Raye Means needed someone to give her a chance. On paper, the twenty-one-year-old college graduate should have been a shoo-in for any job opening that required a bachelor’s degree and a flair for math and science. But it was 1956. Although Washington, DC, was on the verge of becoming the first majority Black city in the country, there were still racist attitudes there that made it hard for a young Black woman like Raye to embark on a meaningful career. She had already faced her share of obstacles back home in Arkansas, where she was treated as less than because of her gender, and then, because of her race, barred from pursuing the formal degree in engineering that she had wanted since she was seven years old. From that young age though, she began viewing obstacles as challenges that could be solved another way. Whenever Raye ran into trouble, her mother, Flossie Jordan McNeel, advised her, “Kick like the devil and holler for help.”
So Raye came to the nation’s capital prepared. She had set aside enough money to get her through a couple months of job hunting, but she was concerned about how long those funds would last. Her husband Weldon had been struggling to establish himself in the months since they had married, and she worried that things would become real tight real fast. As Raye blanketed the city with her resume, she made sure to hand a copy to her sister-in-law, Marge, who worked for the US Navy’s David Taylor Model Basin, which was one of the largest facilities for ship design testing in the world. Marge brought Raye’s resume to the personnel manager there, who quickly skimmed it. He noted her bachelor’s of science degree—but missed that it was in business. He called Raye in for an interview, thinking she was a good candidate to work in the Applied Mathematics Lab (AML), which housed the large UNIVAC, a computer used to perform complex calculations for the government. The UNIVAC was a beast of a machine, a sixteen-thousand-pound behemoth with five thousand vacuum tubes that roared through one thousand equations per second.
“You are familiar with the UNIVAC, right?” he asked Raye.
“I am,” she answered.
It was a lie. She had never seen a UNIVAC before; there were none in Arkansas.
Raye had also never typed a letter outside of the ones she pecked through in her college typing classes and at a part-time job for her alma mater’s dean of instruction.* Yet she was so convincing during that interview that she was hired on the spot as a clerk-typist for the AML. The AML was staffed with engineers—all men—with degrees from Yale and Harvard. To Raye, they seemed to carry themselves as if being there was their birthright; they were the chosen ones, and she was not. Granted, this was not Raye’s dream job, but it was a start, and it was a great comfort under the present circumstances. She had gotten in the door with a group of people who were doing what she wanted to do for a living. As far as she was concerned, there was no turning back now.
When you consider the world into which Raye Means was born in 1935, it is nothing short of miraculous that she was able to get out of Arkansas as a young adult and insert herself into the exact professional environment she desired. To hear Raye talk about her life in later years, it seemed as if she was blessed with an existence where everything simply fell into place for her, despite the roadblocks that she faced or that others attempted to throw in her way. The truth, of course, is always more complicated than that, before its rough edges are sanded down by time and triumph.
“My mother was the wind beneath my wings,” Raye said. “I say this because if you think of where I was born and what color I am, I might not be able to tell you all that I’m about to tell you. And I have a lot of things to tell you, all because of my mother’s love, faith, and support. Her advice has served me well in life; I’ve had to be scrappy to get what I want. After all, no one hands you anything. Especially if you’re Black. Especially if you’re female. You have to fight for it.”
This hardscrabble work-your-way-out-and-up mentality was partly due to her mother’s parenting, and partly due to the era. Although Raye was born at the lowest point of the Great Depression, many Arkansans had been struggling economically long before the stock market crashed in 1929. The Mississippi River Flood of 1927 inundated 6,600 square miles of the state with up to thirty feet of water, drowning homes, livelihoods, and valuable farmland. French poet Charles Baudelaire once said that one of the devil’s great tricks is convincing you that he doesn’t exist. But as the water lingered for five months, it was clear that the devil had no interest in hiding or playing games. He prowled about in broad daylight, looking for victims to devour. Residents flocked to Red Cross tents in search of shelter, and the devil offered them malaria, smallpox, dysentery, and typhoid instead. No federal aid came. When the waters receded, people were forced to return to what remained of their homes and start over with nothing.
Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover called the flood “America’s greatest peacetime disaster.” Perhaps this was the devil’s intent all along—to destroy, and then to humiliate. Large farmers went bankrupt. Hoover attempted to get rid of the old plantation system by establishing smaller farms that could be owned and operated by resident farmers. His proposal floundered, and many Black sharecroppers fled north to look for other opportunities. Those who remained were still rebuilding when a drought turned the state to dust some three years later. Times were hard, crops no longer paid for themselves, and banks closed their doors left and right. Unemployment was at 40 percent, and more than half the people without jobs were Black.
As the state’s environmental disaster was compounded by the nation’s economic catastrophe, a young Black couple named Rayford and Flossie Jordan were running a restaurant called Ray’s Radio Lounge about forty-five miles south of Little Rock in a town called Pine Bluff. Radios were a popular source of free entertainment, offering anything from dramas to comedy shows and news programs. Whatever you loved to hear, you could find it with a careful turn of the dial. For the Jordans, that was live music, and it was always crackling across the airwaves in their restaurant.
For a time, their life was idyllic. They had a restaurant and a house, which they had completely furnished on credit. Unfortunately, the Jordans fell prey to the financial hell that had engulfed everyone around them. When they got the final bill for their household furnishings, they couldn’t pay it, and they lost everything they had, including Ray’s Radio Lounge. They moved in with Flossie’s sister in Hot Springs until they could find employment.
Flossie had an education degree and sought a position in some of the nearby schools, while Ray looked for any odd job he could find. It wasn’t long before they discovered there was no work to be had, so they left for Little Rock, hoping to find opportunities. It wasn’t easy there, either, but Flossie found a job as a waitress while Ray worked at the local zoo and restocked shelves in some of the local department stores. They loved each other dearly, and seven years into their marriage, Flossie gave birth to their first child on January 21, 1935, a daughter named “Ray,” which was then spelled without the e.
“It became a blessing,” Raye would later say. “That masculine name would open countless doors for me before anyone could see what I looked like.”*
As soon as she became old enough to understand, Raye would learn that her looks—especially her brown skin—would determine the way she was treated by the White people who lived and worked outside of the neighborhood where she grew up. Racial segregation was enforced by law in the South, and upheld through the 1896 court case Plessy v. Ferguson, which mandated “separate but equal” facilities for Black people. But Black people had also been creating their own residential and business communities since the end of the Civil War, and many of them became thriving cosmopolitan areas. In Little Rock, West Ninth Street was the heart of the local African American community, and Flossie and Ray moved there with their newborn when she was just a few months old. When the Jordan family arrived there in 1935, it was full of Black-owned-and-operated grocery stores, candy shops, barbershops, law offices, newspapers, and pharmacies. On Saturdays, the sidewalks teemed with people running errands, meeting friends, having fun. There were soul food restaurants and barbecue joints and guys on bicycles selling hot tamales from hot tin cans. Families paid a nickel to see movies at the Gem Theater. Mothers and daughters strolled to the salon to get their hair done together. Fathers bought their sons a hot dog at Bobby’s Hot Dog Stand. Buddies whiled away the afternoon over a couple of games of pool at Red’s. Children clamored for pint-sized wrought iron seats at Dr. Frank’s Drugstore, where they could get an ice cream sundae and a hug from Dr. Frank himself. Performers like Ella Fitzgerald, Duke Ellington, and Count Basie flocked to the area to perform at the Dreamland Ballroom, because they knew it was a Black-friendly venue. Ninth Street had its own rules and rhythm, and its Black residents didn’t have to watch what they said or did as closely as they had to in the White part of town.
There was always someone to see and always something to do. Raye’s father took her to boxing matches, which is how she developed a lifelong passion for the sport. She also never forgot about the time her father took her to see the wrestler Ralph “Wild Red” Berry, a diminutive middle school dropout with a great vocabulary, who was one of the most notorious cheats in the sport. How did such a little guy succeed in a big man’s game?
“My strategy is that of compelling them to proceed from a state of bewilderment and complete uncertainty to a disturbing sense of inferiority, putting them thus in awkward, perplexing, and vexatious situations on the horns of a dilemma,” he said. “This is possible through my great depth of intellect, integrity, heroic boldness, leonine courage, scholarly mien, and alert perception.”
Because Berry was a rule breaker, he became something of a lovable scoundrel at a time when people needed to believe that the little guy could win. Watching Wild Red made for a fun outing, and with memories like these, Raye said she had a good childhood. She grew up in a rented four-room bungalow, with a refrigerator and a telephone, both of which were rare for the time. The telephone had a party line, which meant that there were three or four people in the neighborhood who had the same phone number. When someone called, there was a different ring for each person who shared the number. Those who shared the line weren’t always good about taking turns. To get the other caller off the phone, a user would pick up and ask for a turn, or they would pick up, hang up, pick up, hang up, until the person talking got the point. With plenty of family living nearby, it’s unlikely that the Jordans had much need for a phone. Many relatives were a short stroll away.
“It was like having our own little village,” Raye said. “There were always relatives around, whether they lived nearby or had come up to Little Rock to stay with us until they got on their feet.”
Family took care of each other in those days. One uncle gave up his bus station job to a brother-in-law who had children to feed. Raye recalled family get-togethers, full of her aunt Pet’s salmon cakes and turnip greens and plenty of singing and dancing.
“Most of the time, I was the only child in the bunch, and I got treated like a little adult, which I liked,” Raye remembered.
Although Raye lived in a bustling Black mecca, White racists almost destroyed that. Shortly after the Mississippi River flood ravaged the state in 1927, a young White girl named Floella McDonald disappeared and police speculated that she had been “snatched up by a Negro.” A Black janitor named Frank Dixon found the child’s body a few weeks later in the belfry of the church where he was employed. Dixon, along with his seventeen-year-old son Lonnie, became suspects in the murder, and a large White mob wanted justice. Police quietly transferred the Dixons to a jail in another town to prevent unrest, but thousands of people gathered in Little Rock anyway, eager for revenge. The furor died down for a few days, then exploded again when a Black man named John Carter was accused of assaulting a woman and her daughter just outside of the city. Another mob formed and went looking for Carter. When they found him, they lynched him, shot him almost two hundred times, then set his corpse ablaze and dragged it to the intersection of West Ninth Street and Broadway. At least five thousand people rioted in the neighborhood for the next few hours, until the Arkansas National Guard arrived on the scene. Though the lynching and hostilities were condemned, Black residents feared for their safety and many of them left town for good. Many who stayed armed themselves just in case. Eventually, the woman who accused John Carter of assaulting her and her daughter came forward and told the truth: he hadn’t done a thing to either one of them.
That was the last recorded lynching in Arkansas—not that there weren’t unrecorded ones, or other types of attacks on Black people. The fear from this particular event lingered for decades.
“My aunt Pet lived in Little Rock during that time, and she used to talk about what they did to John Carter because she watched it unfold outside my great-aunt’s house,” Raye said. “I asked her why nobody did anything to help him. She told me they couldn’t do anything because they were all so afraid for their lives. ‘We peeked out the window and there was nothing we could do,’ she told me.”
In later years, Raye would often pass by the spot where John Carter met his end, thinking about what Aunt Pet saw and the fear and helplessness she must have felt.
“I did not know that kind of racial violence as a little girl, because by then, the neighborhood was pretty insulated from whatever might have happened outside of it,” Raye said. “Although we were fair-skinned and some of us could pass for White, we knew better than to interact with ‘White’ relatives if they passed us on the street. If they reached out to us first, that was OK, because they initiated it. If it happened the other way around, then it could cause problems.”
The problems usually started when you left the confines of the Ninth Street corridor. Black people weren’t as welcome in other parts of town, and White people let them know it.
“You could go to a Woolworth’s, for example, where they had a soda fountain,” Raye said. “But I knew I wasn’t allowed to order from it. My mother would go into department stores, but salespeople would not let her try on hats because she had her hair pressed and curled. They felt she would soil the hats if she tried one on and didn’t buy it. There were little things like this, silly things like salespeople being finicky about waiting on us in a shoe store. My mother would try on shoes, then tell the salesperson she’d like to try on a different pair, and the salesperson would tell her she couldn’t afford it. So my mother asked for the manager, and asked for the shoe she wanted, and she bought it, even though, yes, we probably couldn’t have afforded it. You came to expect things like this, and mother always said it would pass. One thing I knew was that these stores were always happy to take our money.”
When social slights like these were paired with the day-to-day uncertainty that the Depression brought, it could be overwhelming for some people. All across the nation, people were struggling, but Arkansans seemed to have it the worst. To outsiders, all Arkansans seemed to be poorer, dirtier, hungrier, and more backward. Within the state, Black Arkansans had a harder time getting jobs with some of the New Deal projects that were hiring in the state, because Whites didn’t think they deserved that kind of pay. Black people also didn’t get the same level of federal assistance that White people got, a fact that made daily struggles all the more disheartening.
“I don’t know whether those stresses were the reason that my father turned to drink, but he became an alcoholic when I was a little girl,” Raye recalled. “He wasn’t abusive, but he had gotten so that he didn’t go out with us or anything. He didn’t provide. My mother, as much as she loved him, couldn’t live like that. I remember one day that one of Daddy’s brothers came to get him and bring him back to Mississippi, where he had family.”
Raye was four years old at the time. Her mother told her that her father was “drinking up all the money” and she was going to divorce him. At the time, many courts awarded boys to their mothers and girls to their fathers in a divorce. Raye, however, was awarded to her mother because of her young age.
“I don’t know whether my mother thought Daddy would ever get his head on straight, but she knew she would never let him take me away from her,” Raye said. “As for me, I don’t recall any sense of sadness that he wasn’t around anymore. I felt my mother was doing what was best because he wasn’t providing for us.”
Raye wouldn’t see her father again until she was thirty-one years old. In the meantime, her mother moved on with her life, enrolling in cosmetology school and bringing Raye to events and other happenings in their community. Relatives continued to come and go, and Flossie took in extra boarders to make extra money. One of them was a young man named Donnie Lee Lindsay, a sharecropper’s son who moved to Little Rock to find his way. He had dropped out of school, but he reenrolled and was making ends meet as a delivery boy for Johnson’s BBQ.*
“Aunt Pet was always on him about getting their barbecue sauce recipe, but Donnie would tell her that Mr. Johnson never let anyone see him make it,” Raye said. “But she stayed on him, and told him to keep writing down whatever ingredients he saw until he got them all.”†
Raye grew up surrounded by women like this, who wouldn’t take no for an answer and wouldn’t settle for less. Flossie had four sisters, all of whom divorced and moved in with her and Raye until they got back on their feet.
“Divorce is prevalent in my family,” Raye later said. “The attitude was that if something wasn’t working for you, get out of it. You don’t have to be ashamed. Just move on with your life. My aunt Gladys married seven times. The first time she did it, she was sixteen years old, and she stayed with him for twelve days. She used to joke that she was going to keep trying until she got it right. She was with her last husband for thirty-two years.”
Raye was close to these aunts, most of whom didn’t have children, but treated her as if she were theirs. Gladys, who was the most independent-minded in the bunch, was a beautiful, fiery woman who instilled in Raye the need to stand up for herself and be capable of handling things on her own.
“She was the sweetest person you’d ever meet, but she’d cut your throat if you ever did the wrong thing,” Raye’s son, David, said. “It wasn’t until I was older that I realized she walked around with a .357 Magnum in her robe.”
Raye’s aunt Angeline, who lived in the country, was the only sister with children, and Raye said all of those cousins resented her because they believed she got the most attention and the best of everything. It wasn’t necessarily true. Raye did not have playmates her own age, so she said she spent a lot of time alone. For fun, she recalled she used to walk to Hubble Funeral Home and ask them if they had any new bodies that day.
“They’d tell me ‘Raye-Raye, we don’t have them dressed yet. You go out and play with the fish,’” she recalled.
Outside the funeral home there was a stone fish pond that had fragments of glass embedded in it. When the sunlight hit the colorful glass shards, they sparkled like fireflies as Raye waited and played.
“Then, I’d go in and sit and look at the bodies,” she said. “I often saw the bodies before the families did, and I’d sit there with them for a while and go home. I didn’t think it was odd at the time, and nobody said it was peculiar. I just knew that everybody in the neighborhood knew me and would look out for me, especially my mother and aunts.”
Because of her living arrangement, Raye grew up understanding that women could do anything and everything a man could do. It was all just work that needed to be done. Flossie was a great electrician, Raye recalled, and she taught her daughter how to rewire anything in the house. Raye enjoyed the supposedly male work, especially because she was never a fan of dolls. She preferred trucks and trains and things of that sort, and would take them apart and reassemble them.
“Maybe that was the engineering side of me just starting to come out, but it was what I enjoyed,” she said. “I remember hearing all the other little girls talk about what they wanted to do when they grew older, and they would say they wanted to cook and clean. I was never interested in that, even though people would say the things I liked were for men or boys. I was raised to believe there was nothing I couldn’t do, so I believed it was the truth, because that’s what my family told me.”
Besides, she was a precocious child. By the time she was four years old, Raye could read and knew her numbers. She wanted to go to school, but public schools wouldn’t take her because she was too young.
“Even if they had taken me, I probably wouldn’t have been challenged,” she said, explaining that the segregated schools that were available to her did not offer Black students as much opportunity to excel and achieve. Schools were separate, but certainly not equal, she said.
“White children had nicer facilities, harder classes, and better resources than we did,” she said. “White teachers got paid more than Black teachers, and schools invested more in White students than they did Black ones. Education in Black schools reflected the jobs that were available to Blacks at that time. You’d learn some basic literacy, but you’d never be prepared to be much more than a laborer, or a housekeeper. Because of the system that existed, very few Blacks became lawyers or doctors.”
Sensing she had a gifted and very self-assured child who needed to be challenged, Flossie enrolled Raye in St. Bartholomew’s Catholic Church because it would take her despite her age. Although Raye’s family was Baptist, she would become Catholic after becoming fascinated with the faith in catechism class. Because St. Bartholomew’s was eighteen blocks from the family’s home, Flossie couldn’t take Raye to school every morning. She would tie Raye’s bus fare to her wrist, walk her to the bus stop, and make sure she got on the bus safely.
“The driver always knew where to take me,” Raye said. “So my mother trusted that I would be OK.”
Flossie’s desire to have her child get every learning opportunity that was available to her was rooted in her own upbringing. Her father, Thomas Graves, was a farmer who believed in education, even though he had no college degree. Graves owned his own farm in Moscow, Arkansas, and he employed sharecroppers in his cotton fields. He insisted that all nine of his children go to school.
“In the country, schools didn’t go very far,” Raye said. “By the time my mother and her siblings got to high school, they had to go off to a college that offered them the classes they needed.”
Raye’s mother attended college and lived with an uncle, Dr. William E. O’Bryant, who had gone to medical school and was working as a pharmacist. He earned his degree in 1902. Flossie earned her degree in education in 1927, making her the second generation in her family to do so. Both attended what was then called Branch Normal College in Pine Bluff. Eventually, the school would name the campus bell tower after Dr. O’Bryant. There was great pride in that honor, and a sense of possibility within the family about what could be achieved.
“My mother would drill into me, again and again, that all I needed was to be educated, because that’s what her own father drilled into her,” Raye said. “What I didn’t know back then was that I’d still have to fight hard.”
Arkansas in the late 1930s was no place for a smart Black girl who dared to be different. All the same, Raye was determined to find her own way, riding public transportation to school in the morning and walking home in the afternoon with twin brothers who were tasked with making sure she got back to her mother and aunts safely. The end-of-day arrangement only worked well for so long.
The W. E. O’Bryant Bell Tower at University of Arkansas Pine Bluff is named for Raye’s great uncle, who was the first in her family to go to college. Raye attended UAPB when it was called Arkansas AM&N.
“One day after school, the boys couldn’t find me waiting for them in my normal spot, so they rushed home to tell my mother, who panicked,” Raye said. “She asked a friend with a car to help her drive around town so she could look for me. All of a sudden, she saw me walking down the sidewalk with my head tilted back, and I was whistling away. When she asked me what happened, I told her I was tired of going home the same way, every single day. I wanted to try something new. My mother tried to explain to me that it was safer to come home with the boys, but I told her I needed to try new things and see where they led. That was me, always wanting to investigate.”
Although Raye might have been a handful, her family never got upset with her for these shows of moxie. No matter what doors were closed to Black people at that time, no matter what challenges Raye and her family faced, they had a tremendous sense of duty to each other, which probably came from Flossie’s father, Raye believed. On the fence and gates outside Mr. Graves’s farm, there were markings made by passersby that indicated the family would welcome anyone—Black or White—and give them food and a place to stay.
“My grandfather would see young men walking down the road near his farm and ask them if they needed something to eat,” Raye said. “He’d tell them ‘Come on in and my old lady will feed you.’ and she did. My grandmother always set the table with an extra plate, because as she said, ‘You never know when Jesus might come,’ meaning you never know when you might have to feed somebody else. Sometimes those men would stay with my grandparents and work the crops, and when they’d get to the point where they wanted to get married, my grandfather would give them “a start,” which was two chickens, two chairs, a table, and those sorts of things, just to help that young couple get going in life.”
Thomas Graves also owned a general store, and each year he’d put up a Christmas tree inside it, because his sharecroppers weren’t allowed to have one in their little shotgun homes. People who worked for Graves came to the store to buy presents for other people and put them under the tree. That way, the community could still celebrate the holiday by giving each other gifts.
“My grandfather had smokehouses too, so there was a period of time when he was just slaughtering and butchering,” Raye said. “I remember being a little city slicker and visiting him on the weekends. I’d go into the smokehouse and they’d have these big sides of bacon hanging there, curing. That’s how they did it back then. When you needed bacon, you’d just go into the smokehouse and whack off a piece of it. I never did help with the slaughter, because my mother told me that if I had seen what happened, I might not have eaten a lot of the stuff that I liked.”
Raye’s grandparents had a big garden around their house full of vegetables. Two of Raye’s uncles lived down the road from the house and would send their kids over to the farm for vegetables and meat.
“My grandmother was a very kind woman, and she’d go into the smokehouse to get them a wedge of something before sending it down the road,” Raye said. “She’d also fill her apron with fresh vegetables and send them down the road too. Mother said this was because they had so much. They were not wealthy by any stretch of the imagination, but compared to others, they did well. My grandfather was a hard worker, and though he wasn’t formally educated, he was smart. He was also energetic and knew how to diversify, a trait that has definitely been passed down through the generations.”
Raye recalled learning that the sharecroppers had children her age, all of whom had to work in the fields, just like their parents. They went to school, but only up until a certain point, she said, adding that they would work the land, and then grow up and have children worked the land just like they did.
“My mother raised me to know I had other options,” Raye said.
As Raye’s grandparents got older, her grandfather began having strokes, so Flossie and her sisters tried to convince their parents to come up to Little Rock so they could be closer to the rest of the family. Flossie’s mother didn’t need much convincing. She was happy to move. But her father insisted on staying down on the farm because he believed his sharecroppers would take care of him. All he needed was his shotgun and his bed, he said. It didn’t take long for him to figure out that he needed more than that. His sharecroppers didn’t take care of him in the way he thought they would, and one day he called his family in Little Rock to let them know he was ready to move.
“He called the house and got Aunt Pet on the phone,” Raye recalled. “He said, ‘Daughter, this is your Pa.’ Aunt Pet was a bit of a devil, so she decided to have some fun with him. She said, ‘Who?’ And he yelled, ‘Your Pa!’ She said “Who?” again, and he told her to come down and get him. She brought him up and he became a part of our little so-called village. I remember my aunt Pet standing out on her porch and shouting ‘Lemonade, lemonade! Good old lemonade! Made in the shade and stirred with a spade.’ I can still see my grandfather slapping on his hat and charging across the street to get a glass.”
* Raye often said she had never typed a letter prior to her first job at the Model Basin, but that may have been a touch of hyperbole. Her college transcripts show that she was a well-trained typist, and her application for federal employment indicates that aside from her bluff about the UNIVAC, she was a solid entry-level hire.
* According to her birth certificate, Raye was born Oscar Ray Jordan, but family called her Ray Jean throughout her girlhood. By the time she was in high school, she began going by “Raye.” Although she made that change official on all her legal documents as an adult, we refer to her as Raye throughout the book to prevent confusion.
* Lindsay became a bishop within the Church of God in Christ (COGIC) and started his own barbecue chain, Lindsay’s Barbecue.
† Throughout her life, Raye compiled a small but well-chosen set of barbecue sauce recipes that she clipped from newspapers. In her collection was a recipe for a ketchup- and molasses-based sauce, as well as a dry rub, both concocted by David Cox, a Little Rock–based world champion barbecue chef who “reserves the right to make minor modifications from time to time.” Her favorite BBQ spot in Little Rock was Sims BBQ, which makes some of the most ridiculously good ribs on the planet.