1. Black, “European Overseas Expansion,” in Raudzens, ed., Technology, Disease, and Colonial Conquests, pp. 1–14.
2. Broeze, “Introduction,” in Broeze, ed., Brides of the Sea, p. 6.
3. Gunn, First Globalization, pp. 2–11.
4. Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire, p. 24.
5. Pratt, Imperial Eyes.
6. Barendse, “Trade and State,” p. 223.
1. Between 1330 and 1400, the affected areas experienced as much as a 30 percent decline in population.
2. Lopez, “European Merchants,” p. 184; Gillman and Klimkeit, Christians in Asia, pp. 242–50; Dawson, ed., Mission to Asia.
3. Fleet, European and Islamic Trade, p. 133; Arbel, “The Last Decades.”
4. Reid, “The Structure of Cities,” p. 235.
5. Dauverd, Imperial Ambition, pp. 23–4.
6. The estimated population of Europe rose from 68 million in 1400 to about 107 million by 1600.
7. See note 6.
8. Braudel, The Mediterranean, vol. I, pp. 312–22; Shoemaker, A Strange Likeness, pp. 1–3; Pirenne, Medieval Cities, p. 56; Weber, The City, pp. 54–5; Fox, Urban Anthropology, p. 94; Blake, Shahjahanabad: The Sovereign City.
9. Mayorazgo was a form of entail in which all parts of a noble patrimony were inherited as a block by the oldest son, leaving nothing for younger sons.
10. Games, “Anglo-Dutch Maritime Interactions,” in Mancall and Shammas, Governing the Sea, pp. 171–96.
1. Pagden, “Europe: Conceptualizing a Continent”; Pocock, “Some Europes in Their History”; and Jordan, “ ‘Europe’ in the Middle Ages”; all three in Pagden, ed., The Idea of Europe, pp. 33–90.
2. Anderson, Imagined Communities, ch. 10.
3. We will see later that virtually no women took part in this migration, the colonies of English North America being the exception. Even there, men outnumbered women three to one. In Spanish America, many European men lived with Native American partners. Sometimes they married them formally and created legally recognized households. Once they were able to support a European-style household, these men often brought wives from Spain and set up separate households for the native wife and their mestizo children.
4. Brummett, “Genre, Witness and Time in the ‘Book’ of Travels,” in Brummett, ed., The “Book” of Travels, pp. 1–33; Jordan, “ ‘Europe” in the Middle Ages,” in Pagden, ed., The Idea of Europe.
5. Seeman, Erik R., “Jews in the Early Modern Atlantic: Crossing Boundaries,” in Cañizares-Esguerra and Seeman, The Atlantic in Global History; Jordan, “Europe in the Middle Ages,” in Pagden, The Idea of Europe.
6. Harreld, “The Individual Merchant,” in Parker and Bentley, Between the Middle Ages and Modernity, pp. 271–84.
7. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, pp. 254–55.
8. Rubiés, “Late Medieval Ambassadors,” in Brummett, ed., The “Book” of Travels: Harreld, “The Individual Merchant,” in Parker and Bentley, Between the Middle Ages and Modernity, pp. 271–84.
9. Fernández-Armesto, Before Columbus, pp. 175–81.
10. Goffman, The Ottoman Empire, pp. 19–20.
11. Phillips, Before Orientalism, pp. 60–63.
12. Mangan, Transatlantic Obligations, documents the strength of family ties, not just across thousands of miles but also across ethnic and cultural barriers in colonial Peru and Spain.
13. De Roover, The Rise and Decline.
14. For example, the Spanish Congregación de Navarros.
15. Mentz, “The Commercial Culture,” pp. 16–25; Trivellato, “Marriage, Commercial Capital, and Business Agency,” in Johnson, Sabean, Teuscher, and Trivellato, eds., Transnational Families, pp. 107–30.
16. See chapter 7.
17. Herzog, “Private Organizations.”
18. Kupperman, Indians and English.
19. “Sixteenth and seventeenth-century observers . . . lived in a world which believed firmly in the universality of basic social norms and assumed a high degree of cultural unity between the various races of man.” Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man, p. 6.
20. Phillips, Before Orientalism, pp. 50–51.
21. Classen, “Introduction,” in Classen, ed., Meeting the Foreign, pp. xi–lxxiii.
22. Campbell, The Witness; Latham, ed., The Travels of Marco Polo; Rubruck, The Journey of William of Rubruck, in Dawson, Mission to Asia.
23. Rubruck, The Journey of William of Rubruck, in Dawson, Mission to Asia, pp. 91–106, 137–41, 195; Campbell, The Witness, pp. 113–14, 120.
24. Campbell, The Witness, p. 120.
25. Rubruck, The Journey, p. 195.
26. Larner, Marco Polo, pp. 46–65.
27. Larner, Marco Polo, pp. 66–67.
28. Larner, Marco Polo, pp. 74–75, 82–84.
29. Larner, Marco Polo, p. 86; Phillips, “The Outer World,” p. 55.
30. Nederman, “Social Bodies and the Non-Christian ‘Other,’” in Classen, ed., Meeting the Foreign, pp. 192–97.
31. Rubiés, “Late Medieval Ambassadors,” in Brummett, ed., The “Book” of Travels, p. 107.
32. Phillips, Before Orientalism, pp. 200–202.
33. Rubiés, Travel and Ethnology, p. 137.
34. Rubiés, Travel and Ethnology, pp. 20, 137.
35. Rubiés, Travel and Ethnology, p. 146.
36. Rubiés, Travel and Ethnology, p. 30.
37. Rubiés, Travel and Ethnology, p. 162.
38. Rubiés, Travel and Ethnology, p. 375.
39. Maxwell, “Afanasii Nikitin,” pp. 243–66.
40. Morgan, “Encounters,” in Daunton and Halpern, eds., Empire and Others, pp. 49–53.
41. Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man, p. 1.
42. Chapin, Subject Matter, pp. 8, 23.
43. Said, Orientalism.
1. De Vries, European Urbanization, pp. 98–101, 136–42, 167, 257–58; Hohenberg and Lees, The Making of Urban Europe, pp. 226–38; Bairoch, Cities and Economic Development, pp. 3–18.
2. The Seljuk Turks entered the Middle East before the Mongols. They built a sizable empire, but by the twelfth century they controlled only central Anatolia. The much smaller Ottoman tribe was settled on the western border of the Seljuk realm and south of the Anatolian remains of the Byzantine Empire.
3. The Chinese of the Nanyang are also referred to as the Chinese of the South Sea or Huaqiao.
4. Premodern population estimates vary greatly. These are among the more conservative ones and serve for comparative purposes. Lipman, et al., Modern East Asia, p. 43; Fairbank, “Traditional China,” in Dernberger, et al., eds., The Chinese, p. 53.
5. Marmé, “Locating Linkages,” pp. 1082–3.
6. Souza, “The Portuguese Merchant Fleet,” in van Veen and Blussé, eds., Rivalry and Conflict, p. 344, n. 6.
7. Findlay and O’Rourke, Power and Plenty, p. 215.
8. Von Glahn, “Money Use in China,” p. 195.
9. Charles of Habsburg/Trastámara was Charles I in Castile and Aragon but became Charles V as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Since the imperial title carried more prestige, Charles is usually referred to as Charles V.
10. “Absolute authority” here refers to areas of government and royal jurisdiction where the king can make decisions and legislate without consulting his subjects. In Castile the king had absolute authority in more areas, including taxation, than in most European principalities.
11. See note 1 above.
12. Most taxes were collected by tax farmers, who contracted to pay the Crown set amounts of money on stipulated dates, so it was easy to commit the returns promised by the contracts to repay loans.
13. Philip II ruled 1556–1598; Philip III ruled 1598–1621; Philip IV ruled 1621–1665.
14. Burkholder and Chandler, Biographical Dictionary of Audiencia Ministers, pp. xi–xxiv; Burkholder, Biographical Dictionary of Councilors of the Indies, pp. xi–xxxvi; Kagan, Students and Society.
15. Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States.
16. Ringrose, Madrid and the Spanish Economy; Ringrose, “Towns, Transport and Crown,” in Genovese and Hochberg, eds., Geographic Perspectives, pp. 57–80; Brown and Elliott, A Palace for A King; Klingensmith, The Utility of Splendor.
17. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower.
18. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower.
19. Masters, The Origins of Western Economic Dominance; Marcus, The Middle East, pp. 16–26.
20. Mathee, The Politics of Trade, pp. 44–45, 67, 76.
21. Mathee, The Politics of Trade, pp. 86–90, 120–45.
22. Gregorian, “Minorities of Isfahan,” pp. 652–53.
23. Masters, Origins of Western Economic Dominance, pp. 10–18.
24. Richard, “L’Apport des missionnaires europeens,” in Calmard, ed., Études Safavides, pp. 251–66.
25. Hairi, “Reflections on the Shi’i Responses,” in Calmard, ed., Études Safavides, pp. 151–64.
26. Klein, “Caravan Trade in Safavid Iran,” in Clamard, ed., Études Safavides, pp. 307–17.
27. Herzig, “The Iranian Raw Silk Trade,” p. 81.
28. Richards, The Mughal Empire, pp. 1–55, 110–65, 220–23.
29. Blake, Shahjahanabad: The Sovereign City.
30. Barendse, “Trade and State,” p. 198.
31. Van Leur, Indonesian Trade and Society, pp. 152–54; Reid, Charting the Shape, 223–30. Both sources suggest the pragmatism of lesser and greater rulers and the preservation of local autonomy.
32. Brummett, Ottoman Seapower, pp. 12–13.
33. Anderson, Imagined Communities, pp. 170–73; Osborne, Southeast Asia, p. 45; Bushnell and Greene, “Introduction,” in Daniels and Kennedy, eds., Negotiated Empires, pp. 3–4.
1. The Canary Islands were the eastern takeoff point for crossing the Atlantic. They became definitively Spanish in 1479, but the conquest of the warlike Guanches who lived there was not completed until 1495.
2. Deagan and Cruxent, “From Contact to Criollos,” p. 71.
3. Strictly speaking, America was a Castilian project. What we now call Spain was a group of neighboring kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula that happened to have the same ruler. The anachronistic use of the label “Spanish” in reference to Castile’s American empire is so prevalent that it will be used here.
4. Murra, “High Altitude Andean Societies,” pp. 205–14; Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, pp. 96–110.
5. Kicza, Resilient Cultures, pp. 17–18.
6. Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire; Murra, “High Altitude Andean Societies,” in Genovese and Hochberg, eds., Geographic Perspectives, pp. 205–14; Hassig, Trade, Tribute, and Transportation; Santley, “The Structure of the Aztec Transport Network,” in Trombold, ed., Ancient Road Networks, pp. 198–210; Calnek, “The City-State in the Basin of Mexico,” in Schaedel, Hardoy, and Kinzer, eds., Urbanization in the Americas; Bray, “Land-use, Settlement Patterns,” in Ucko, Tringham, and Dimbleby, eds., Man, Settlement, and Urbanism, pp. 909–26.
7. Kicza, Resilient Cultures, p. 70.
8. Altman, “Spanish Women in the Caribbean, 1493–1540”; Carrasco, “Indian-Spanish Marriages.”
9. Brading, Miners and Merchants, pp. 14–32.
10. Brading, Miners and Merchants, pp. 60–61.
11. Brading, Miners and Merchants, p. 64.
12. Clayton, “Trade and Navigation,” in Bakewell, Johnson, and Dodge, eds., Readings, I, pp. 175–88; Sempat Assadourian, El Sistema de la Economía Colonial; Glave, Trajinantes, pp. 37–40.
13. Hackett, ed., Revolt of the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, pp. 232–53.
14. Kamen, Empire, pp. 279–81.
15. Glave, Trajinantes.
16. Castile and Portugal had negotiated a north–south line in the Atlantic that acknowledged Portuguese control of Brazil. Extending that line around the globe put a similar north–south boundary somewhere in the island complex of the modern Philippines and Indonesia. Since this was a longitudinal line, which no one could measure accurately, and the known geography was hazy at best, Castile claimed that its ships were on the Castilian side of the line.
17. Few of the later sixteenth and seventeenth century Manila galleons made the crossing to Acapulco that fast. Six- to eight-month trips were more common. As ships and navigation improved in the eighteenth century, the eastbound crossing shortened to around four months.
1. Kea, “The Phenomenology of al-’umran.”
2. Connah, African Civilizations.
3. Collins and Burns, A History of Sub-Saharan Africa, pp. 191–95.
4. Thornton, Africa and Africans, Maps 1, 2, 3, and 5, pp. x–xiv.
5. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, pp. 7–11.
6. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, pp. 10–19.
7. Ashtor, “The Volume of Levantine Trade.”
8. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade.
9. Curtin, Feierman, Thompson, and Vansina, African History, pp. 149–50, 253–57.
10. Collins and Burns, A History of Sub-Saharan Africa, pp. 182–84.
11. Thornton, “The Portuguese in Africa,” in Bethencourt and Ramado Curto, eds., Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, p. 139–45.
12. Alencastro, “The Economic Network,” in Bethencourt and Ramada Curto, eds., Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, pp. 105–7, 109.
13. Ashtor, “The Venetian Supremacy in Levantine Trade.”
14. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas, pp. 32–33, 43–44; Disney, A History of Portugal, pp. 101–7.
15. Disney, A History of Portugal, pp. 45–77; Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, pp. 36–60.
16. Thornton, “The Portuguese in Africa,” in Bethencourt and Ramada Curto, eds., Portuguese Overseas Expansion, p. 146.
17. Alencastro, “The Economic Network,” in Bethencourt and Ramada Curto, eds., Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, pp. 105–7.
18. Disney, A History of Portugal, pp. 216–17, 244–47.
19. The phase “Atlantic North America” is used here to refer to the area encompassed by the coast from Newfoundland to the Carolinas and reaching inland to include southern Ontario, the Ohio Valley, Michigan, and Wisconsin.
20. Chapin, Subject Matter; Léry, History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil.
21. Similar demographic disasters played out later in the Pacific islands, New Zealand, and Australia.
22. Metcalf, “Searching for the Female Go-Betweens,” pp. 2–15.
23. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade; Connah, African Civilizations, pp. 97–150; Kea, “The Phenomenology of al-’umran: Towns,” pp. 14–21, maps; Elbl, “Cross-Cultural Trade and Diplomacy,” p. 175; Schwartz, “Looking for a New Brazil,” in van Groesen, The Legacy of Dutch Brazil, pp. 46–50.
24. Burns, A History of Brazil, p. 49; Russell-Wood, “Ports of Colonial Brazil,” in Karras and McNeill, eds., Atlantic American Societies, pp. 181–89.
25. Benton, “The Legal Regime.”
26. Hamer, “‘Our Dutchmen run after them very much.’”
27. Meuwese, “From Dutch Allies to Portuguese Vassals,” in van Groesen, ed., The Legacy of Dutch Brazil, pp. 59–76.
28. Games, The Web of Empire, pp. 208–10.
29. Davis, The Rise of the Atlantic Economies, pp. 272–75.
30. Davis, “Sugar and Slavery,” in Northrup, ed., The Atlantic Slave Trade, pp. 33–34.
31. Mintz, Sweetness and Power, pp. 42–45.
32. Davis, “Sugar and Slavery,” in Northrup, ed., The Atlantic Slave Trade, p. 35.
33. Davis, “Sugar and Slavery,” in Northrup, ed., The Atlantic Slave Trade, p. 34.
34. Curtin, “From Guesses to Calculations,” in Northrup, ed., The Atlantic Slave Trade, p. 44.
35. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, pp. 30–31, 43–44.
36. De Vries, The Economy of Europe, pp. 120–40.
37. Mokyr, ed., The British Industrial Revolution, pp. 68–75.
38. Burnard and Garrigus, The Plantation Machine.
1. Games, The Web of Empire, pp. 118–24.
2. Davies, The North Atlantic World, pp. 168–69.
3. Games, The Web of Empire, pp. 129–37.
4. Kupperman, Indians and English, pp. 12–40.
5. Kicza, Resilient Cultures, pp. 126–30.
6. Games, The Web of Empire, p. 139; Davis, The Rise of the Atlantic Economies, pp. 85–86.
7. Galenson, “Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude,” p. 4.
8. The total population in 1775 included about two million Europeans, the product of a very high rate of natural increase within the colonies.
9. Hinderaker and Mancall, At the Edge of Empire, pp. 20–24.
10. Hinderaker and Mancall, At the Edge of Empire, pp. 26–31; Shoemaker, A Strange Likeness, pp. 15–23.
11. Hinderaker and Mancall, At the Edge of Empire, pp. 126–31; 23–25.
12. Shoemaker, A Strange Likeness, pp. 129–40.
13. Klooster, “The Geopolitical Impact,” pp. 26–28, 36–38.
14. Hamer, “‘Our Dutchmen run after them very much.’”
15. Romney, New Netherland Connections; Shoemaker, A Strange Likeness, p. 129.
16. Romney, New Netherland Connections, pp. 128–72.
17. Kicza, Resilient Cultures, p. 112.
18. White, The Middle Ground, p. 33; Kicza, Resilient Cultures, pp. 112–16.
19. The mechanisms the leaders used to unite different tribes included gift exchanges, intermarriage, adoption, and the peace pipe. A call for the use of the peace pipe did not mean automatic peace, but it did force the acknowledgement of a space wherein negotiation was acceptable.
20. Kicza, Resilient Cultures, p. 108.
21. Van Kirk, Many Tender Ties.
22. Games, The Web of Empire, p. 292; Davies, The North Atlantic World, pp. 168–78; Nuffield, Bay of the North, pp. 25–34; Burley, Servants of the Honourable Company, pp. 2–3.
23. Fenn, Encounters at the Heart of the World, pp. 18–21.
24. Plane, Colonial Intimacies, p. 16.
25. Hinderacker and Mancall, At the Edge of Empire, p. 27.
26. Carney, Black Rice.
27. In a rare example, in 1804 outright famine in central Spain was met in part by importing wheat and flour from Philadelphia.
28. Davis, The Rise of the Atlantic Economies, pp. 273–76.
1. Van Leur, Indonesian Trade, p. 180.
2. Chang, “The First Chinese Diaspora,” in Ptak and Rothermund, eds., Emporia, Commodities and Entrepreneurs, pp. 14–19; Reid, “Structure of Cities,” p. 237.
3. Reid, “Structure of Cities,” p. 237; Thomaz, Nina Chatu and the Portuguese Trade in Malacca, p. 31.
4. Bouchon, “A Microcosm; Calicut,” in Lombard and Aubin, eds., Asian Merchants, pp. 40–48.
5. Aubin, “Merchants in the Red Sea,” in Lombard and Aubin, eds., Asian Merchants, p. 81.
6. De Matos and Lopes Matos, “Christians and Muslims,” in Disney and Booth, eds., Vasco da Gama, p. 105.
7. Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony, pp. 251–60.
8. Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, The Camel, pp. 109–10.
9. Reid, “The Structure of Cities,” pp. 239–50.
10. Lengua is difficult to translate. In this context it meant not just “language” but also “interpreter.”
11. Rothermund, “Asian Emporia,” in Ptak and Rothermund, eds., Emporia, Commodities, and Entrepreneurs, pp. 5–8.
12. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade.
13. The bulk of the information on the Multani comes from Dale, Indian Merchants.
14. For an up-to-date overview of the Armenians and their trade diaspora, see Aslanian, From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean (Berkeley, 2014).
15. Dauphinois, “The Navigations . . . Turkie [1550],” in Ghazarian, Armenians, pp. 42–44.
16. Barendse, “Trade and State,” p. 188.
17. Arasaratnam, S., “Merchants of Coromandel,” in Ptak and Rothermund, eds., Emporia, Commodities and Entrepreneurs, pp. 37–51; Aslanian, From the Indian Ocean, p. 47.
18. Aslanian, From the Indian Ocean, pp. 58–63.
19. Aslanian, From the Indian Ocean, p. 59.
20. Israel, Diasporas within a Diaspora, pp. 1–17.
21. Trivellato, “Marriage, Commercial Capital, and Business Agency,” in Johnson, Sabean, Teuscher, and Trivellato, eds., Transnational Families, pp.107–30.
22. The Southsea Chinese are sometimes referred to as the Overseas Chinese, but that phrase carries a twenty-first-century connotation that does not apply to the Chinese diaspora of the Early Modern era. “Southsea” is a translation of the term applied to these people in the Early Modern era.
23. Chang, “The First Chinese Diaspora,” in Ptak and Rothermund, eds., Emporia, Commodities and Entrepreneurs, pp. 14–19; Reid, “Structure of Cities,” p. 237.
24. Chang, “The First Chinese Diaspora,” in Ptak and Rothermund, eds., Emporia, Commodities and Entrepreneurs, pp. 14–19; Reid, “Structure of Cities,” p. 237.
25. Wills, China and Maritime Europe.
26. Portugal’s trade with Japan was consolidated into one large carrack, more than twice the size of most ships in the South China Sea, and was managed on contract with the Portuguese Crown.
1. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, p. 139.
2. Collins and Burns, A History of Sub-Saharan Africa, pp. 96–105.
3. Collins and Burns, A History of Sub-Saharan Africa, pp. 109–12.
4. Allen, European Slave Trading, pp. 4, 11–12.
5. Seijas, Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico.
6. Collins and Burns, A History of Sub-Saharan Africa, pp. 163–70.
7. Pearson, The Indian Ocean, pp. 120–21.
8. Prestholdt, “Portuguese Conceptual Categories.”
9. Some authors refer to members of this group as Klings. The Klings were part of a slightly different Indian caste but were closely related to and integrated into the Chettiar trade network.
10. Pearson, The Indian Ocean, p. 140
11. Mocha was to become important as one of the first major sources of coffee for the European market.
12. Mathew, “Khwaja Shams-ud-din Giloni,” in Ptak and Rothermund, eds., Emporia, Commodities and Entrepreneurs, pp. 363–72.
13. Mathew, “Khwaja Shams-ud-din Giloni,” in Ptak and Rothermund, eds., Emporia, Commodities and Entrepreneurs, pp. 363–72.
14. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, p. 120.
15. Pearson, The Indian Ocean, pp. 128–29.
16. Trivellato, The Familiarity of Strangers.
17. Pearson, The Indian Ocean, p. 129.
18. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, pp. 77–78.
19. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, p. 142.
20. The Welser family was one of the biggest companies in Western Europe. They provided much of the capital and mining technology needed to open the Mexican silver mines.
21. Kalus, “Tracing Business Patterns,” p. 14.
22. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia, pp. 106–10; van Veen, Decay or Defeat? pp. 69–71.
23. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, pp. 190–93.
24. Elbl, “Cross-Cultural Trade.”
25. Findlay and O’Rourke, Power and Plenty, p. 157.
26. Pearson, The Indian Ocean, p. 158.
27. Allen, European Slave Trading, pp. 39–40, 45.
28. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia, p. 7; Pearson, The Indian Ocean, p. 125.
29. Population estimates vary, but by 1650 the major expansions had been completed.
30. Manuel’s older son died young and was succeeded by his younger brother, Sebastian I, Manuel’s last surviving son. Sebastian led a Portuguese invasion of Morocco in 1578 and was killed in battle. The next closest heir was Manuel I’s brother, Henry. Henry was archbishop of Lisbon and almost eighty years old. As a churchman, he had no legitimate sons. When he died of natural causes in 1580, as Manuel I’s grandson, Philip was next in line of succession.
31. Souza, The Survival of Empire, pp. 66–69.
1. Games, The Web of Empire, p. 25.
2. Erikson, Between Monopoly and Free Trade, p. 55
3. Erikson, Between Monopoly and Free Trade, pp. 55–56.
4. Erikson, Between Monopoly and Free Trade, pp. 107–24, 169.
5. The role of silver in the trade of this era is complicated. It was cheapest at the sources, in this era Mexico, Peru, and southern Japan. It circulated both as coined money and as silver bullion in ingots. While we think of it as money, it was basically another commodity. Coined money had the advantage that, if the government that minted it had kept the silver content of the coinage constant, the fact of being coined made its silver content more trustworthy. Silver ingots had a different advantage in that other governments could mint it into coinage, an operation that created a profit for the government.
6. Keay, The Honourable Company, pp. 119–20.
7. Pearson, The Indian Ocean, pp. 150–53.
8. Erikson, Between Monopoly and Free Trade, p. 100.
9. Erikson, Between Monopoly and Free Trade, pp. 10–12.
10. Keay, The Honourable Company, p. 377.
11. Souza, The Survival of Empire, pp. 30–36.
12. Disney, A History of Portugal, p. 356.
13. Van Veen, Decay or Defeat? p. 136.
14. Van Linschoten, The Voyage.
15. Given the lightly constructed architecture of Southeast Asian towns, this may not have been as serious a calamity as it sounds to a modern Western ear.
16. The earliest evidence of smallpox in Australia is dated about 1720, a hundred years after the Dutch began sailing past Australia, and is associated with fishermen from Makassar. These fishermen began spending several months each year living on the north coast with the Aborigines, several hundred miles from any possible Dutch supply post. There is no evidence of any European disease among the Aborigines on the west coast of Australia until well after the first outbreaks in other parts of the continent. Campbell, Invisible Invaders, 1–29, 191–214.
17. Steensgaard, “Emporia: Some Reflections,” in Ptak and Rothermund, eds., Emporia, Commodities and Entrepreneurs, pp. 9–12.
18. Allen, European Slave Trading, pp. 9–19.
19. Wills, “China and Maritime Europe,” pp. 67–77; Wills, Pepper, Guns, and Parleys, p. 65; Andrade, “The Company’s Chinese Pirates,” pp. 427–40.
20. Reid, “Economic and Social Change, c. 1400–1800,” in Tarling, ed., The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 150–51; Raychaudhuri, “The Commercial Entrepreneur,” in Ptak and Rothermund, eds., Emporia, Commodities, and Entrepreneurs, pp. 339–52.
21. The Taungoo Kingdom (1599–1752) was located in the center of the modern country of Myanmar (Burma).
22. Usually referred to as a “factory” in English because it was run by a “factor,” or broker/purchasing agent.
23. Dijk, Seventeenth-Century Burma, CD-ROM appendix.
24. Reid, “Economic and Social Change, c. 1400–1800,” in Tarling, ed., The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 150–51.
25. Pearson, The Indian Ocean, p. 168; Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, p. 223.
26. Pearson, The Indian Ocean, p. 148.
1. Materials from chapters 2, 5, and 6 offer an overview of the demographic problem.
2. De Vries, “Connecting Europe and Asia.”
3. Keay, The Honourable Company, pp. 24–29.
4. De Vries, “Connecting Europe and Asia.”
5. Disney, A History of Portugal, p. 147.
6. Clark, A Farewell to Alms, p. 114; David, Johansson, and Pozzi, “The Demography of an Early Mortality.” Around the world, outside large cities, life expectancy at birth was between twenty-five and thirty-five years. For the Europeans who survived the first two years in Asia and were near age twenty-five, their age-specific life expectancy gave them a 50 percent chance of living to age forty-five.
7. Keay, The Honourable Company, pp. 24–29.
8. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia, p. 33; Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders, p. 150.
9. Da Silva, “Beyond the Cape,” in Schwartz, ed., Implicit Understandings, p. 305.
10. Dijk, Seventeenth-century Burma, pp. 29–30; SarDesai, Southeast Asia, pp. 74–76.
11. Reed, “Organization of Production,” p. 64.
12. Games, The Web of Empire, pp. 103–9.
13. Reid, Charting the Shape, pp. 159–65.
14. Blussé, Bitter Bonds; Wills, 1688, pp. 84–86.
15. Taylor, The Social World of Batavia, p. 17.
16. Taylor, The Social World of Batavia, p. 17.
17. Souza, Survival of Empire, pp. 172–82; van Veen, Decay or Defeat? pp. 234–38; Disney, Twilight of the Pepper Empire, pp. 148–55.
18. Lanzado is a bit hard to translate, but it refers to someone who is forward, assertive, or moves ahead or away.
19. Russell-Wood, “For God, King and Mammon,” pp. 264–65.
20. Scammell, “European Exiles,” pp. 657–60.
21. Colley, Captives, pp. 39, 95–99.
22. Scammell, “European Exiles,” p. 642.
23. Russell-Wood, “For God, King and Mammon,” pp. 265–68.
24. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia, p. 33; Disney, A History of Portugal, p. 192.
25. Silva Couto, “Some Observations on Portuguese Renegades,” pp. 188–90.
26. One ton of silver was the equivalent of almost two million pesos. Sixty tons yielded about 120 million pesos.
27. Kamen, Empire, p. 209, citing Robert Reed, Colonial Manila. The Context of Hispanic Urbanism and Process of Morphogenesis (Berkeley, 1978), p. 34; Seijas, Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico.
28. Pearson, The Indian Ocean, p. 157.
29. Kamen, Empire, pp. 197–239; Wang, “Merchants without Empire,” in Tracy, The Rise of Merchant Empires, pp. 410–18.
1. Storrs, “Magistrates to Administrators,” in Crooks and Parsons, Empires and Bureaucracy, pp. 304–5.
2. McCaa, “The Peopling of Mexico,” in Steckel and Haines, eds., The Population History of North America (New York, 2000), 241–304.
3. SarDesai, Southeast Asia, p. 63.
4. García de León, Tierra adentro, mar en fuera: El Puerto de Veracruz, pp. 470–83.
5. Barendse, “Trade and State,” p. 194.
6. The English colonies of New England, New York, and the Netherlands, which included women and children from their beginnings, experienced few examples of intermarriage between Europeans and, in this case, Native Americans.
7. Judd, The Lion and the Tiger, p. 54.
8. Dalrymple, White Mughals, pp. 133–34.
9. Judd, The Lion and the Tiger, pp. 53–5; Hawes, Poor Relations, pp. 14–20.
10. Bosma and Raben, Being “Dutch” in the Indies, pp. 293–343.
11. Pattynama, “Secrets and Danger,” in Clancy-Smith and Gouda, Domesticating the Empire, p. 107; Gouda and Clancy-Smith, “Introduction,” in Clancy-Smith and Gouda, Domesticating the Empire, p. 18.
12. Locher-Scholten, “So Close and Yet So Far,” pp. 135, 139, 144, contrasts this with the late nineteenth century and its increasingly systematic separation of racial or ethnic segments of society. This involved not only opposition to intermarriage but also ways of organizing the household to minimize contact between European families and non-European servants.
13. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, pp. 18, 235–36.
14. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, p. 110.
15. Approximately 40 percent of the silver sent from America to Europe ended up in China or India.
16.
