCusker, Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic World (New York, 2014); Sherylynne Haggerty, “Merely for Money?” Business Culture in the British Atlantic, 1750–1815 (Liverpool, 2014).

63. 63. JCBL BFBR B.629 F.1, Providence, June 14, 1817, B&I instructions to Capt. Daniel D. Daily for Schooner Peacock.

64. 64. JCBL BFBR B.37 F.1, Providence, October 30, 1817, to William Allston, Boston.

65. 65. Henry Noble Sherwood, “Afro-American Interests,” Journal of Negro History 8, no. 2 (1923): 203.

66. 66. JCBL BFBR B.37 F.1, Boston, November 1, 1817, to Brown & Ives.

67. 67. JCBL BFBR B.37 F.3, Providence, February 12, 1818, to Allston; Boston, February 13, 1818, to Brown & Ives.

68. 68. JCBL BFBR B.637 F.1, set of instructions for John Bowers and Jeremiah Goff, November 23, 1819.

69. 69. JCBL BFBR B.37 F.1, Providence, October 30, 1817, to William Allston, Boston.

70. 70. JCBL BFBR B.636, Brig Richard, Providence, June 26, 1818, instructions for Capt. George H. Hallowell.

71. 71. JCBL BFBR B.523, Ship Charlotte papers, April 9, 1816.

72. 72. Bruce Mouser, “The Trial of Samuel Samo and the Trading Syndicates of the Rio Pongas,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 46, no. 3 (2013): 423–441; Robert Thorpe, The Trial of the Slave Traders Samuel Samo, Joseph Peters and William Tufft (London, 1813).

73. 73. JCBL BFBR B.523 F.10, account with Samo.

74. 74. Quoted in Allan McPhee, The Economic Revolution in British West Africa (London, 1926), 31n2, as cited in A. G. Hopkins, Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973), 129.

75. 75. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, American Free Produce Association Correspondence, incoming: 1838–1840.

76. 76. HCQSC, George W. Thayer letterbook, November 17, 1852, to Stephen A. Benson.

77. 77. HCQSC, George W. Thayer letterbook, November 17, 1852, to Stephen A. Benson.

78. 78. Many thanks to the apothecary staff at Colonial Williamsburg for their assistance with squills; John Sims, Curtis’s Botanical Magazine (London, 1806), vol. 23, plate 918.

79. 79. JCBL BFBR B.523, Ship Charlotte papers.

80. 80. Lepler, The Many Panics of 1837; Richard Follett, Sven Beckert, Peter Coclanis, and Barbara Hahn, eds., Plantation Kingdom: The American South and Its Global Commodities (Baltimore, 2016); Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton (New York, 2014); Hopkins, Economic History.

81. 81. TNA CO Reports 1848 (Gambia), 323, as cited in Newbury, “Credit,” 87.

82. 82. JCBL BFBR B.523, Ship Charlotte to Africa, Providence, October 2, 1816, B&I to Young, “Instructions for Capt Gideon Young, Master of the Ship Charlotte, for a Voyage to the Coast of Africa.”

83. 83. JCBL BFBR B.523, Ship Charlotte to Africa, F.5, Crawford’s Island, Isle de Loss, July 22, 1817, Leigh to B&I regarding the loss in the squill transaction.

84. 84. JCBL BFBR B.636 F.5, produce paid Capt. Hallowell.

85. 85. JCBL BFBR B.637 F.1, Providence, November 23, 1819, B&I to Kenneth Macaulay.

86. 86. JCBL BFBR B.637, November 23, 1819, set of instructions for John Bowers and Jeremiah Goff.

87. 87. JCBL BFBR B.637, Providence, November 23, 1819, B&I to Kenneth Macaulay.

88. 88. JCBL BFBR B.637, November 23, 1819, set of instructions for John Bowers and Jeremiah Goff.

89. 89. Huntington Library, MSS MY 632, May 7, 1831, Zachary Macaulay to James Stephen.

90. 90. Huntington Library, MSS MY 403, November 18, 1826, Selina to Zachary Macaulay.

91. 91. Huntington Library, MSS MY 403, November 18, 1826, Selina to Zachary Macaulay.

92. 92. TNA CO 270 / 1, Sierra Leone Gazette, January 3, 1818.

93. 93. London Metropolitan Archives, ACC / 0283 / 011, May 2, 1825, George Stephen Collection, Writ to Sheriff of Surrey to take up William Easton late of London, gent., administrator of Joseph Easton, late of Sierra Leone gent., to answer Zachary Macaulay and Thomas Gisborne Babington in action to recover debt, in Court of King’s Bench.

94. 94. Huntington Library, MSS MY 645, letters, London, November 17, 1827, to “My dear Kenneth,” marked private.

95. 95. Polly Hill, Studies in Rural Capitalism in West Africa (Cambridge, 1970); Jennifer Lofkrantz and Paul Lovejoy, “Maintaining Network Boundaries: Islamic Law and Commerce from Sahara to Guinea Shores,” Slavery & Abolition 36, no. 2 (2015): 225–226; Jane Guyer, Marginal Gains (Chicago, 2004), 55.

96. 96. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, folder 22, January 6, 1798.

97. 97. Archives Nationale du Senegal (hereafter cited as ANS), Dakar AOF T1, État et liquidations des dettes du Senegal.

98. 98. ANS, Dakar, AOF T1, 1808 debts of 12,524, and 1,200 in “fournitures.”

99. 99. Curtin, Economic Change, 303.

100. 100. M. Le Baron Roger, Fables Senegalaises, recuillies de L’Ouolof, et mises en vers français, avec des notes sur la Senegambie (Paris, 1828), 13–14.

101. 101. Searing, West African Slavery, 163–164; François Richard, “Hesitant Geographies of Power,” Journal of Social Archaeology 13, no. 1 (2012): 61; Martin Klein, Islam and Imperialism in Senegal (Stanford, 1968); Samba Thiam, “Les indigenes paysans entre maisons de commerce et administration colonial: Practiques et institutions de credit au Sénégal (1840–1940)” (PhD diss., Montpellier 1, 2001).

102. 102. Newbury, “Credit,” 87. See also Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau, “Cultural Systems of Representation, Economic Interests and French Penetration into Black Africa, 1780s–1880s,” in Pétré-Grenouilleau, From Slave Trade to Empire, 169–176.

103. 103. TNA FO 84 / 858, October 27, 1851, Beecroft to Palmerston; Newbury, “Credit,” 89; K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830–1885 (Oxford, 1956), 158; Lynn, “The West African Palm Oil Trade in the Nineteenth Century and the ‘Crisis of Adaptation,’ ” in Law, From Slave Trade to “Legitimate” Commerce, 57–77; Richardson, “Anglo-African Credit Relations,” 57–61.

104. 104. Curtin, Economic Change.

105. 105. This is the subject of some debate among archaeologists. Thiaw argues that the apparent decline in the quality of pottery may have been related to the import of copper basins, but equally to the replacement of certain kinds of pottery vessels with other materials, leaving only the lowest quality of vessel as a continued pottery tradition. Ibrahima Thiaw, “Archaeological Investigation of Long-Term Culture Change in the Lower Faleme (Upper Senegal Region) A.D. 500–1900” (PhD diss., Rice University, 1999, 268).

106. 106. TNA CO 271 / 1, August 25, 1820.

107. 107. ANS, Saint-Louis, Doc 607, Roger Pasquier, “Les Traitants des Comptoirs du Senegal au Milieu du XIXe siècle,” Colloque Enterprises et Entrepreneurs en Afrique (XIXe et XXe siècles), Université Paris 7, December 1981, page 4.

108. 108. Newbury, “Credit,” 88.

109. 109. Austin, “Indigenous Credit Institutions,” 133.

110. 110. Newbury, “Credit,” 88; Pétré-Grenouilleau, “Cultural Systems”; François Richard, “ ‘In [Them] We Will Find Very Desirable Tributaries for Our Commerce’: Cash Crops, Commodities, and Subjectivities in Siin (Senegal) during the Colonial Era,” in The Archaeology of Capitalism in Colonial Contexts, ed. Sarah Crouch and Lindsay Weiss (New York, 2011), 193–218.

111. 111. Newbury, “Credit,” 88.

112. 112. Margaret O. McLane, “Commercial Rivalries and French Policy on the Senegal River, 1831–1858,” African Economic History 15 (1986): 48.

113. 113. Newbury, “Credit,” 88. See also McLane, “Commercial Rivalries,” 46.

114. 114. Report of Her Majesty’s Colonial Territories (1849 and 1850), 175, as cited in N. A. Cox-George, Finance and Development in West Africa: The Sierra Leone Experience (London, 1961), 141.

115. 115. Gambia National Archives, CSO 1 / 2, Neil Campbell to Earl Bathurst, May 16, 1827.

116. 116. Hopkins, Economic History, 131.

117. 117. Huntington Library, MSS MY 834, July 17, 1834, Sir James Stephen to Zachary Macaulay.

118. 118. Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 187.

119. 119. Huntington Library, MSS MY 369, September 7, 1830.

120. 120. TNA CUST 4 / 22–24.

121. 121. TNA CO 270 / 1, Gazette, January 17, 1818.

122. 122. Huntington Library, MSS MY 369, August 16–September 7, 1830, Henry William Macaulay to Zachary Macaulay.

123. 123. SLNA, Licenses Book, 1820–1842.

124. 124. Gambia National Archives, CSO 1 / 2, petition from merchants at Bathurst, May 3, 1826.

125. 125. Smith, The Wealth of Nations, chap. 4, bk. 3.

126. 126. Albert O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests (Princeton, 1977, 2013), 74, 80–81, 100.

127. 127. Mansour Aw, “L’Occupation anglaise du Senegal (1758–1783),” in Saint-Louis et l’esclavage, ed. Djibril Samb (Dakar, 1998), 85–94; Lydon, On Trans-Saharan Trails; George Brooks, Eurafricans in Western Africa (Athens, OH, 2003); Philip Havik, Silences and Soundbytes (Munster, 2004); Philip Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History (Cambridge, 1984); Pernille Ipsen, Daughters of the Trade (Philadelphia, 2015); Emily Lynn Osborn, Our New Husbands Are Here (Athens, OH, 2011); Hilary Jones, The Metis of Senegal (Bloomington, IN, 2013).

128. 128. Richardson, “Anglo-African Credit Relations,” 57–61; Hopkins, “Property Rights and Empire Building: Britain’s Annexation of Lagos, 1861,” Journal of Economic History 40, no. 4 (1980): 777–798.

129. 129. TNA CO 87 / 45, MacDonnell to Grey, June 20, 1849, cited in Hopkins, “Property Rights,” 782.

130. 130. TNA FO 84 / 1115, Brand to Russell, April 9, 1860, cited in Hopkins, “Property Rights,” 788. See also Kristin Mann, Slavery and the Birth of an African City (Bloomington, IN, 2007); Everill, Abolition and Empire.

5. PICKING WINNERS

1. 1. Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, bk. 4, chap. 7.

2. 2. William A. Pettigrew, Freedom’s Debt: The Royal African Company and the Politics of the Atlantic Slave Trade (Chapel Hill, NC, 2013).

3. 3. Zachary Macaulay, A Letter to His Royal Highness the Duke of Gloucester (London, 1815), 31.

4. 4. Macaulay, A Letter to His Royal Highness, 32, 35, 33.

5. 5. Huntington Library, MSS MY 133, December 18, 1821.

6. 6. Macaulay, A Letter to His Royal Highness 37.

7. 7. The National Archives, United Kingdom (hereafter cited as TNA), CUST 5 / 3 and 5 / 4. 720 cwt worth £540 2s 8d; in 1815, 199 hundredweights was worth £149 6s 7d.

8. 8. See essays in Robin Law, Suzanne Schwarz, and Silke Strickrodt, eds., Commercial Agriculture, the Slave Trade and Slavery in Atlantic Africa (Rochester, NY, 2013).

9. 9. Suzanne Schwarz, “Commerce, Civilization and Christianity,” in Liverpool and Transatlantic Antislavery, ed. David Richardson, Suzanne Schwarz, and Anthony Tibbles (Liverpool, 2007), 257.

10. 10. Richard Roberts, Two Worlds of Cotton: Colonialism and the Regional Economy in the French Soudan, 1800–1946 (Stanford, 1996), 60–75.

11. 11. Jenna Nigro, “Colonial Logics: Agricultural, Commercial and Moral Experiments in the Making of French Senegal, 1763–1870” (PhD diss., University of Illinois at Chicago, 2014), 152; Roger Pasquier, “Les Traitants des comptoirs du Senegal au milieu du XIXe siècle” (diss., Archives du Saint Louis au CRDS, doc. 607); Archives Nationale du Senegal (hereafter cited as ANS), Dakar, AOF 16Q 14, 16Q 18; Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton (New York, 2014), 122–123; Roberts, Two Worlds of Cotton, 64–65.

12. 12. TNA 270 / 1, April 15, 1820.

13. 13. Peter Coclanis, “The Road to Commodity Hell: The Rise and Fall of the First American Rice Industry,” in Plantation Kingdom: The American South and Its Global Commodities, ed. Richard Follett, Sven Beckert, Peter Coclanis, and Barbara Hahn (Baltimore, 2016); Paul Richards, “Rice as Commodity and Anticommodity,” in Local Subversions of Colonial Cultures: Commodities and Anti-Commodities in Global History, ed. Sandip Hazareesingh and Harro Maat (Basingstoke, 2016), 10–28; Judith Carney, Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas (Cambridge, MA, 2002); Edda Fields-Black, Deep Roots: Rice Farmers in West Africa and the African Diaspora (Bloomington, IN, 2008).

14. 14. TNA CUST 5 / 1A.

15. 15. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, box 19, folder 1, September 21, 1793.

16. 16. Christopher Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone (Oxford, 1962); Huntington Library, MSS MY 418; Sierra Leone National Archives, Fourah Bay College, Freetown (hereafter cited as SLNA) governor’s letterbook, 1808–1811.

17. 17. Michael J. Turner, “The Limits of Abolition: Government, Saints and the ‘African Question,’ c. 1780–1820,” English Historical Review 112, no. 446 (1997): 319–357; Padraic Scanlan, Freedom’s Debtors (New Haven, 2017); Suzanne Schwarz, “A Just and Honourable Commerce: Abolitionist Experimentation in Sierra Leone in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries,” African Economic History 45, no. 1 (2017): 1–45.

18. 18. Huntington Library, Macaulay Papers, MSS MY 2, August 1, 1793, to April 16, 1794, “Reasonable Assortment of Goods for the Purchase of a Ton of Rice at 100 Bars.”

19. 19. TNA WO 1 / 352, January 12, 1803, Questions proposed by Commodore Hallowell, with the Governor & Council’s answers.

20. 20. TNA WO 1 / 352, Report from the Committee on the Petition of the Court of Directors of the Sierra Leone Company, 1802, 30.

21. 21. Macaulay, A Letter to His Royal Highness, appendix 2, “Extract of a Letter from Messrs. Z. Macaulay and Babington, to Their Agent at Sierra Leone, M. Macmillan, Esq., dated London, Dec. 4, 1812,” 60.

22. 22. TNA CO 270 / 1, Sierra Leone Royal Gazette, August 16, 1817.

23. 23. TNA CO 267 / 91, appendix 15A, Rice Contracts.

24. 24. SLNA, governor’s letterbook, 1808–1811, K. Macaulay to Thomas Craig, May 21, 1811.

25. 25. TNA CO 270 / 1, Gazette, February 16, 1822.

26. 26. TNA CO 271 / 2, Gazette, April 6, 1822.

27. 27. Richards, “Rice as Commodity and Anticommodity.”

28. 28. TNA CO 271 / 2, Sierra Leone Gazette, February 22, 1823, letter to the editor.

29. 29. Scanlan, “The Rewards of Their Exertions: Prize Money and British Abolitionism in Sierra Leone, 1808–1823,” Past & Present 225 (2014); Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 166.

30. 30. Huntington Library, MSS MY 369, September 7, 1830.

31. 31. Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 166–167.

32. 32. Anna Maria Falconbridge, Narrative of Two Voyages to the River Sierra Leone during the years 1791–1792–1793 (London, 1794), letter 3, May 13, 1791, Granville Town.

33. 33. SLNA, license book, 1820–1842: April 22, 1824; June 25, 1824; January 9, 1826; January 1, 1827.

34. 34. TNA CO 267 / 111, 281. They lived at 25 Goodrich Street, with their daughter, Hannah, and four sons, John, Thomas, William, and Henry, as well as eight Liberated African children (four boys and four girls) listed as “servants” in the census.

35. 35. E. Frances White, “Creole Women Traders in the Nineteenth Century,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 14, no. 4 (1981): 631. Unfortunately, in 1853, “Betsey Carew occupied the best room in the Debtors’ Prison.” Fyfe, A History of Sierra Leone, 257.

36. 36. Special Report of the Directors of the African Institution, Made at the Annual General Meeting on the 12th of April, 1815, respecting the Allegations Contained in a Pamphlet Entitled “A Letter to William Wilberforce, Esq. &c. by R. Thorpe, Esq., &c.” (London, 1815); Gambia National Archives, CSO 1 / 1, petition from merchants about Albreda, October 26, 1824; TNA CO 271 / 2, March 9, 1822, list, “Principal Merchants of Gambia”; Boubacar Barry, Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade (Cambridge, 1998), 146; Marika Sherwood, ‘ “Legitimate’ Traders, the Building of Empires, and the Long-Term After-Effects in Africa,” in Brokers of Change: Atlantic Commerce and Cultures in Precolonial Western Africa, ed. Toby Green (Oxford, 2012).

37. 37. Gambia National Archives, CSO 1 / 1, to Wm. Allen from James Hook, February 21, 1823.

38. 38. Christopher L. Miller, “Forget Haiti: Baron Roger and the New Africa,” Yale French Studies 107 (2005): 39–69; Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours, “Critiques raisonnées: Lettres africaines ou Histoire de Phédima et d’Abensar, par M. Butini,” Les Ephémérides du Citoyen (1771): 242–244; Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau, La Révolution abolitionniste (Paris, 2017), 407–414; David Allen Harvey, “Slavery on the Balance Sheet: Pierre-Samuel Dupont de Nemours and the Physiocratic Case for Free Labor,” Journal of the Western Society for French History 42 (2014): 75–87; François Manchuelle, “The ‘Regeneration’ of Africa: An Important and Ambiguous Concept in 18th and 19th Century French Thinking about Africa,” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 36, no. 44 (1996): 578–579.

39. 39. Nigro, “Colonial Logics,” 123.

40. 40. Scanlan, Freedom’s Debtors.

41. 41. Special Report of the Directors of the African Institution; Scanlan, “Rewards of Their Exertions.”

42. 42. Iain Whyte, Zachary Macaulay, 1768–1838: The Steadfast Scot in the British Anti-Slavery Movement (Liverpool, 2011), 202, 205.

43. 43. TNA CO 268 / 19, Bathurst, August 29, 1813; Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 122–123; A Letter to His Royal Highness the Duke of Gloucester, 43.

44. 44. Fyfe, History of Sierra Leone, 122–123.

45. 45. TNA CO 270 / 1, July 31, 1819.

46. 46. SLNA, governor’s letterbook, 1808–1811.

47. 47. As cited in Basil Davidson, The African Slave Trade (Oxford, 1960; 1996), 108.

48. 48. Gambia National Archives, CSO 1 / 1, MacCarthy to Bathurst, June 30, 1823.

49. 49. Quoted in Schwarz, “Just and Honourable Commerce,” 28.

50. 50. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418 Folder 2, October 17, 1793.

51. 51. TNA CO 270 / 1 Gazette, 21 February 1818.

52. 52. Margaret O. McLane, “Commercial Rivalries and French Policy on the Senegal River, 1831–1858,” African Economic History 15 (1986): 55; James L. A. Webb, “The Trade in Gum Arabic: Prelude to French Conquest in Senegal,” Journal of African History 26 (1985): 149–168.

53. 53. TNA CO 267 / 229 Governor Kennedy to Sir John Packington, December 21, 1852.

54. 54. See the debate over the “crisis of adaptation”: K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830–1885 (Oxford, 1956); A. G. Hopkins, “Economic Imperialism in West Africa: Lagos, 1880–92,” Economic History Review 21 (1968): 580–600; Martin Lynn, Commerce and Economic Change in West Africa (Cambridge, 1997).

55. 55. ANS, Dakar, AOF G 13G16; Barry, Senegambia,160–169; Bruce Mouser, “Trade and Politics in the Nunez and Pongo Rivers, 1790–1865” (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin–Lacrosse, 1972); Charles Emmanuel Sorry, “Monographie historique du Rio Pongo du XVème à la fin du XIXeme siècle,” Institut Polytechnique Gamal Abdel Nassar, Conakry, 1973–1974; Oumar Sow, “Le Commerce européen sur les côtes de la Guinee en 19e siècle: Réalités et rôle dans le pénétration étrangère,” Memoire IPC, Conakry, 1973; Lamin Sanneh, “Futa Jallon and the Jakhanke Clerical Tradition,” Journal of Religion in Africa 12, no. 1 (1981): 38–64.

56. 56. National Center for Arts and Culture, The Gambia (hereafter cited as NCAC), Fajara Oral Archive, The Gambia, 200A 27 / 2 / 73; Ibrahima Thiaw, “Archaeological Investigation of Long-Term Culture Change in the Lower Faleme (Upper Senegal Region) A.D. 500–1900” (PhD diss., Rice University, 1999, 268), 271–272.

57. 57. NCAC, Fajara Oral Archive, 029A 1967.

58. 58. Barry, Senegambia, 171.

59. 59. Donald Wright, “The Epic of Kelefa Saane as a Guide to the Nature of Precolonial Senegambian Society and Vice Versa,” History in Africa 14 (1987): 287–309; NCAC, Fajara Oral Archive, The Gambia, 029A 1967.

60. 60. NCAC, Fajara Oral Archive, The Gambia, 200A 27 / 2 / 73.

61. 61. David Robinson, The Holy War of Umar Tal (Oxford, 1985); Michael Gomez, Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad (Cambridge, 1992), 122–123; Ira Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge, 2014); William Gervase Clarence-Smith, Islam and the Abolition of Slavery (London, 2006), 155–156.

62. 62. E. Ann McDougall, “In Search of a Desert-Edge Perspective: The Sahara-Sahel and the Atlantic Trade, c. 1815–1890,” in From Slave Trade to “Legitimate” Commerce, ed. Robin Law (Cambridge, 2002), 215–233.

63. 63. Parliamentary Papers, 1865, V (412), 429, The Duke of Newcastle to Governor G.A.K. D’Arcy, 5 December 1861.

64. 64. John Carter Brown Library (hereafter cited as JCBL), BFBR B522, Ship Charlotte, 1815–1816, F.8, Bristol, September 29, 1817, from Jacob Babbitt to B&I.

65. 65. Haverford College Quaker Special Collections, George W. Taylor letterbooks, May 30, 1853, to James Hall, Colonisation Rooms, Baltimore.

66. 66. JCBL BFBR B.611, trade book for the Olive Branch.

67. 67. JCBL BFBR B.523 F.1, October 17, 1817, from Loomis and Learned.

68. 68. JCBL BFBR B.522, Ship Charlotte papers, Bristol, September 29, 1817, from Jacob Babbitt to B&I.

69. 69. JCBL BFBR B522, Ship Charlotte, 1815–1816. F.8, in the Senate of the United States, January 4, 1819.

70. 70. Marc-William Palen, The “Conspiracy” of Free Trade: The Anglo-American Struggle over Empire and Economic Globalisation, 1846–1896 (Cambridge, 2016), 3.

71. 71. W. Caleb McDaniel, The Problem of Democracy in the Age of Slavery (Baton Rouge, 2013), 163–164.

72. 72. Historical Society of Pennsylvania (hereafter cited as HSP), Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, letter from the Committee on Requited Labor to the Association, 1839.

73. 73. Simon Morgan, “The Anti-Corn Law League and British Anti-Slavery in Transatlantic Perspective, 1838–1846,” Historical Journal 52, no. 1 (2009): 87–107; James L. Huston, “Abolitionists, Political Economists, and Capitalism,” Journal of the Early Republic 20, no. 3 (2000): 487–521. For more on how commercial rivalry effected transatlantic cooperation in the wider abolition movement, see Bronwen Everill, Abolition and Empire in Sierra Leone and Liberia (Basingstoke, 2013).

74. 74. Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire (Cambridge, MA, 2016); Jessica Lepler, The Many Panics of 1837 (Cambridge, 2015); Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams (Cambridge, MA, 2013), 289; Marc-William Palen, “Free-Trade Ideology and Transatlantic Abolitionism: A Historiography,” Journal of the History of Economic Thought 37, no. 2 (2015): 291–304.

75. 75. Andrew Shankman, “Capitalism, Slavery, and the New Epoch,” in Slavery’s Capitalism, ed. Sven Beckert and Seth Rockman (Philadelphia, 2016), 252–256; Robin Einhorn, American Taxation, American Slavery (Chicago, 2008); Robin Einhorn, “Slavery and the Politics of Taxation in the Early United States,” Studies in American Political Development 14 (2000): 156–183.

76. 76. Palen, “Free-Trade Ideology,” 294.

77. 77. In 1820: 3,283,058 hundredweight of West India sugar; 99,440 of East India. “Account of Quantity of East and West India Sugar entered for Home Consumption, 1813–20,” 1821, House of Commons Papers, 533, XVII.215, vol. 17.

78. 78. Coclanis, “Road to Commodity Hell,” 36.

79. 79. Zachary Macaulay, East India Sugar, or an Inquiry Respecting the Means of Improving the Quality and Reducing the Cost of Sugar Raised by Free Labour in the East Indies (London, 1824), 5.

80. 80. Huntington Library, MSS MY 367, January 15, 1825, Henry William Macaulay to the family; Whyte, Zachary Macaulay.

81. 81. HSP Roberts Vaux Correspondence, January–June 1825, Collection 684, box 2, folder 18, May 30, 1825; see also Missionary Register, May 1825, p. 232; Parliamentary Papers, 1825: March 25, p. 267; March 29, p. 283; March 30, p. 291; April 14, p. 303; May 18, p. 433; May 30, p. 466; May 31, p. 955; May 31, p. 474.

82. 82. Thornton & Co … Russia merchants … 6 King’s Arms yd, Coleman st, Robson’s Improved London Directory, Street Guide, and Carrier’s List, for 1820 (London: William Robson and Co, 1820).

83. 83. Tropical Free-Labour Company prospectus, printed by Ellerton and Henderson, Printers, Gough Square, London.

84. 84. John Bull, June 1824; Whyte, Macaulay, 207.

85. 85. Macaulay, East India Sugar, 15, 14.

86. 86. Macaulay, East India Sugar, 5.

87. 87. The Correspondence between John Gladstone, Esq. MP and James Cropper, Esq. on the Present State of Slavery in the British West Indies and in the United States of America; and on the Importation of Sugar from the British Settlements in India (Liverpool: Printed for the West India Association, 1824), 35. This form of agency is associated with Matthew Forster, a merchant who operated in the Gold Coast. Edward Reynolds, “Economic Imperialism: The Case of the Gold Coast,” Journal of Economic History 35, no. 1 (1975): 94–116, at 98–99.

88. 88. Macaulay, East India Sugar, 8.

89. 89. ART. X. 1., “Letters Addressed to William Wilberforce, M. P.,” Edinburgh Review, 1802–1929; February 1823, 38, 75; British Periodicals, pp. 213, 215, 223.

90. 90. Reprinted in the Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 20, 1827, 123–124.

91. 91. John Jackson, A Treatise on the Capability of Our Eastern Possessions to Produce Those Articles of Consumption, and Raw Material for British Manufacture, for Which We Chiefly Depend on Foreign Nations, and the Incalculable Advantages of a Free Trade to and Settlement in India, to All Classes of His Majesty’s Subjects (London, 1829), 16.

92. 92. Thomas Clarkson, Thoughts on the Necessity of Improving the Condition of the Slaves in the British Colonies, with a View to Their Ultimate Emancipation; and on the Practicability, the Safety, and the Advantages of the Latter Measure, 2nd ed. (London, 1823), 57.

93. 93. Elizabeth Heyrick, Immediate, not Gradual Abolition; or, An Inquiry into the Shortest, Safest, and Most Effectual Means of Getting Rid of West-Indian Slavery (London, 1824), 20.

94. 94. Correspondence between John Gladstone, Esq. MP and James Cropper, Esq., 15–16; David Brion Davis, “James Cropper and the British Anti-Slavery Movement, 1821–1823,” Journal of Negro History 45, no. 4 (1960): 241–258; Andrea Major, Slavery, Abolitionism and Empire in India (Liverpool, 2012), 305.

95. 95. Tropical Free Labour Company, Report of the Provisional Committee, October 9, 1826; Merseyside Maritime Museum, D_CR_11_54; Davis, “James Cropper,” 241–258.

96. 96. Huntington Library, MSS MY 810, May 28, 1828, James Stephen to Zachary Macaulay.

97. 97. Nick Draper, The Price of Emancipation (Cambridge, 2010); Catherine Hall, Nick Draper, Keith McClelland, Katie Donnington, and Rachel Lang, Legacies of British Slave Ownership (Cambridge, 2014).

98. 98. Trevor Getz, Slavery and Reform in West Africa (Athens, OH, 2004), 78; Roger Pasquier, “À propos de l’émancipation des esclaves au Sénégal en 1848,” Outre-Mers, Revue d’histoire (1967): 188–208.

99. 99. Richard Huzzey, “Free Trade, Free Labor, and Slave Sugar in Victorian Britain,” Historical Journal 53, no. 2 (2010): 359–379; C. Duncan Rice, “ ‘Humanity Sold for Sugar!’ The British Abolitionist Response to Free Trade in Slave-Grown Sugar,” Historical Journal 13, no. 3 (1970): 402–418; Seymour Drescher, The Mighty Experiment (Oxford, 2004).

100. 100. The Sugar Question: Being a Digest of the Evidence Taken Before the Committee on Sugar and Coffee Plantations. Which was moved for by Lord George Bentinck, M. P., 3rd February 1848. By one of the witnesses. Part I. The East Indies and the Mauritius (London, 1848), 22.

101. 101. The Sugar Question, 166.

102. 102. Governor Reid, of Barbados, in a despatch to Earl Grey, dated February 26, 1848, and Governor Higginson of Antigua to Grey, December 26, 1847, both in Samuel Wilberforce, Cheap Sugar Means Cheap Slaves: Speech of the Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Oxford, in the House of Lords, February 7th, 1848, against the Admission of Slave Labour Sugar on Equal Terms with Free Labour Produce: With an Appendix Illustrative of the Impetus given to the Slave Trade by the Bill of 1846, 2nd ed. (London, 1848), appendix, 15.

103. 103. Philip Harling, “Sugar Wars,” in The Cultural Construction of the British World, ed. Barry Crosbie and Mark Hampton (Manchester, 2016), 59–76; Temperley, British Anti-slavery, 1833–1870 (London, 1972), 137–167; Major, Slavery, Abolitionism and Empire in India, 304–308; Huzzey, “Free Trade, Free Labor,” 359–379.

104. 104. Richard Huzzey, Freedom Burning (Ithaca, NY, 2012), 99–107.

6. A RISING TIDE LIFTS ALL BOATS

1. 1. Library of the Society of Friends, London, MS box 5.17, letter from SM Warner, October 17, 1927, to WF Nicholson, with a copy of a note from GM Gillett (writer’s mother) plus two samples of Free Labour Cotton material.

2. 2. Library of the Society of Friends, London, MS box 5.17, Letter from SM Warner, October 17, 1927, to WF Nicholson.

3. 3. Kevin Grant, Civilized Savagery (New York, 2005); Christopher Leslie Brown, Moral Capital (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006).

4. 4. Library Company of Philadelphia, Report of the Board of Managers of the Free Produce Association of Friends of New-York Yearly Meeting (New York, 1853), 3–4.

5. 5. Report of the Board of Managers.

6. 6. Huntington, MSS MY 418, folder 28, July 15, 1798–May 21, 1799, December 11, 1798.

7. 7. The National Archives, UK (hereafter cited as TNA) WO 1 / 352, Sierra Leone Office, May 8, 1807, from Z. Macaulay to Viscount Castlereagh.

8. 8. Gambia National Archives, CSO 1 / 2, petition from merchants at Bathurst, May 3, 1826.

9. 9. Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton (New York, 2014), 122–125.

10. 10. Second Report of the Committee of the African Institution (London, 1808), 6.

11. 11. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, folder 13, September 15, 1796.

12. 12. Per Hernaes, “A Danish Experiment in Commercial Agriculture on the Gold Coast, 1788–93,” in Commercial Agriculture, the Slave Trade, and Slavery in Atlantic Africa, ed. Robin Law, Suzanne Schwarz, and Silke Strickrodt (Rochester, NY, 2013), 158–179.

13. 13. M. Renaudot, Alger: Tableau du Royaume (Paris, 1830); Aristide Guilbert, De la colonisation du Nord de l’Afrique, nécessité d’une association nationale pour l’exploitation agricole et industrielle de l’Algérie (Paris, 1839); Adolpe Blanqui, Algérie: Rapport sur la situation économique de nos possessions dans le Nord de l’Afrique (Paris, 1840); L’Union Agricole d’Afrique, Nouveau système de colonisation de l’Algérie (Lyon, 1846). Many thanks to Mary Lewis for her help with these French sources. Jenna Nigro, “Colonial Logics: Agricultural, Commercial and Moral Experiments in the Making of French Senegal, 1763–1870” (PhD diss., University of Illinois at Chicago, 2014), 95–162; Archives Nationale du Senegal (hereafter cited as ANS), Dakar AOF 16Q Mise en valeur, 16Q 18 Établissement du culture.

14. 14. HCQSC, George W. Taylor letterbook, to John Wingave; Anti-Slavery Reporter, November 1852, 174; Ruth Ketring Nuermberger, The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest against Slavery (Durham, NC, 1942), 76; Anna P. Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement and British Anti-Slavery Campaigns: The Free Labour Cotton Depot in Street 1853–1858” (PhD diss., University of Brighton, 2012), 102.

15. 15. Colleen Kriger, “ ‘Guinea Cloth’ Production and Consumption of Cotton Textiles in West Africa before and during the Atlantic Slave Trade,” in The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 1200–1850, ed. Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi (Oxford, 2009), 106–126.

16. 16. Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement,” 102.

17. 17. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, folder 20, April 25, 1797.

18. 18. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, folder 21, June 7, 1797, “Remarks on the Health, Trade, Cultivation, and Civilization of Sierra Leone.”

19. 19. Bronwen Everill, Abolition and Empire in Sierra Leone and Liberia (Basingstoke, 2013); Stefania Galli and Klas Ronnback, “Colonialism and Rural Inequality in Sierra Leone: An Egalitarian Experiment,” European Review of Economic History (2019), https://doi-org.ezp.lib.cam.ac.uk/10.1093/ereh/hez011.

20. 20. Huntington Library, MSS MY 155, MY 242–254, letters between Macaulay and Dumont, June 1820–May 1821; Lawrence Jennings, French Antislavery (Cambridge, 2005), 7–8.

21. 21. Nigro, “Colonial Logics,” 147–148.

22. 22. ANS, Dakar 16Q 6, Établissements de culture, 1825; 16Q 10, Pellegrin at Richardtoll.

23. 23. Pernille Roge, “ ‘La clef de commerce’: The Changing Role of Africa in France’s Atlantic Empire cs. 1760–1797,” History of European Ideas 34, no. 4 (2008): 431–443; Nigro, “Colonial Logics,” 154.

24. 24. Nigro, “Colonial Logics,” 155.

25. 25. David Todd, Free Trade and Its Enemies in France, 1814–1851 (Cambridge, 2015).

26. 26. A. G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973); Gareth Austin, Labour, Land, and Capital in Ghana: From Slavery to Free Labor in Asante, 1807–1956 (Rochester, NY, 2005); James Searing, “No Kings, No Lords, No Slaves,” Journal of African History 43 (2002): 407–429.

27. 27. Everill, Abolition and Empire; Eric Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution (Gainesville, FL, 2005); Nick Guyatt, Bind Us Apart (New York, 2016).

28. 28. Everill, “ ‘The Colony has made no progress in agriculture’: Contested Perceptions of Agriculture in the Colonies of Sierra Leone & Liberia,” in Schwarz, Strickrodt, and Law, Commercial Agriculture, 180–202.

29. 29. Everill, “ ‘Colony Has Made No Progress”; Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Monrovia, Liberia, Deeds and Records, Last Will and Testament, Isaac Deans, June 1854. E.g., “neither of them shall sell or cause to be sold any part of the property but the property is to be kept together and inherited from heir to heir.”

30. 30. African Repository 21 (1852); S. C. Saha, “Transferences of American Values through Agriculture to Liberia: A Review of Liberian Agriculture during the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Negro History 72 (1987): 61.

31. 31. Everill, Abolition and Empire, 93–94; Peyton Skipwith to John Hartwell Cocke, February 10, 1834, in Dear Master: Letters of a Slave Family, ed. Randall Miller (Athens, GA, 1990).

32. 32. Haverford College Quaker Special Collections (hereafter cited as HCQSC), George W. Taylor letterbook, April 23, 1853.

33. 33. Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire (Cambridge, MA, 2016), 153.

34. 34. Joseph Marryat, A Reply to the Arguments Contained in Various Publications, Recommending an Equalization of the Duties on East and West Indian Sugar (London, 1823).

35. 35. Marryat, A Reply, 45. See Andrea Major, “ ‘The Slavery of East and West’: Abolitionists and ‘Unfree’ Labor in India, 1820–1833,” Slavery & Abolition 31, no. 4 (2010): 501–525; Christopher M. Florio, “From Poverty to Slavery: Abolitionists, Overseers, and the Global Struggle for Labor in India,” Journal of American History 102, no. 4 (2016): 1005–1024; Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (Chapel Hill, NC, 1944), 137–140.

36. 36. “A Letter to William Whitmore, Pointing out some of the Erroneous Statements Contained in a Pamphlet by Joseph Marryat, Esq., MP. By the author of a pamphlet entitled ‘East and West India Sugar’ ” (Zachary Macaulay, London, 1823); Zachary Macaulay, East India Sugar, or an Inquiry Respecting the Means of Improving the Quality and Reducing the Cost of Sugar Raised by Free Labour in the East Indies (London, 1824).

37. 37. Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, “Cropper, Benson and Co Circular on the Cultivation of Cotton” (Liverpool, 1822).

38. 38. ART. X. 1., “Letters Addressed to William Wilberforce, M. P.,” Edinburgh Review, 1802–1929, 225.

39. 39. East India Company. Debates at the General Court of Proprietors of East-India Stock, on the 19th and 21st March 1823 on the East-India Sugar Trade (London, 1823), 10. Maurice J. Bric, “Debating Empire and Slavery: Ireland and British India, 1820–1845,” Slavery & Abolition 37, no. 3 (2016): 561–577; Andrea Major, Slavery, Abolitionism and Empire in India (Liverpool, 2012); Major, “ ‘The Slavery of East and West,’ ” 501–525.

40. 40. Marryat, A Reply, 44.

41. 41. Morning Post, October 26, 1857; Vaughan Kett, “Quaker Women, the Free Produce Movement,” 102.

42. 42. Sven Beckert, “Emancipation and Empire,” American Historical Review 109, no. 5 (2004): 1405–1438.

43. 43. New Times, March 28, 1825, letter from “Mercator” dated London, March 26, 1825.

44. 44. Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 1830, “The Consumers of West India Sugar the Supporters of West India Slavery.” Richard B. Allen, “Slaves, Convicts, Abolitionists and the Global Origins of the Post-Emancipation Indentured Labor System,” Slavery & Abolition 35, no. 2 (2014): 328–348.

45. 45. Padraic Scanlan, Freedom’s Debtors (New Haven, 2017); Michael J. Turner, “The Limits of Abolition: Government, Saints and the ‘African Question,’ c. 1780–1820,” English Historical Review 112, no. 446 (1997): 319–357; Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects (Chicago, 2002); Nick Draper, The Price of Emancipation (Cambridge, 2010); Legacies of British Slave-Ownership project, https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/; Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds, Drawing the Global Color Line (Cambridge, 2008).

46. 46. Hilary Jones, The Metis of Senegal (Bloomington, IN, 2013), 33.

47. 47. Thomas Clarkson, An Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, Particularly the African, 3rd ed. (London, printed in Philadelphia, 1787), 31–32.

48. 48. Macaulay, East India Sugar.

49. 49. Thomas Carlyle, “Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question,” Fraser’s Magazine for Town and Country (1849), reprinted in “West India Emancipation,” Commercial Review of the South and West (later De Bow’s Review), June 1850, vol. 8 (old series), vol. 2, no. 4, n.s. (ed. J. D. De Bow, New Orleans), 529.

50. 50. Hall, Civilising Subjects.

51. 51. J. S. Mill (anonymous), “The Negro Question,” Fraser’s Magazine for Town and Country (1850), reprinted in Littell’s Living Age, vol. 24, ed. E. D. Littell (Boston, 1850), 466.

52. 52. David Northrup, Indentured Labor in the Age of Imperialism (Cambridge, 1995); Rachel Bright, Chinese Labor in South Africa, 1902–10 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013); Sujit Sivasundaram, Islanded (Chicago, 2013); Lake and Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line; Megan Vaughan, Creating the Creole Island (Durham, NC, 2005), 269–272; Clare Anderson, “Convicts and Coolies: Rethinking Indentured Labor in the Nineteenth Century,” Slavery & Abolition 30, no. 1 (2009): 93–109; Jonathan Connolly, “Indentured Labor Migration and the Meaning of Emancipation,” Past & Present 238, no. 1 (2018): 85–119.

53. 53. Beckert, Empire of Cotton, 249.

54. 54. Richard Huzzey, Freedom Burning (Ithaca, NY, 2012), 180; William A. Green, British Slave Emancipation: The Sugar Colonies and the Great Experiment (Oxford, 1976), 152; John Gladstone in the Legacies of British Slave-Ownership project, https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/person/view/8961.

55. 55. Vaughan, Creating the Creole Island, 270; Zoe Laidlaw, “Heathens, Slaves, and Aborigines: Thomas Hodgkin’s Critique of Missions and Anti-Slavery,” History Workshop Journal 64, no. 1 (Autumn 2007): 135.

56. 56. Seymour Drescher, The Mighty Experiment (Oxford, 2002), 172–173; Karp, This Vast Southern Empire, 154–172; Alessandro Stanziani, “Beyond Colonialism: Servants, Wage Earners, and Indentured Migrants in Rural France and on Reunion Island (c. 1750–1900),” Labor History 54, no. 1 (2013): 64–87; Clare Anderson, “Convicts and Coolies: Rethinking Indentured Labor in the Nineteenth Century,” Slavery & Abolition 30, no. 1 (2009): 93–94.

57. 57. Connolly, “Indentured Labor Migration,” 113.

58. 58. “Can the Slave Trade Be Suppressed?,” Economist, September 2, 1848, 993.

59. 59. Hansard, 3rd ser., clii, col. 1232, March 3, 1859.

60. 60. Connolly, “Indentured Labor Migration,” 103.

61. 61. Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 20, 1827, “English Female Philanthropy,” 126. See Clare Midgley, Women against Slavery: The British Campaigns, 1780–1870 (London, 1992), 53–55.

62. 62. Howard Temperley, White Dreams, Black Africa: The Antislavery Expedition to the Niger (New Haven, 1991).

63. 63. Hall, Civilising Subjects.

64. 64. Temperley, White Dreams, Black Africa; R. R. Madden, A Twelvemonth’s Residence in the West Indies: During the Transition from Slavery to Apprenticeship (Philadelphia, 1835); Stanley Engerman, “Economic Change and Contract Labor in the British Caribbean: The End of Slavery and the Adjustment to Emancipation,” Explorations in Economic History 21, no. 2 (1984): 133–150; Hall, Civilising Subjects.

65. 65. James L. Huston, “Abolitionists, Political Economists, and Capitalism,” Journal of the Early Republic 20, no. 3 (2000): 497.

66. 66. Beatriz Mamigonian, Africanos livros (Sao Paulo, 2017).

67. 67. Kenya National Archives, AG 1 437, “Report on Slavery and Free Labor in the East Africa Protectorate,” 1903; AG / 1 / 438, “Report on Conditions of Freed Slaves,” 1915.

68. 68. Matthew Hopper, Slaves of One Master: Globalization and Slavery in Arabia in the Age of Empire (New Haven, 2015); Maeve Ryan, “ ‘A Moral Millstone?’ British Humanitarian Governance and the Policy of Liberated African Apprenticeship, 1808–1848,” Slavery & Abolition 37, no. 2 (2016): 399–422; Padraic Scanlan, “The Colonial Rebirth of British Anti-Slavery: The Liberated African Villages of Sierra Leone, 1815–1824,” American Historical Review 121, no. 4 (2016): 1085–1113; Jonathan Hyslop, “The Imperial Working Class Makes Itself ‘White’: White Laborism in Britain, Australia, and South Africa before the First World War,” Journal of Historical Sociology 12, no. 4 (1999), 398–421; M. Kale, “Projecting Identities: Empire and Indentured Labor Migration from India to Trinidad and British Guiana, 1836–1865,” in Nation and Migration: The Politics of Space in the South Asian Diaspora, ed. P. van de Veer (Philadelphia, 1995), 73–92.

69. 69. Thomas Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population (London, 1803), 105. Alison Bashford and Joyce Chaplin, The New Worlds of Thomas Robert Malthus: Rereading the Principle of Population (Princeton, 2016), 177–179.

70. 70. Trevor Getz, Slavery and Reform in West Africa (Athens, OH, 2004), 122; Major, Slavery, Abolitionism, 5, 143–146; Michael Twaddle, “The Ending of Slavery in Buganda,” in The End of Slavery in Africa, ed. Suzanne Miers and Richard Roberts (Madison, WI, 1988), 128.

71. 71. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population,172–173; Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, Book III, Chapter II.

72. 72. Hinton Rowan Helper, The Impending Crisis of the South: How to Meet It (New York, 1857), esp. chap. 8.

73. 73. Martin Klein, “Review Article: The Study of Slavery in Africa,” Journal of African History 19, no. 4 (1978): 599–609; Gerald McSheffrey, “Slavery, Indentured Servitude, Legitimate Trade and the Impact of Abolition in the Gold Coast, 1874–1901: A Reappraisal,” Journal of African History 24, no. 3 (1983): 349–368; Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives (Madison, WI, 1977); Paul Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, 2011).

74. 74. Mary Kingsley, Travels in West Africa (London, 1897), chap. 11; Richard Burton, Wanderings in West Africa (London, 1863), 175; Frederick Cooper, “Review Article: The Problem of Slavery in African Studies,” Journal of African History 20, no. 1 (1979): 103–125.

75. 75. Rudolph T. Ware III, The Walking Quran (Chapel Hill, 2014) 161.

76. 76. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 118; Candido, An African Slaving Port and the Atlantic World, 13.

77. 77. Madden, Twelve Months Residence in the West Indies, 2:196–198; Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery, 118–119.

78. 78. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, box 20A, folder 25, March 8, 1798.

79. 79. Philip Misevich, “On the frontier of ‘freedom’: Abolition and the transformation of Atlantic commerce in southern Sierra Leone, 1790s to 1860s” (PhD diss., Emory University, 2009); Robin Law, “Provisioning the Slave Trade: The Supply of Corn on the Seventeenth-Century Gold Coast,” African Economic History, 46, 1 (2018), 1–35.

80. 80. Paul Lovejoy and David Richardson, “Competing Markets for Male and Female Slaves: Prices in the Interior of West Africa, 1780–1850,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 28, no. 2 (1995): 261–293.

81. 81. Martin Klein, “Slave Resistance and Slave Emancipation in Coastal Guinea,” in Miers and Roberts, The End of Slavery in Africa, 205.

82. 82. N. A. Cox-George, Finance and Development in West Africa: The Sierra Leone Experience (London, 1961), 165.

83. 83. See Claude Meillassoux, The Anthropology of Slavery, trans. Alide Desnois (Chicago, 1991); Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff, Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives (Madison, 1977).

84. 84. Gareth Austen, “Commercial Agriculture and the Ending of Slave-Trading and Slavery in Africa, 1780s–1920s,” in Law, Schwarz, and Strickrodt, Commercial Agriculture, 243–265; Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery.

85. 85. Jane Guyer “Wealth in People, Wealth in Things—Introduction,” Journal of African History 36 (1995): 88.

86. 86. Emily Lynn Osborn, Our New Husbands Are Here (Athens, OH, 2011), 83.

87. 87. Huntington Library, MSS MY 418, journal of Zachary Macaulay, box 20, folder 22, June 3, 1797.

88. 88. E.g., Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (Boston, 1861).

89. 89. Herbert J. Foster, “Partners or Captives in Commerce?: The Role of Africans in the Slave Trade,” Journal of Black Studies 6, no. 4 (1976): 421–434; Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery; Kopytoff and Miers, African Slavery; Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death (Cambridge, MA, 1985).

90. 90. Kopytoff and Miers, African Slavery, 4–5.

91. 91. Cooper, “Review Article”; James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders (New York, 1998).

92. 92. See Trevor Getz and Liz Clarke, Abina and the Important Men (Oxford, 2012), for a (literal) good illustration of this. Sandra E. Greene, “Minority Voices: Abolitionism in West Africa,” Slavery & Abolition 36, no. 4 (2015): 642–661. There was similar confusion about this policy in the Sokoto Caliphate once the British had taken control at the end of the nineteenth century: Lovejoy, A Slow Death for Slavery (Cambridge, 1993), 31.

93. 93. Richard Anderson and Christine Whyte, Fugitive Slaves of West Africa Project, https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/history/research/grants/fugitive-slaves-of-west-africa.

94. 94. Getz, Slavery and Reform, 82; ANS Dakar Q15, “Commerce et Companie du Senegal 26 Août 1782: Articles convenus entre M. Le Général l’Ordinatuer et les marchands de boeuf.”

95. 95. “Letters Addressed to William Wilberforce,” 221.

96. 96. Reprinted in Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 20, 1827, 123–124.

97. 97. Zachary Macaulay quoted in East India Company, Debates at the General Court of Proprietors, 20.

98. 98. Robert Allen, Global Economic History: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford, 2011); Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence (Princeton, 2000); Peer Vries, “The California School and Beyond: How to Study the Great Divergence?,” History Compass 8, no. 7 (2010): 730–751; Jane Humphries, “The Lure of Aggregates and the Pitfalls of the Patriarchal Perspective: A Critique of the High Wage Economy Interpretation of the British Industrial Revolution,” Economic History Review 66, no. 3 (2013): 693–714; Jan de Vries, The Industrious Revolution (Cambridge, 2008); Kaoru Sugihara, “The State and the Industrious Revolution in Tokugawa Japan,” Working Paper no. 2 / 04, Global Economic History Network; Robert Allen, The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective (Cambridge, 2009).

99. 99. Duncan Foley, Adam’s Fallacy (Cambridge, MA, 2006), 64.

100. 100. Foley, Adam’s Fallacy, 65.

101. 101. Mill, Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy (London, 1844), VI.46; Roy Ruffin, “David Ricardo’s Discovery of Comparative Advantage,” History of Political Economy 43, no. 4 (2002): 727–748.

102. 102. Beckert, Empire of Cotton, 274–311.

103. 103. Klas Rönnbäck, “The Idle and the Industrious: European Ideas about the African Work Ethic in Precolonial West Africa,” History in Africa 41 (2014): 117–145.

104. 104. Mill, Essays on Some Unsettled Questions, IV.46.

105. 105. New Times, March 28, 1825, 3.

106. 106. Mathew Carey, Essays on Political Economy (Philadelphia, 1822), 40.

107. 107. African Repository, 1856, 18.

108. 108. Kehinde Olabimtan, “Church Missionary Society Projects of Agricultural Improvement in Nineteenth Century Sierra Leone and Yorubaland,” in Law, Schwarz, and Strickrodt, Commercial Agriculture, 218.

109. 109. The Relations and Duties of Free Colored Men in America to Africa: A Letter to Charles B. Dunbar, M. D. Esq., of New York City by The Rev. Alex. Crummell, B. A. (Hartford, 1861), 13. The African “textile industry thrived to the extent that exports of guinea cotton cloths to England occurred in the 1760s and 1770s,” Jan Hogendorn and Henry Gemery, “The Hidden Half of the Anglo-African Trade in the Eighteenth Century,” in West African Economic and Social History: Studies in Memory of Marion Johnson, ed. Davide Henige and T. C. McCaskie (Madison, WI, 1990), 83.

110. 110. Joseph E. Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development (Cambridge, 2002), 516, 519.

111. 111. John Carter Brown Library (hereafter cited as JCBL), BFBR B523 F.1.

112. 112. JCBL BFBR B.636 F.6.

113. 113. ING Group, London, Baring Archive HC17.60, Sierra Leone, December 31, 1839; JCBL BFBR, box 40, folder 3, New Orleans, June 26, 1826, to Brown & Ives; New Orleans, January 11, 1839, to Brown & Ives; Jay Sexton, Debtor Diplomacy (Oxford, 2005), chap. 1; Jessica Lepler, The Many Panics of 1837 (Cambridge, 2015); Beckert, Empire of Cotton, 215.

114. 114. JCBL BFBR, box 41, folder 1, Salem, June 29, 1835, to Robert.

115. 115. Beckert, Empire of Cotton, 296.

116. 116. Macaulay, East India Sugar.

117. 117. East India Company, Debates at the General Court of Proprietors, 19–20.

118. 118. Bentinck, The Sugar Question, 24.

119. 119. Suzanne Schwarz, “Commerce, Civilization and Christianity,” in Liverpool and Transatlantic Antislavery, ed. David Richardson, Suzanne Schwarz, and Anthony Tibbles (Liverpool, 2007), 252–276; Andrew Porter, “ ‘Commerce and Christianity’: The Rise and Fall of a Nineteenth-Century Missionary Slogan,” Historical Journal 28, no. 3 (1985): 608–609; Rönnbäck, “The Idle and the Industrious.”

7. CONSUMER NATIONALISM IN BLACK AND WHITE

1. 1. Sven Beckert, “Emancipation and Empire: Reconstructing the Worldwide Web of Cotton Production in the Age of the American Civil War,” American Historical Review 109, no. 5 (2004): 1405–1438; Louis Billington, “British Humanitarians and American Cotton, 1840–1860,” Journal of American Studies 11, no. 3 (1977): 313–334.

2. 2. Brian Schoen, The Fragile Fabric of Union (Baltimore, 2009), 100–145; Robin Einhorn, American Taxation, American Slavery (Chicago, 2008).

3. 3. T. H. Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution (Oxford, 2004), 195–234; Cathy D. Matson and Peter S. Onuf, A Union of Interests: Political and Economic Thought in Revolutionary America (Lawrence, KS, 1990), 20, 28; Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, The Age of Homespun (New York, 2001).

4. 4. Matson and Onuf, A Union of Interests, 17, 27; Schoen, Fragile Fabric of Union, 106; Joanna Cohen, Luxurious Citizens: The Politics of Consumption in Nineteenth-Century America (Philadelphia, 2017), 15–16.

5. 5. Mathew Carey, Essays on Political Economy (Philadelphia, 1822), 54; Schoen, Fragile Fabric of Union, 106, 120; Andrew Shankman, “Capitalism, Slavery, and the New Epoch,” in Slavery’s Capitalism, ed. Sven Beckert and Seth Rockman (Philadelphia, 2016), 252–256; Bronwen Everill, Abolition and Empire in Sierra Leone and Liberia (Basingstoke, 2013), chap. 7.

6. 6. Gambia National Archives, CSO 1 / 1, e.g., Macarthy to Bathurst, June 29, 1815; July 12, 1815; June 21, 1817.

7. 7. Derived from the table compiled from The National Archives, United Kingdom (hereafter cited as TNA), CO 90 / 8–90 / 25, in George E. Brooks, “Peanuts and Colonialism: Consequences of the Commercialization of Peanuts in West Africa, 1830–1870,” Journal of African History 16, no. 1 (1975): 34.

8. 8. Brooks, “Peanuts and Colonialism,” 37.

9. 9. Historical Society of Pennsylvania (hereafter cited as HSP), Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, letter to Lucretia Mott from Mary W Magill, January 13, 1839.

10. 10. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, letter from Benjamin Clendenda of the Union Free Produce Association to Lewis Gunn, Philadelphia, April 1839.

11. 11. HSP, Fifth Annual Report of the American Free Produce Assoc., 1843, 4–5.

12. 12. Haverford College Quaker Special Collections (hereafter cited as HCQSC), Free Produce Society of Friends, “At an Adjourned Meeting of the Board of Managers Held at No 231 High Street 10th Month 4th 1845.”

13. 13. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection 490, Miscellaneous Series V, reel 31, Ams 231, 244, 245, 841, 842, box 11b, folder 9.

14. 14. HCQSC, George W. Taylor letterbooks, letter to Gideon C. Smith, Pawtucket, RI, July 27, 1852.

15. 15. HCQSC, George W. Taylor letterbooks, letter to Taylor from Garrett & Bro., June 28, 1854.

16. 16. Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 3, 1829.

17. 17. Ruth Nuemberger, Free Produce Movement (Durham, NC, 1942), 62.

18. 18. Juliet E. K. Walker, A History of Black Business in America (Chapel Hill, NC, 2009), 156–157; “Proceedings of the National Convention of Colored People, Troy, NY, 1847,” minutes, 22–24; Manisha Sinha, The Slave’s Cause (New Haven, 2016), 373.

19. 19. Julie Winch, Philadelphia’s Black Elite (Philadelphia, 1988), 102.

20. 20. Peter Thompson, “David Walker’s Nationalism—and Thomas Jefferson’s,” Journal of the Early Republic 37, no. 1 (2017): 47–80.

21. 21. Julie Holcomb, Moral Commerce (Ithaca, NY, 2016), 131–132.

22. 22. HSP, Banneker Institute, Leon Gardiner collection of American Negro Historical Society Records, Jacob C White Jr. handwritten speech, December 30, 1952, “The Inconsistency of Colored People Using Slave Produce.”

23. 23. Julie Winch, A Gentleman of Color: The Life of James Forten (Oxford, 2002), 95; Gary Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Free Black Community, 1720–1840 (Cambridge, MA, 1988), 149.

24. 24. Register of Traders of the Colored People in the City of Philadelphia and Districts (Philadelphia, 1838). Desilver’s Philadelphia Directory, 1835–1836, lists Raymond Coster, soap and candle manufacture, 45 Lombard; James Forten and Sons, sail manufacture, 95 S whs dh 92 Lomb; Philip Powers, shipping master, 166 S 5th street; William West, clothier, under 120 S 2nd dwelling house Middle al.

25. 25. Juliet E. K. Walker, “Race, Slavery, and Free Enterprise: Black Entrepreneurship before the Civil War,” Business History Review 60, no. 3 (1986): 372.

26. 26. Walker, “Race, Slavery, and Free Enterprise,” 375.

27. 27. Martin R. Delany, North Star, March 16, 1849, 2, and April 20, 1849, 2; Robert S. Levine, ed., Martin R. Delany: A Documentary Reader (Chapel Hill, NC, 2003).

28. 28. Genius of Universal Emancipation, August 11, 1827.

29. 29. HCQSC, George W. Taylor letterbooks, vol. 1, November 17, 1852, to Stephen A. Benson; Library Company of Philadelphia, George W. Taylor Trade Card and Bill for John McAllister, Jr., 1862; Ruth Ketring Nuermberger, The Free Produce Movement: A Quaker Protest against Slavery (Durham, NC, 1942), 80; HSP, Papers of William Parker Foulke, correspondence regarding exploration and colonization of African territory west of Liberia (1853).

30. 30. HCQSC, George W. Taylor letterbooks, vol. 1, November 17, 1852, to Stephen A. Benson.

31. 31. Nick Guyatt, Bind Us Apart (New York, 2016).

32. 32. British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 16 (1828–1829), 1031, 1034, 1827–1828; Theresa A. Singleton, “Slavery and Spatial Dialectics on Cuban Coffee Plantations,” World Archaeology, 33, no.1 (2001): 100. See also William Gervase Clarence-Smith and Steven Topik, eds., The Global Coffee Economy in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, 1500–1989 (Cambridge, 2003).

33. 33. Robert K. Lacerte, “The Evolution of Land and Labor in the Haitian Revolution, 1791–1820,” The Americas 34, no. 4 (1978): 458–459.

34. 34. American State Papers, Senate, 16th Congress, 1st Session, Commerce and Navigation, 2:380.

35. 35. Based on export figures quoted in “Communications Received at the Foreign Office on the Subject of Foreign and Domestic Trade, Agriculture, Population, Industry, Legislation, and Civilisation of Hayti, 1826–1828,” British and Foreign State Papers, XVI, 683. The highest export year, 1824, saw state revenues of nearly $500,000 on just under 45 million pounds of coffee exported.

36. 36. Lacerte, “Evolution of Land and Labor,” 458. In 1825 the United States imported $1,958,921 into Haiti, on 374 vessels, or about half a million more than the next-highest trading partner, Britain. “After the Haitian government imposed taxes on all commercial interactions with countries that refused to acknowledge them, the US position began to border on the absurd. “It is our interest to acknowledge Haitian independence, because … we actually pay one hundred and one thousand dollars per annum, rather than acknowledge her to be—what she is without our acknowledgment—an independent power” (Colored American, February 2, 1839). Leslie Alexander, “ ‘The Black Republic’: The Influence of the Haitian Revolution on Northern Black Political Consciousness, 1816–1862,” in Haitian History: New Perspectives, ed. Alyssa Goldstein Sepinwall (New York, 2013), 66.

37. 37. Haitian Emigration Society, Address of the Board of Managers of the Haitian Emigration Society of Coloured People, to the Emigrants Intending to Sail to the Island of Hayti, in the Brig De Witt Clinton (New York, 1824), 3, as cited in Leslie Alexander, African or American? (Illinois, 2008), 43.

38. 38. Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 3, 1829, “To the American Convention &c. By The Committee appointed at the last Convention to procure information of the cultivation of Sugar, Cotton, &c by free labor &c.”

39. 39. Anna Richardson, “There Is Death in the Pot!” (London, 1850), http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=mayantislavery;idno=16855204; Julie Holcomb, “There Is Death in the Pot: Women, Consumption, and Free Produce in the Transatlantic World, 1791–1848,” (PhD diss., University of Texas, Arlington, 2010), 214–215.

40. 40. JCBL BFBR B637 F.5, Brigantine Richard (1821–1822), “Invoice of the Merchandize shipped by Daniel D Dailey onboard the Brigantine Richard himself master at Princess Island in Africa and consigned to Messrs Brown & Ives of Providence.”

41. 41. William E. Allen, “Sugar and Coffee: A History of Settler Agriculture in Nineteenth-Century Liberia” (PhD diss., Florida International University, 2002), 167.

42. 42. Genius of Universal Emancipation, January 3, 1829, 95.

43. 43. Mathew Carey, The African Repository, November 1, 1828, 20.

44. 44. James Brewer Stewart, “The Emergence of Racial Modernity and the Rise of the White North, 1790–1840,” Journal of the Early Republic 18, no. 2 (1998): 181–217.

45. 45. D. Elwood Dunn, Amos J. Beyan, and Carl Patrick Burrowes, eds., Historical Dictionary of Liberia (Lanham, MD, 2000), 38.

46. 46. African Repository, vol. 41, May 1865, 155.

47. 47. Genius of Universal Emancipation, March 15, 1828, 69.

48. 48. Genius of Universal Emancipation, May 3, 1828, “News from Liberia,” 102.

49. 49. William E. Allen, “Rethinking the History of Settler Agriculture in Nineteenth-Century Liberia,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 37, no. 3 (2004): 441–442; Lisa Lindsay, Atlantic Bonds (Chapel Hill, NC, 2016), 95–96.

50. 50. American Colonization Society Annual Report, 1861, 21. See Allen, “Sugar and Coffee,” 130.

51. 51. Allen, “Sugar and Coffee,” 130–133.

52. 52. HCQSC George W. Taylor letterbooks, April 23, 1853, Edina Grand Bassa County, Thomas Moore.

53. 53. HCQSC, George W. Taylor letterbooks, vol. 2, January 19, 1864, to James Hall.

54. 54. Library Company of Philadelphia, George W. Taylor bills.

55. 55. Allen, “Sugar and Coffee,” 146.

56. 56. Everill, Abolition and Empire.

57. 57. Tommie Shelby, “Two Conceptions of Black Nationalism: Martin Delany on the Meaning of Black Political Solidarity,” Political Theory 31, no. 5 (2003): 668.

58. 58. Library of the Society of Friends, London, MS box 11.3, 1–3, Burritt to John Ecroyd (via his brother, Benjamin Ecroyd), January 21, 1854. See Julie Holcomb, Moral Commerce, for more on this plan.

59. 59. Gail Bederman, “Revisiting Nashoba: Slavery, Utopia, and Frances Wright in America, 1818–1826,” American Literary History 17, no. 3 (2005): 451.

60. 60. “A Circular Addressed to Agriculturalists, Manufacturers, Mechanics, &c. On the Subject of Mexican Colonization; with a General Statement Respecting Lundy’s Grant, in the State of Tamaulipas: Accompanied by a Geographical Description, &c. Of That Interesting Portion of the Mexican Republic” (Philadelphia: J. Richards, 1835).

61. 61. HCQSC, George W. Taylor letterbook, December 16, 1852, Joseph Cox.

62. 62. Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, new ed. (Oxford, 1995), xxiii.

63. 63. “Texas,” Workingman’s Advocate, April 27, 1844, 2; Jonathan H. Earle, Jacksonian Antislavery and the Politics of Free Soil, 1824–1854 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2005).

64. 64. Earle, Jacksonian Antislavery.

65. 65. James Henry Hammond, “Speech on the Admission of Kansas,” U. S. Senate, March 4, 1858, in Selections from the Letters and Speeches of the Hon. James H. Hammond, of South Carolina (New York, 1866), 317–22.

66. 66. Genius of Universal Emancipation, December 22, 1827, 197.

67. 67. Foner, Free Soil, 11–17.

68. 68. The Works of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Jared Sparks (Boston, 1840), 4:19. Michael Perelman, The Invention of Capitalism: Classical Political Economy and the Secret History of Primitive Accumulation (Raleigh, NC, 2000), 266–269.

69. 69. Foner, Free Soil, 16.

70. 70. HCQSC, Free Produce Society of Friends, “At an adjourned meeting of the Board of Managers held at No 231 High Street 10th month 4th 1845.”

71. 71. Constitution of the Free Produce Society of Philadelphia (Philadelphia: D. S. Neal, 1827). Also appears in Genius of Universal Emancipation, April 26, 1828.

72. 72. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection, 490, Miscellaneous Series V, reel 31, Ams 231, 244, 245, 841, 842, box 11b, folder 9 and folder 13 copy.

73. 73. HSP, Pennsylvania Abolition Society Papers Collection, 490, Miscellaneous Series V, reel 31, Ams 231, 244, 245, 841, 842, box 11b, folder 13, letter from Esther Nixon, May 1, 1840.

74. 74. HCQSC, Free Produce Society of Friends, “At an adjourned meeting of the Board of Managers held at No 231 High Street 10th month 4th 1845.”

75. 75. Jean-Baptiste Say, A Treatise on Political Economy (Philadelphia, 1850; first pub.1803).

76. 76. Genius of Universal Emancipation, August 1830.

77. 77. National Historian, published in St. Clairsville, Ohio, by Horton Jefferson Howard; Genius of Universal Emancipation, February 23, 1828, 46.

78. 78. Ibid.

79. 79. Reprinted in the Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 18, 1828, 36.

80. 80. Genius of Universal Emancipation, October 18, 1828, 38.

81. 81. HCQSC, Free Produce Society of Friends, meeting, January 3, 1846.

82. 82. HCQSC, Taylor Family Papers, 1233, from Nathan Thomas, November 20, 1845.

83. 83. George Fitzhugh, Sociology for the South (Richmond, VA,1854); George Fitzhugh, Cannibals All! Or Slaves without Masters (Richmond, VA, 1857); Marcus Cunliffe, Chattel Slavery and Wage Slavery: The Anglo-American Context, 1830–1860 (Athens, GA, 1979), 32–68; Wilfred Carsel, “The Slaveholder’s Indictment of Northern Wage Slavery,” Journal of Southern History 6, no. 4 (1940): 504–520; Joseph Persky, “Wage Slavery,” History of Political Economy 30, no. 4 (1998): 627–651; Foner, Free Soil, xvii.

84. 84. Foner, Free Soil, xvii; Carol Faulkner, “The Root of the Evil: Free Produce and Radical Antislavery, 1820–1860,” Journal of the Early Republic 27, no. 3 (2007): 377–405.

85. 85. Amy Dru Stanley, “Wages, Sin, and Slavery: Some Thoughts on Free Will and Commodity Relations,” Journal of the Early Republic 24, no. 2 (2004): 286; David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness (New York, 1991).

86. 86. For a good summary, see Ian McGuire, “ ‘Who Ain’t a Slave?’: Moby Dick and the Ideology of Free Labor,” Journal of American Studies 2 (2003): 287–290; David Lambert and Alan Lester, “Geographies of Colonial Philanthropy,” Progress in Human Geography 28, no. 320 (2004): 336; Howard Temperley, “Capitalism, Slavery and Ideology,” Past & Present 75 (1977): 94–118; Jonathan Glickstein, Concepts of Free Labor in Antebellum America (New Haven, 1991), 3.

87. 87. Jonathan A. Glickstein, “Pressures from Below: Pauperism, Chattel Slavery, and the Ideological Construction of Free Market Labor Incentives in Antebellum America,” Radical History Review 69 (1997): 118.

88. 88. Carsel, “Slaveholders’ Indictment.”

89. 89. “Modern Philanthropy and Negro Slavery,” DeBow’s Review 16 (1854): 270.

90. 90. David Todd, Free Trade and Its Enemies in France, 1814–1851 (Cambridge, 2015), 175–176.

91. 91. Cunliffe, Chattel Slavery and Wage Slavery, 66–67; Henry Carey, The Slave Trade, Domestic and Foreign (Philadelphia, 1853).

92. 92. Cunliffe, Chattel Slavery and Wage Slavery; Jonathan A. Glickstein, American Exceptionalism, American Anxiety (Charlottesville, 2002).

93. 93. McGuire, “ ‘Who Ain’t a Slave?,’ ” 293.

94. 94. François Richard, “Hesitant Geographies of Power,” Journal of Social Archaeology 13, no. 1 (2012): 65.

95. 95. James F. Searing, “God Alone Is King”: Islam and Emancipation in Senegal (Portsmouth, NH, 2002), 223–225; George E. Brooks, “Peanuts and Colonialism: Consequences of the Commercialization of Peanuts in West Africa, 1830–70,” Journal of African History 16 (1975): 29–54; Samba Traoré, “Les Indigenes paysans entre maisons de commerce et administration colonial: Practiques et institutions de credit au Sénégal (1840–1940)” (PhD diss., Montpellier 1, 2001).

96. 96. Barry, Senegambia, 170.

97. 97. Benedetta Rossi, From Slavery to Aid (Cambridge, 2015), 16.

98. 98. Michael Gomez, Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad (Cambridge, 1992), 130–132.

99. 99. Parliamentary Papers, 1865, V (412), 431, Governor D’Arcy to Edward Cardwell, August 22, 1864.

100. 100. Cheikh Anta Babou, Le Jihad de l’âme: Ahmadou Bamba et la foundation de la Mouridiyya au Sénégal (Paris, 2011).

101. 101. David Robinson and Jean-Louis Triaud, eds., Le Temps des Marabouts: Itinéraires et stratégies islamiques en Afrique (Paris, 2012). The phrase “agrarian colonization” is Donal Cruise O’Brien’s in his Saints and Politicians (Cambridge, 2010), 67.

102. 102. Catherine Boone, Political Topographies of the African State (Cambridge, 2003), 53; Paul Pélissier, Les Paysans du Sénégal (Saint-Yrieix-la-Perche, 1966), 334; Bernard Moitt, “Slavery and Emancipation in Senegal’s Peanut Basin: The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 22, no. 1 (1989): 44–47.

103. 103. ANS, Dakar 2G 4, 49, report of 4 July 1904, as cited in David Robinson, “Beyond Resistance and Collaboration: Amadu Bamba and the Murids of Senegal,” Journal of Religion in Africa 21, no. 2 (1991): 165.

104. 104. Lisa Lindsay, Working with Gender: Wage Labor and Social Change in Southwestern Nigeria (Portsmouth, NH, 2003), 31.

105. 105. Jacob Gibson to John H. Latrobe and William McKenney, August 31, 1833, and George R. Ellis McDonogh to John McDonogh, April 14, 1844, as cited in Bronwen Everill, “ ‘The Colony Has Made No Progress in Agriculture’: Contested Perceptions of Agriculture in the Colonies of Sierra Leone & Liberia,” in Schwarz, Strickrodt, and Law, Commercial Agriculture, 195.

106. 106. TNA CO 267 / 295, Governor Kennedy to Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, September 14, 1868.

107. 107. James Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant (New Haven, 1976); Ruma Chopra, Almost Home (New Haven, 2018); Polly Hill, Studies in Rural Capitalism (Cambridge, 1970); Frederick Cooper, “Peasants, Capitalists and Historians: A Review Article,” Journal of Southern African Studies 7, no. 2 (1981): 284–314; Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, “Research on an African Mode of Production,” Critique of Anthropology 2, nos. 4 / 5 (1975): 48; Johnhenry Gonzalez, Maroon Nation (New Haven, 2019); Caree Banton, More Auspicious Shores (Cambridge, 2019), 14.

108. 108. Frederick Cooper, “Peasants, Capitalists and Historians,” Journal of Southern African Studies 7, no. 2 (1981): 289; Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, “Research on an African Mode of Production,” 42.

109. 109. Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton (New York, 2014), 289–290.

110. 110. Phillip W. Magness and Sebastian Page, Colonization after Emancipation: Lincoln and the Movement for Black Resettlement (Columbia, MO, 2011); Beverly Tomek and Matthew Hetrick, eds., New Directions in the Study of African American Recolonization (Gainesville, 2017).

111. 111. See the literature on settler colonialism, including Margaret Jacobs, “Parallel of Intersecting Tracks? The History of the US West and Comparative Settler Colonialism,” Settler Colonial Studies 4, no. 2 (2014): 155–161; Guyatt, Bind Us Apart; Brandon Mills, “ ‘The United States of Africa’: Liberian Independence and the Contested Meaning of a Black Republic,” Journal of the Early Republic 34, no. 1 (2014): 79–107; Zoe Laidlaw and Alan Lester, eds., Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Loss, and Survival in an Interconnected World (Basingstoke, 2015); A. G. Hopkins, American Empire (Princeton, 2017); James Belich, Replenishing the Earth (Oxford, 2009); Donald Denoon, Settler Capitalism (Oxford, 1983).

112. 112. Kristin Hoganson, Consumer’s Imperium: The Global Production of American Domesticity, 1865–1920 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2007).

113. 113. “Slavery and Political Economy,” DeBow’s Review 1, no. 4 (1856): 331.

EPILOGUE: GLOBAL SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

1. 1. The National Archives, United Kingdom, CO 271 / 2, Sierra Leone Royal Gazette, June 29, 1822.

2. 2. Huntington Library, MSS MY 369, August 16–September 7, 1830, Henry William Macaulay to ZM.

3. 3. John Carter Brown Library (hereafter cited as JCBL), Prices Current collection.

4. 4. JCBL BFBR B.37 F.3, Boston, March 9, 1818, William Allston to Brown & Ives.

5. 5. JCBL BFBR B.37 F.3, Boston, June 2, 1818, William Allston to Brown & Ives.

6. 6. Martin Lynn, Commerce and Economic Change in West Africa: The Palm Oil Trade in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 1997), 154.

7. 7. David Eltis and Lawrence Jennings, “Trade between Western Africa and the Atlantic World in the Pre-Colonial Era,” American Historical Review 93, no. 4 (1988): 936–959.

8. 8. Gareth Austin, “Cash Crops and Freedom: Export Agriculture and the Decline of Slavery in West Africa,” International Review of Social History 54, no. 1 (2009): 3.

9. 9. JCBL BFBR B42 F.16, Baring Brothers, Baring Archive HC17.60, Sierra Leone, December 31, 1839.

10. 10. Lynn, Commerce and Economic Change, chap. 7; Adam Jones, From Slaves to Palm Kernels: A History of the Galinhas Country (West Africa), 1730–1890 (Wiesbaden, 1983); Martin Klein, “Slaves, Gum, and Peanuts: Adaptation to the End of the Slave Trade in Senegal, 1817–44,” William and Mary Quarterly 66, no. 4 (2009): 895–914; Robin Law, ed., From Slave Trade to “Legitimate” Commerce (Cambridge, 1995); Kristin Mann, Slavery and the Birth of An African City (Bloomington, IN, 2004); A. G. Hopkins, Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973).

11. 11. Gareth Austin, Labour, Land, and Capital in Ghana: From Slavery to Free Labor in Asante, 1807–1956 (Rochester, NY, 2005).

12. 12. Kevin Grant, A Civilised Savagery: Britain and the New Slaveries in Africa, 1884–1926 (New York, 2005); Robert Burroughs, Travel Writing and Atrocities (New York, 2011); Adam Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost (London, 1998); Dean Pavlakis, British Humanitarianism and the Congo Reform Movement, 1896–1913 (Surrey, 2015); Jeremy David Rowan, “Imagining Corporate Culture: The Industrial Paternalism of William Hesketh Lever at Port Sunlight, 1888–1925” (PhD diss., Louisiana State University, 2003), 231–236; Reuben Loffman and Benoit Henriet, “ ‘We Are Left with Barely Anything’: Colonial Rule, Dependency, and the Lever Brothers in the Belgian Congo, 1911–1960,” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 48, no. 1 (2020): 71–100.

13. 13. Rowan, “Imagining Corporate Culture,” 235.

14. 14. David J. Jeremy, “The Enlightened Paternalist in Action: William Hesketh Lever at Port Sunlight before 1914,” Business History 33, no. 1 (1991): 58–81.

15. 15. Catherine Higgs, Chocolate Islands (Athens, OH, 2012).

16. 16. Frank Trentmann, “Before ‘Fair Trade’: Empire, Free Trade, and the Moral Economy of Food in the Modern World,” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 25 (2007): 1079–1102; John Connolly and Deirdre Shaw, “Identifying Fair Trade in Consumption Choice,” Journal of Strategic Marketing 14, no. 4 (2006): 353–368; Michele Micheletti, “The Moral Force of Consumption and Capitalism: Anti-slavery and Anti-sweatshop,” in Citizenship and Consumption, ed. K. Soper and F. Trentmann (London, 2007); Terry Newholm, Sandra Newholm, and Deirdre Shaw, “A History for Consumption Ethics,” Business History (2014).

17. 17. Suzanne Schwarz, “A Just and Honourable Commerce: Abolitionist Experimentation in Sierra Leone in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries,” African Economic History 45, no. 1 (2017): 1–45.