America has been sharply divided at many key moments in recent history—during the civil-rights era, the Vietnam War, and the Watergate scandal, to name three examples—and yet Washington still got things done. Disagreements were also sharp during the 1980s, but the only names Ronald Reagan and Thomas P. O’Neill called each other were “Mr. President” and “Tip.” Today’s dysfunction is undeniable, especially at the national level. Why now?

When looking at history, there’s an age-old battle over the weight to accord individuals and the weight to accord larger forces. In this section, we explore both. From an individual perspective, both former House Speaker Newt Gingrich (who turned Republican representatives into partisan warriors) and the political consultant Paul Manafort (an amoral grifter and enabler of same) exemplify contemporary Washington—and, in their different ways, helped make the capital what it has become. Individual evangelical leaders, too, now wield great influence in a kingdom that is very much of this Earth. Intransigence, corruption, zealotry—together they make for a corrosive combination.

As for larger forces, racism infects attitudes and institutions. The country is undergoing demographic change of unprecedented scope; one reaction comes in the form of voter suppression and gerrymandering. Meanwhile, decades of “reform”—the proliferation of primaries and ballot initiatives, for instance—have reduced the stabilizing power of political parties and party leaders. Information technology may be inherently undemocratic, and its advances are likely unstoppable. The advent of social media has already eroded concepts such as “fact” and “truth” while normalizing fever dreams and hate.