Planting the Future

It was early winter when I moved to the Northeast. I’d missed the renowned autumn splendor of the Vermont woodlands by only a few weeks. Instead, I was greeted by the first cold blasts of winter and the promise of several more months of the most penetrating cold I’d ever known. As it turned out, it was the perfect opportunity for me, wrapped in warm woolens by the woodstove, to study. The entire landscape was new to me, and I was ready to delve into my botanical references and learn as much as I could about the neighborhood before the spring thaw awoke the plants in the forest.

These eastern deciduous forests were a different world from the ancient redwood groves of northern California where I’d grown up. The first thing I noticed in the earliest days after my arrival in New England was that there were few truly old trees in the forest. The surrounding forest, though beautiful, was young, lacking the craggy bark and towering pitch of the old ones. Those elders that had managed to survive past one or two hundred years were all marked by the blessings of imperfections that saved them from the frenetic logging activities of the past three hundred years. At the time, I was too new to the language of these particular woods to realize fully what the lack of forest elders was stating so surely about the missing understory plants, or to read the message clearly written in the landscape about the history of these forests.

For the first couple of years, I wandered through our woodlands in a state of happy anticipation. There was an endless variety of new greenery to discover as the northern woods slowly revealed their secrets to me. And, of course, I was ever on the lookout for those mysterious and oh so famous eastern woodland medicinals: ginseng, goldenseal, bloodroot, black cohosh. These illustrious eastern woodland plants had been present in my materia medica since I first began reading Jethro Kloss in the early 1970s. But I had never encountered them in the wild. A couple I had seen only as glossy prints in plant identification books. But, after several seasons passing with nary a sighting, I began to doubt that any of these native medicinals remained, though tales of recent harvests were still told by my elderly neighbors.

The plants are calling you. They have a rich and diverse vocabulary and speak in many tongues. For the scientist the plant may speak in the complex language of chemicals and isolates; to the medicine person they speak in the multiversed language of healing; to the poet, they speak of beauty. No matter what language you speak or comprehend, the plants will converse in a manner that you can understand, though it may take a listening ear and an open heart to hear them. Through their color, scent, medicine power, and beauty they seduce and entice us into the realm of our senses where we hear best their subtle language. Many people, when they first begin working with plants, don’t recognize the language that plants use. They are listening for familiar words. But words are only one method of communication and, as most people discover, they are not always the best way to convey feelings or thoughts. Ask anyone who has dug their hands deep in the dirt, planted seeds, harvested medicine, and taken time simply to get to know plants on their own turf, and they will tell you that plants communicate clearly if we but choose to listen. And the plants are calling us now, asking us for help. The wild gardens are in trouble, and the precious medicines of the earth are being lost.

During my third spring in Vermont, I came to realize that many of the oldest plants of the eastern deciduous forests, including many important medicinal plants, had either completely disappeared or were in short supply. I was mind wandering, stepping over the wake robins and adders tongues of early spring, feeling a certain despair, an abiding loss at the disappearance of these sweet earth medicines, when I heard a voice rising from the forest around me. It was plain and directive and said rather simply, “Plant us. Bring us back to our communities.” Having listened to plants all my life, I had no doubt what to do. That fall I ordered several pounds of ginseng, goldenseal, black cohosh, and bloodroot and reintroduced them into my woodlands. I planted them back among the native landscape where once—before logging, before sheep farming, before haying and mowing, before the stone walls that marked the activities of the early New England farmers—these plants had thrived in abundant communities. I really had no idea how to go about this project and, admittedly, many of the earliest plantings faired poorly. Soil conditions, pH factors, the changing overstory as well as the rootstock I ordered were all factors I hardly thought to consider. I was acting from pure enthusiasm and ignorance, an impractical combination, but it lit a fire in my heart and fueled me on.

Those early efforts were the beginning of a project that reshaped my life work and became a driving passion. Having spent the greater part of my life studying medicinal plants, working within my community as a practicing herbalist, wildcrafting, making herbal products, and educating others about this marvelous ancient system of herbal medicine, I suddenly found myself thrust into new territory: the intricate village system of the wild plant communities. How were they thriving, these healing plants, in their native landscape? How did other plant communities fare when important members of the medicinal clan disappeared from their ecosystem? After all, these were the powerful medicine plants, medicines as valued for the earth’s well-being and the vitality of the wild plant communities as for the health of the two leggeds, the humans, who have been dependent on them for thousands of years. What happens when the balance is lost? When the medicine is removed from the community? Is the ever diminishing population of these powerful medicine plants perhaps one of the reasons why there are so many more diseases attacking native plant communities as well as the human population?

Scientists are just beginning to understand the delicate relationship plants have to one another and to their environment. Many plants—perhaps all of them—have a symbiotic relationship with the soil microorganisms that they grow in and a specialized method of communicating with one another through soil microbes, or mycorrhizae. Botanists and foresters are beginning to recognize that forest plants communicate through a complex underground grafting network, and that this highly sophisticated communication system may warn plants of approaching disease, spread nutrients, and serve to connect the forest biomass. Indigenous people have long recognized that all things in life are connected through a great web and that disturbing one small plant in the ecosystem, in the great web of life, can cause the whole to become unbalanced. This concept is familiar to most herbalists as well, who through their close relationship with plants have experienced the interconnectedness of life.

As I planted, I began to talk to other people: students, fellow herbalists, naturalists, farmers, locals, the woodland people who were long-time residents, those “seers” of the forested landscape. It was as I expected; others, too, were concerned about diminishing native medicinal plant populations. My coworkers, many of whom have been friends since our earliest herbal forays, had noticed similar disturbances in their own areas. Many of our old-time favorite wild plants were no longer found in the lush abundance we remembered from our youth. We had to travel farther to find them and often found fewer population stands than we might have several years earlier. Most notably, the shy woodland plants were becoming harder to find.

In the past fifteen years little attention has been paid to the loss of plant species except in the tropical rain forest. As well-known author and plant photographer Steven Foster commented, “Plants, unlike animals, are not warm, cute, or fuzzy and, therefore, don’t catch the public’s attention so readily.” Yet, the World Wildlife Fund estimates that more than thirty thousand varieties of plant life worldwide are in imminent danger of extinction. In 1992 the First World Congress on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants for Human Welfare met in the Netherlands to address this situation. At this important gathering it was noted that while 80 percent of the world’s population depends on traditional herbal medicine, the accelerating need for phytomedicines, pharmaceutical drugs, and other industrial applications has caused over-exploitation of medicinal plants, resulting in genetic erosion and increasing the threat of extinction.

Frances Thompson, the English poet, once wrote that one could not pluck a flower with-out troubling a star. If we cannot pluck a flower without troubling a star, what then if we lose a species?

Loren Israelson

Diminishing habitat is certainly one of the more obvious reasons for plant loss. Recent statistics suggest that more than 2,500 acres of native land is disturbed each day by human activity. We all can—and do—lament about those wild places we wandered as children that have relentlessly been transformed into shopping centers, housing developments, or factories (so inappropriately called “plants”). Most of us have experienced feelings of helplessness as we’ve witnessed the teaming biomass of the earth’s surface being buried beneath those abysmal layers of cement and asphalt. Habitat loss is without doubt the greatest threat to plants as well as to other forms of life. But what effect does the sudden resurgence of interest in herbal medicine have on our dwindling plant resources?

A gypsy at heart and by blood, I’ve traveled a fair amount in my life to places of botanical beauty and interest. In many countries one can find the rich traditions of herbalism alive and well, especially in the hearts of the country people. However, on my travels I have observed, especially in the most heavily populated areas, that though the herbal traditions were generally alive and well in the hearts of the people, the native plant populations upon which these traditions were based were often in dire straits.

For instance, China, long regarded for its enduring herbal tradition, is devoid almost entirely of its most important wild medicinal plants. In the 1950s China embarked on an ambitious program to integrate traditional Chinese medicine into the public health policy. Within a few short years traditional Chinese medicine had become the primary mode of health care for more than 40 percent of the population. But in the ensuing years shortages in supplies of the most popular medicinal plants began to result from overharvesting of wild populations. In response, China began a massive effort to cultivate medicinal plants and now has more than one million acres of medicinal plants under cultivation. But the wild plant resources were almost completely annihilated and have been slow to recover.

India also boasts one of the world’s oldest systems of traditional herbal medicine, Ayurveda. India is also considered the largest producer of medicinal plants in the world. With more than two million acres of herbs under cultivation, India not only provides herbs for its own herbal tradition but also for the rest of the world. Even so, one seldom finds large stands of wild herbs growing on this vast continent. India, too, has experienced severe shortages of wild medicinal plants from the overharvesting of wild medicinals.

Many of our favorite plants originated in the Mediterranean. Greece, particularly, had a major influence on Western medicine as well as on our modern herbal tradition. However, traveling through modern Greece one is hard pressed to find the fields of wild herbs or the great majestic forests described so poetically in the Iliad. Though the rocky cliffs and barren hillsides of the Grecian terrain are ruggedly beautiful, they are sorely lacking in great forests or carpets of wild herbs. One must go to the highest mountains to encounter the last vestiges of the great forests that were so famous in the days of Homer and Hippocrates. Where are the fields of wild herbs that these ancient men so fondly wrote of—herbs that form the basis of much of the modern herbal tradition?

In England, always a rich repository of herbal tradition and history, medical herbalist and author David Hoffmann reported recently that it is illegal to pick wild medicinal plants from the English countryside because they are threatened in their native landscape. Furthermore, English herbalists have created an organization to conserve North American medicinal plants because these plants are so important in their herbal practices.

After my travels when I return home to my own wild woodlands, I marvel anew at the great expanse of wilderness that stretches out before me. I’ve come to fully appreciate the wealth of biodiversity that still remains in this young, eager land and the degree to which it is changing before our very eyes. As elsewhere in the world, habitat loss, overpopulation, and poor logging practices are contributing to diminishing plant populations in the United States. Likewise, overappreciation of medicinal plants can be detrimental to their health. Perhaps the fact that herbal medicine became widely unpopular—actually illegal to practice—in the U.S. from 1940 through the late 1980s may have been the saving grace not only for the wild heart-centered tradition of American herbalism, but also for the wild plants themselves. Forced underground, herbs and herbalism set deep roots and flourished quietly.

The last ten years of the twentieth century saw an American herbal renaissance, the ramifications of which are still being explored. This sudden burgeoning interest in herbal medicine in America may account for a much greater loss of plant species than we’ve yet recognized. The American herbal industry is expected to reach the $5 billion mark by the end of this year. Large drug companies have entered the herbal marketplace with a gung ho attitude and goals sharply aimed at profit. Small herbal companies, most of which boast ethical business practices and wildcrafted products, can be found all across the landscape of America. Today, finding an herb store in most towns is as simple as opening a phone book.

While positive on one hand, this situation has engendered a unique set of challenges for wild medicinal plants and for the people who love and use them. Where do all the plants needed for this vast amount of product originate? Until very recently, almost all of the resources used in botanical medicine came either from Third World countries that have far from ideal growing conditions or from our native wild gardens. Large-scale cultivation of medicinal herbs is slowly becoming more common in the United States, but we have a long way to go before there are enough herb farms to meet the demands of manufacturers.

I can’t help but reflect on the hundreds of students my fellow herbalists and I have trained over the years to identify and harvest wild medicinals. Generations of herbalists have emphasized the quality of wild versus cultivated plants. This bias was not based on plant constituency, which is often higher in cultivated species, but rather on the energetics of wild plants. There is a spirit, an energy inherent in wild things, both fauna and flora, that is apparent to anybody who has visited the last remaining wilderness areas of this country. That essence is hard, if not impossible, to capture. However, concurrent with the growing awareness of diminishing plant populations is the increasing awareness of the need for organic cultivation of medicinal herbs. Gardeners and farmers are discovering means to energize and potentize their cultivated varieties of medicinal plants by incorporating not only good soil management, but also the forces of nature to grow crops of medicinal plants that equal or exceed the life force and power of their wild counterparts.

I’ve yet to meet the unethical wildcrafter. Each person feels he or she is using sustainable harvesting practices. We have each developed our own special methods and techniques of sustainable harvesting. Many of us were trained by our elders in “conscious collecting.” Prayer and a sacred connection with the spirit of the plant are an important part of our gathering ritual. However, no matter how ethical or sustainable our wildcrafting techniques, and how heartfelt our prayers, if evermore people and greater numbers of companies continue to depend on our wild resources, the supplies will diminish as surely as did the great herds of buffalo that once graced the plains and passenger pigeons that once darkened the sky.

The beauty and genius of a work of art

May be reconceived,

Though its first material expression be destroyed;

A vanished harmony may yet again

Inspire the composer;

But, when the last individual of a race of living beings

Breathes no more,

Another heaven and another earth must pass

Before such a one can be again.

Belize City Zoo for Endangered Species

Many of the plants—in fact, most—that are wild harvested are wholly renewable. These common “weeds” of the North American landscape, many of which are nonnatives, settled the continent readily and became as tenacious as the white settlers in whose footsteps they followed. Equipped with amazing survival skills, they grow prolifically and abundantly throughout the countryside and, though they may require future monitoring, it would be absurd not to harvest them at this juncture. Of great concern, however, are our native medicinals that are habitat specific, have a limited range, and reproduce more selectively. Some of these natives, such as ginseng, bloodroot, blue and black cohosh, and goldenseal, are found growing nowhere else in the world and are in great demand not only by the herbal industry but also by pharmaceutical companies. It is these plants we need to safeguard and protect, seeking sustainable herbal practices such as organic cultivation of important medicinal crops, limiting or restricting the use of those plants that are severely at-risk, and incorporating better health practices into our lives so that reliance on herbal medicine—and medicine of any kind, for that matter—is reduced.

One of the greatest challenges facing us in the twenty-first century is the notion that we live in the age of abundance. Life is measured in excess. Many people using herbal medicine have a difficult time comprehending that demand is outpacing supply. We measure abundance by bioregional plentitude—what we see out our own back door. How can we talk of a plant being endangered, at-risk, when the numbers seem so wonderfully plentiful in our own hunting grounds. Wake robin (Trillium spp.), or bethroot, is an excellent example of bioregional abundance. If you live in the Pacific west, mid-western states, or the Northeast you may have witnessed hundreds of wake robins rising their chocolate-red blossoms in the early spring. So why is it included on the UpS At-Risk List? Trillium, an important medicinal plant with a long history of use, is a slow-growing perennial with a limited habitat and restricted range. It takes more than seven years for a single trillium to mature, set seed, and reproduce. Each trillium produces only a limited number of seeds and the insects required to pollinate it are becoming scarce. Thus far, large-scale cultivation of trillium for medicinal purposes has not been undertaken. However, if trillium was targeted for the herbal “best seller” list, like several other of its woodland neighbors have been, conceivably thousands of pounds of trillium could be removed from the forested landscape. How long would it be able to withstand the demand? How long before trillium became a rare jewel of the forest?

LOCAL ABUNDANCE

So you know a place where ginseng is common. Sustainable harvest in such an area (that is, harvesting no more than the additive growth increase of all the ginseng plants in this niche) might seem ecological, but given the paucity of ginseng in other areas, it may not be a good idea. Better to create a wild garden and harvest plants you have grown yourself, and allow increase to occur in areas of local abundance.

Though our marshlands may be teeming with thousands of sundews, or the mountains where we live be carpeted with the bright yellow flowers of arnica, though the prairies surrounding us may be resplendent with the fiery orange of butterfly weed, or our woodlands be rich in cohoshes, bioregional abundance is not an insurance of a plant’s long-term sustainability. Consider how many of these seemingly abundant plants are needed to fill the tonnage required by the ever growing demand of the herbal marketplace. Consider the propagation mechanisms of each particular plant. How long does it take to mature and set seed and what is its survival rate in the best of conditions? Consider the plant’s range. How specific is its habitat and is it threatened by urban sprawl, logging, or other human activities? Is the plant in high demand in other countries? And how much is exported yearly? Consider the message from the plant itself. What is it saying to us?

In 1994 at the Third International Herb Symposium a group of concerned individuals came together to discuss the issues of medicinal plant preservation and conservation. We met again that following autumn at the Green Nations Gathering in the Catskills of upstate New York. United Plant Savers was born from these meetings. A nonprofit grassroots organization, UpS is dedicated to preserving native medicinal plants and the land they grow on and, ultimately, to ensuring an abundant renewable supply of organically cultivated medicinal herbs. Formed in the spirit of hope, our membership reflects the great diversity of American herbalism and includes herbalists, botanists, health professionals, organic farmers, business owners, wildcrafters, seed savers, manufacturers, and plant lovers from all walks of life.

UNITED PLANT SAVERS

Why did UpS select a name that’s often confused with America’s most well-known delivery service? We often joke that we should adopt as our motto “We’ll plant anywhere.” When herbalism first resurfaced in the early 1970s, it was embraced eagerly by the emerging hippie culture. Few of us differentiated in those early days the difference between good or bad quality herbs. The term organic was hardly coined at the time. In fact, sources were so limited, we were just happy to have plants of any kind.

When Ed Smith and Sara Katz, city herbalists from Boston, first moved to the lovely Applegate Valley in Oregon in 1978, they were astounded to discover the obvious difference in the freshly harvested plants. Their small herb company, Herb Pharm, soon reflected this quality in their products. Ed, in his efforts to educate the rest of us about the differences in quality used to travel around in his red van to the small herbal gatherings and lecture us about using wildcrafted organic plants, of course, selling his own all the while! His statement, “We’re all like a bunch of UPS herbalists; we think the plants are grown on the UPS truck, delivered by UPS, and shipped UPS,”addressed the problems we were faced with at the time: lack of quality herbs, few herbal products, and lack of herbal education. Thirty years later, organic is almost synonymous with the herbal industry, herbal educational opportunities are widely available, and herbal products flood the marketplace. United Plant Savers (UpS) was chosen as the name for our newly formed group to identify the current issues and problems facing herbs and herbalists today, especially the depletion of our wild plant resources. We remain as hopeful as we were then that we can and will make a difference helping to ensure that our medicinal plant populations are here for our grandchildren and their grandchildren to enjoy and even more importantly, that they remain an integral part of the great web of life.

ALTERNATIVES

If an herb is on the At-Risk List:

• Manufacturers should be reducing use, and cultivating or substituting instead.

• Consumers should be aware of how valuable it is and use it sparingly, or opt for cultivated material or substitutes.

• Herbalists and doctors should be aware of the implications of their recommendations and take plant protection into account.

• Retailers can look at this list and make decisions about what extracts to stock based on plant protection as well as saleability, and they can make plant protection a positive selling point.

To date United Plant Savers has initiated a number of replanting projects, including our “Plant Give Aways” in which more than fifty thousand goldenseal roots and several thousand other at-risk plants—black cohosh, blue cohosh, bloodroot, slippery elm, white oak saplings, and others—have been distributed to members to plant on their land. UpS does not advocate randomly planting at-risk species into wild areas unless privately owned. We do encourage the stewarding of existing wild medicinal plants by spreading their seed within the habitat and by weeding out nonnative species. We also encourage gardeners to propagate at-risk medicinal plants in their backyards, gardens, farms, and privately owned lands, and to monitor their status from season to season thus helping to protect the germ plasm of these important medicinal species. Like Margaret Mead, we believe that the most positive changes are often the result of thoughtful, committed citizens taking action. Though large planting projects, scientific research, and biological studies are an important part of plant conservation, equally important is individual participation by lay persons. Often it is those people out there living and working with the plants for decade after decade who have the most information. We support the grow-your-own-medicine mentality and encourage our members both to plant medicinal herb gardens and to help reestablish the wild gardens on their land.

Our largest and most complex task to date was defining and developing the Medicinal Plant At-Risk List and the accompanying To-Watch List, which have become the guiding source for the herbal industry, herbal community, and for the public (see pages 11–12). These lists, though nondefinitive in nature and continuously reviewed and examined, identify the native medicinal plants that are most at risk in their native habitat or those that have the potential to become at risk within the near future. Rather than assume these plants are impervious to human activity, we have developed a conservative attitude and chose to err in favor of the plants. Necessary scientific research and data, important to confirm that these plants are, in fact, endangered, can take years to accumulate. We are choosing to act before these plants disappear from the native landscape forever. Herbs included on the lists are those that are most sensitive to human activity. Inclusion is based on current market analysis, increased demand, habitat specificality, a plant’s sensitivity to human activity, and lack of known propagation techniques or large-scale cultivation. Our hope is that—by acting before it’s too late—each of the designated plants can be removed from the At-Risk and To-Watch Lists in our lifetime.

With the generous support of green angels Judy and Michael Funk, United Plant Savers established a 370-acre botanical sanctuary in southeast Ohio that serves as model farm for medicinal plant conservation, research, and education and as a seed repository for American medicinal plants. This beautiful farm is rich with native at-risk medicinals and has a number of research and educational projects underway. We have also established the Botanical Sanctuary Network, a program that helps members create botanical sanctuaries on their land.

Planting the Future, another United Plant Savers project, is the collective effort of many concerned herbalists and represents professional wildcrafters, practitioners, manufacturers, and community herbalists. Each contributor brings a personal knowledge and love of the plants as well as a sincere concern that these plants continue to flourish in their native landscape and remain an intricate part of the great web of life.

Through these and other projects we are seeking solutions, optimistic that our efforts are making a difference. Our mission is to ensure the perpetuation of important medicinal plants and the habitat they thrive on so that when future generations of plant lovers walk upon this planet, they, too, will know and appreciate the medicines of their ancestors and the healing power that grows from the heart of the earth. The good news is that it is not too late; none of these important North American medicinal plants is yet extinct. You have the opportunity and skills needed to make a difference.

If we choose to use plants as our medicine, we then become accountable for the wild gardens, their health, and their upkeep. We begin a co-creative partnership with the plants, giving back what we receive—health, nourishment, beauty, and protection. We have reached a time in history when to not consider our relationship with the resources we use on this small and beautiful planet will be disastrous. We invite you to join our efforts to help Plant the Future.

NORTH AMERICAN INDIGENOUS MEDICINAL PLANTS

For the benefit of the plant communities, wild animals, harvesters, farmers, consumers, manufacturers, retailers, and practitioners we offer this list of wild medicinal plants that we feel are currently most sensitive to the impact of human activities. Our intent is to assure the increasing abundance of the medicinal plants that are presently in decline due to expanding popularity and shrinking habitat and range. UpS is not asking for a moratorium on the use of these herbs. Rather, we are initiating programs designed to preserve these important wild medicinal plants.

We ask wildcrafters to consider the ecological impact of taking these herbs from the wild. Replanting in the wild, as well as careful stewarding of your collection areas is of tantamount importance if the trade of wildcrafting is to continue. Although the herb may be abundant in your locality, it has probably already disappeared from other areas. Wildcrafters are among those who have the best understanding of wild plants, and you can contribute greatly by providing seed and advising others on how to plant and grow these herbs.

We ask manufacturers and consumers to assist in the transition from wildcrafted sources to those that are organically grown. If there is demand for wild herbs, then we will continue to lose them. If there is demand for cultivated herbs, then we will create environmentally friendly jobs while saving the wild plants. Although it is an expensive proposition, the time is ripe to assure sustainability of the herbs we love.

AT-RISK LIST

American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius)

Black Cohosh (Actaea racemosa, syn. Cimicifuga racemosa)

Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis)

Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides)

Echinacea (Echinacea spp.)

Eyebright (Euphrasia spp.)

Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis)

Helonias Root (False Unicorn) (Chamaelirium luteum)

Kava, Hawaiian Wild (Piper methysticum)

Lady’s Slipper Orchid (Cypripedium spp.)

Lomatium (Lomatium dissectum)

Osha (Ligusticum porteri, L. spp.)

Peyote (Lophophora williamsii)

Slippery Elm (Ulmus rubra)

Sundew (Drosera spp.)

Trillium (Beth Root) (Trillium spp.)

True Unicorn (Aletris farinosa)

Venus’s-Flytrap (Dionaea muscipula)

Virginia Snakeroot (Aristolochia serpentaria)

Wild Yam (Dioscorea villosa, D. spp.)

TO-WATCH LIST

Arnica (Arnica spp.)

Calamus Root (Acorus calamus)

Cascara Sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana)

Chaparro (Castela emoryi)

Elephant Tree (Bursera microphylla)

Gentian (Gentiana spp.)

Goldthread (Coptis spp.)

Lobelia (Lobelia spp.)

Maidenhair Fern (Adiantum pendatum)

Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum)

Oregon Grape (Mahonia spp.)

Partridgeberry (Mitchella repens)

Pink Root (Spigelia marilandica)

Pipsissewa (Chimaphila umbellata)

Pleurisy Root (Butterfly Weed)

(Asclepias tuberosa)

Spikenard (Aralia racemosa, A.califonica)

Stillingia (Queen’s Delight) (Stillingia sylvatica)

Stoneroot (Collinsonia canadensis)

Stream Orchid (Epipactis gigantea)

Turkey Corn (Dicentra canadensis)

White Sage (Salvia apiana)

Wild Indigo (Baptisia tinctoria)

Yerba Mansa (Anemopsis califonica)

Yerba Santa (Eriodictyon califonica)

Note: Read “spp.” as “all North American species in the genus.” We are using this category when: (1) all North American members of the genus fit the “at risk” definition or (2) there is reason to believe that either through inability to locate the commonly used species, or through misidentification, or through intentional collection, species besides the commonly used species in the genus might also be at risk. We see this situation clearly with the harvest of any trillium species to be sold as “bethroot,” or in the harvest of any echinacea species to be sold as “E. angustifolia.”