KAVA
Piper methysticum
TANE DATTA
KAVA
Piper methysticum
TANE DATTA
Kava was placed on the United Plant Savers target list in 1997 because wild populations of the plant in Hawaii were being rapidly depleted. The popularity of the root had increased dramatically, and the overall availability of the plant material was diminishing. This was seen by rapidly increasing prices, empty holes in the rain forest where there had once been large thirty to fifty-year-old awa (kava) stands, the development of a black market for stolen awa roots, and the visible destruction of kava’s rain forest habitat to make way for large papaya plantations and other development.
The kava plant intrigues me because it grows well in undisturbed rain forests. I am an organic farmer who believes that a healthy society can be based on caring for and nurturing the soil. One way of manifesting this care is finding the highest sustainable value for land; in turn, part of finding the highest sustainable value is understanding the environment well enough to find crops that grow naturally in it. The closer the plant fits naturally in the environment, the less need for farmer intervention such as the addition of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides.
This approach led me to look closely at the wide variety of plants already growing naturally in the Hawaiian rain forest and to recognize the value in the plants already existing there. I have since gained a local reputation for selling weeds such as gotu kola, passion vine, mullein, and beach almond. These are plants that some people spend a great deal of effort trying to eliminate.
The early 1990s saw an increasing threat to the rain forest in the form of geothermal exploitation in the heart of the preserves. The popular “Save the Rain Forest” movement organized some festive demonstrations within the lush rain forest. Some of the literature distributed at these gatherings mentioned that if geothermal development was allowed, twenty-six species of rain forest plants would become extinct. I pursued the organizers and asked them which twenty-six plants were endangered. After six months of tracking down leads, I finally got the list. Kava was among them.
I thought about my own partial clearing of the rain forest where I live to make room for organic gardens, orchards, and dwellings. I have left quite a bit of original forest, and much of what I cleared was Christmasberry, a recently introduced, strongly aggressive tree in Hawaii. Still, it has always been my desire to compare the value of integrating economic plantings into the jungle with that of clearing land for highly intensive organic beds or orchards. Kava, being a shade-loving understory plant, has given me a chance to try just that.
Kava plays a significant and esteemed role in all Polynesia, of which Hawaii is part. The plant is used medicinally to set the spiritual framework for other healing practices. The ancient kava ceremony recognizes and honors both visitors and the culture they are visiting. Kava’s use by the kahunas (traditional healers) is valuable in helping individuals and in revitalizing Hawaiian culture, which is indeed resurging: hula dancing, language, traditional foods and practices, and political organizing are all permitted now after long bans.
All of the issues above have combined to bring me into an increasingly complex relationship with kava. Personally, I would like to see:
I am working toward developing our kava in a way that reverses more than 150 years of colonialism imposed by sugar and pineapple plantations and their domination of the political systems. All these dreams are slowly coming true.
BOTANICAL FEATURES
Kava, an elegant shrub that grows 3 to 15 feet tall, is a member of the Pepper family. It has elongated, jointed stems that are swollen at the joints in a manner similar to bamboo. These swollen joints are called knuckles, and are used in the propagation of the plant. Kava has alternate dark green heart-shaped leaves about 5 to 8 inches long. Left on its own, the plant forms small groves and dominates its area of the rain forest understory.
The plant is sterile, and therefore any patch of kava, no matter how remote, was at one time placed there by humans. There are wide variations in chromosome numbers in the Piper genus. P. methysticum has a high ploidy1 level, which could explain its sterility. The original plant was likely P. wichmanni, which is the only other plant from which kavalactones have been isolated. Kavalactones, a secondary metabolite in kava, are produced in unusually high quantities, reflecting its close association and dependency on humans for its survival. Dr. Lebot believes kava should be considered, botanically, a sterile cultivar of P. wichmanni, which is sometimes used to “stretch” the kava herb.
Kava developed its characteristics by human selection. When the plant was harvested, its stems were left lying out. After the beverage was drunk, if its flavor found approval, the kava was replanted. In this way, characteristics favored by different human groups were selected. These characteristics can be seen biochemically by looking at the various kavalactones and their ratios in the various cultivars.
Each kava variety has its own unique physiological effects. Some are strong, some are weak, some induce deep sleep, and others cause nausea. Some have effects that last only overnight while others can be felt for three days. The different ratios of kavalactones within varieties are responsible for these different effects. Many Hawaiian cultivars are being analyzed according to age and growing location. This will become the basis for a classification system.
The six major kavalactones are:
The composition of different cultivars of kava are being coded based on the sequence of the above numbers. Thus a cultivar such as maha kea, a black kava from Hawaii, may be characterized by the code 426351 based on kavalactone analysis. This indicates that the cultivar contains the highest K, kavain (4); followed by DHK, dihydrokavain (2); followed by M, methysticum (6); and so forth. This system maps out the relative proportions of these six kavalactones. Often the first three kavalactones represent more than 70 percent of the overall total. In some cases, the relative percentage of the first three is relatively close (25, 23, and 22 percent respectively, for example). This places importance on whether a kavalactone occupies one of the first three digits rather than its exact rank. The effects gotten from a 426 would be likely similar to those derived from a 624 or 246.
Ethnobotanical data show that drinkers do not prefer a high percentage of DHM (5) and DHK (2), because the physiological effects are too severe and nausea is often felt. The most appreciated chemotypes have a high percentage of K (4) and low percentage of DHM (5).
Piper wichmanni, which is considered the origin species of kava, contains a high concentration of DHK (2) and DHM (5). The kavalactone content of a kava plant is related more strongly to the cultivar (variety) than to environmental or cultivation factors. In practical terms, this means that the clones gotten from a plant will produce the same effect as the mother plant. P. methysticum appears to have developed by farmers selecting for the effects they sought. When they migrated to different regions of Polynesia, they brought their preferred clones with them and continued to develop them.
The many different effects attributed to kava along with the many different names in several subcultures are results of centuries of this process. Ethnobotanists have used the varying characteristics of kava to trace the dispersal of the Polynesian people. The morphological features of the plants have been mapped out in a similar manner as the chemotype. The morphological features used are stem color, internode configuration, leaf color, lamina edges (shape of leaf), leaf pubescence, and internode shape. By correlating the chemical and physical characteristics, a less confusing nomenclature is being developed. This will enable kava users to reliably obtain the effects they are seeking.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Kava usage was first observed by Captain Cook, the European discoverer and recorder of Hawaii. Kava usage was well established and integrated into Polynesian society by this time. Looking at its effects on his crew, he assumed it to be an opiate. Samples taken back to England showed there were no opiates in kava, however, and Western medical interest in it waned.
Kava is used ritually throughout Polynesia as a means of bringing people together or honoring dignitaries. The pope, Hillary Rodham Clinton, and the queen of England have all participated in such kava ceremonies.
For a long while kava was overlooked by Western herbalists and promoted mainly as a legal intoxicant or love drug. The demand for kava in these markets remained low but, along with the native taboos already existing, contributed to a mysterious but tarnished and fearful image of the plant.
Kava’s ability to reduce stress and anxiety is rapidly gaining recognition in Western society. The Wall Street Journal2 recently noted the vast amount of sales potential it may have. Kava and St.-John’s-wort are being successfully promoted as herbal alternatives to barbiturates and Prozac. This newfound respectability is responsible for the harvesting pressure leading to its endangerment in Hawaii.
MEDICINAL USES
Historically kava has been used in Polynesian culture for a wide and sometimes conflicting range of ailments: to treat headaches; provoke abortions; ease childbirth; treat intestinal problems, urinogenital system infections, cough, skin disease, and gonorrhea; and, of course, to induce relaxation. It is a spinal rather than a cerebral depressant. It has been shown to be an anticonvulsant, local anesthetic, and, in some cases, antifungal. There is a large variance in the constituents of the plant. Synthesized kavalactones do not create the same physiological effects as the natural extract. The constituents work synergistically with each other to such an extent that extracts used without the slightest alteration give much better results than any single isolated constituent.
All parts of the plant can be used, but the root is the most common. The concentrations of kavalactones vary among the stem, leaf, and root. The difference between cultivars overshadows, however, the differences in the plant parts.
Kava is not classified as a drug, because its consumption never leads to addiction or dependency. It has psychoactive properties but is neither hallucinogenic nor stupefacient. It has been classified as a narcotic and a hypnotic. This may help explain the atmosphere of sociability felt when drinking it. In Polynesian society, it is often said that “you cannot hate while drinking kava.”
Kava drinking in a cultural context similar to beer drinking is the plant’s most common use. Kava drinkers experience a state of well-being and contentment free from physical and psychological excitement. Conversation flows freely, and hearing and vision are improved. Drinkers remain masters of their conscience and reason, and their temperaments are soothed. Kava helps the thought process by relieving nervous tension and allows drinkers to talk through and solve problems of everyday life. The next day, drinkers awaken in excellent shape with no hangover effects.
Excessive consumption of kava can cause temporary oculomotor paralysis; the muscles may no longer respond to control of the mind, walking becomes unsteady, and drinkers look inebriated. The drinkers feel a need to sleep and are often found prostrate at the place where they have drunk. These effects will vary with the cultivar consumed.
Long-term excessive consumption has been found to cause skin lesions, drying up the epidermis and causing areas of severe itching. This is rare and is due in part to allergens that attach themselves to skin proteins. Poor diet (especially a diet lacking in B vitamins), susceptibility to allergies, and the use of undesirable cultivars are also significant factors in this effect. These symptoms disappear as soon as kava consumption is reduced.
Recently European pharmaceutical companies have developed from kava prescription medicines marketed as antianxiety drugs with fewer side effects and higher safety than synthetic drugs in the same classification. Pharmacologically, some studies have shown that kava is active in the hippocampus and amygdala, depressing activity in the area of the brain that governs anger.
Beverage companies are including kava in many enjoyable tea blends. Natural supplement manufacturers are cranking out new formulas; I have even seen kava incorporated into corn chips. Of course, some of these products do not contain enough kava to have an effect.
Solving the problem in variability and composition of kava’s active constituents has greatly increased the potential uses for this herb. Selection of particular cultivars for particular markets is now realistic. An herbalist seeking a specific effect from Hawaiian kava may soon be able to order by chemotype and reliably get the same effect on the next order.
PREPARATION AND DOSAGE
Traditional preparations use fresh root or dried root. In either case the root is broken down by grinding, pounding, or chewing, and then boiled as a tea. The root needs to be kept at a slow boil for at least twenty minutes. The kavalactones stay stable in the heat. About 1 tablespoon of dried powdered kava makes 1 cup of kava tea. The fresh root is stronger. The initial flavor is bitter with a slightly peppery aftertaste. A few minutes after drinking the tea, the tongue becomes numb and the bitter flavor is no longer noticeable. One to 3 cups of kava drunk slowly during an afternoon or evening is usually sufficient for a social gathering.
There are many ritual and ceremonial variations. In many cases, the kava is made in a large communal bowl and served from a single coconut bowl one person at a time according to rank or honor.
Modern preparations by herbal companies include tincturing at various ratios, continuous hot alcohol extraction, drying, freeze-drying, and powdering. Each method favors different plant constituents. It usually takes about 7 pounds of fresh root to make 1 gallon of alcohol tincture.
My favorite natural preparation is to take a young rootlet from an old root and chew it. I like the juicy, sweet, slightly peppery flavor and the quick numbing effect in my mouth. That alone generally enhances my mood.
Pharmaceutical companies extract specific kavalactones and reduce the kava to the familiar pill form of Western modern medicine.
PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION
Kava propagation is in essence simple. It can only be started from the stem or parts of the stem as a clone. If harvesting is done in the moist jungle and the stems are put back into the ground where the root was, a new clump will grow. In commercial production, just the joints (or “knuckles”) on the stem are used. These can be placed in trays filled with cinder and compost and kept in the shade under high humidity conditions. When a bud (small sprout) appears on the knuckle, it is transplanted to a small pot with a similar mixture. Often a single knuckle will have several buds. These are all allowed to grow. The key elements are good drainage, high humidity, and shade. The stem itself holds enough nutrient to support the budding. In the initial propagation stage, before budding, the stem is highly susceptible to bacterial and fungal damage. This seems to stem from stagnant water or air conditions.
Propagation from tissue culture has not proved viable. Some growers make use of fungicides and growth hormones. Others just throw coconut leaves on top of a pile of discarded stems and come back in a month to harvest knuckles with rootlets already growing. Sometimes stems stay dormant in their trays for months and during a full moon, sprout. The success of initial propagation is highly dependent on local conditions.
Once propagated, planting is relatively simple. Plants are placed approximately 10 feet away from each other in holes filled with cinder, compost, and composted manure. The size of the hole varies according to the conditions of the land and the intentions of the grower. In land with good soil a larger hole may be made; much of the plant growth will take place underground. In rocky soils a small hole may be dug, and most of the growth will be expected to take place aboveground. The best growing conditions seem to be in cinder soil in lowland areas with high rainfall and good drainage. Plants in these conditions will grow quickly to large sizes with little disease.
One important factor to keep in mind when growing kava is the large number of cultivars. Each one was developed for specific microclimates and to have specific effects. When planning a kava farm, it is best to grow several varieties known to have the desired effects. After a few years it will be clear which ones grow best under your conditions; these can be propagated further. You can also carry on the traditions of centuries by replanting the plants you like best, and thus developing new cultivars.
HARVESTING
Cultivated kava is harvested after it is at least two to three years old. The whole plant is dug out of the ground. The stems and leaves are cut off and the root is washed. In Hawaii, if the fresh root is to be sent to the mainland, it must be scrubbed meticulously. No particle of dirt is allowed through agricultural inspection, or the entire shipment may be quarantined. Cleaning the root takes as much time as the actual harvesting of the plant.
In good growing conditions, plant roots can reach 20 to 25 pounds in two years. If left in the ground for another five years, a single plant’s root can weigh 100 to 150 pounds. Some plants in the wild reach several-hundred-pound sizes. Older plants spread out, with the center sometimes dying. The plant is subject to attack from pigs and rats. They rarely kill the whole plant but can leave it hollowed out. The rats partially chew the bamboolike stems, which fall to the ground and grow again. Some small rootlets grow out from the base of the stem in a manner similar to mangrove roots. In rocky soils, the root builds itself upward in a large mound. If the stem becomes buried by jungle debris, it may put out rootlets and become part of the root corm itself.
The preferred time to harvest the plant is when the roots approach 100 pounds. Larger plants often have rock and debris intermingled with the roots or sections of root that are hard to clean.
Opinion varies as to what influence age has on plants. Chemical analysis indicates that kavalactone percentage stabilizes within two years, and its levels remain the same as the plant grows larger. Yet a thirty-year-old root chunk larger than a man’s thigh is impressive to see and daunting to consume. It becomes the focal point of any type of gathering, contributing to the uniqueness and spirit of the kava event.
If the plant is to be dried, it is broken into smaller pieces with a hammer mill or grinder and air-dried. The wet-to-dry ratio is approximately 3:1. Once dried, it may be left in small chunks or powdered. When it’s in small chunk form, adding adulterants becomes more difficult.
UpS RECOMMENDATIONS
• Use only cultivated resources.
• Possible alternatives include chamomile, catnip, wood betony, cultivated valerian root, cultivated passionflower, and cultivated California poppy. (It is illegal in California to harvest California poppy in the wild.)
In earlier times the scarcity of kava in Hawaii may have had to do with the fierceness of the taboos set by the ruling elite. Later, taboos set by missionaries along with the colonials’ attempt to destroy all facets of Hawaiian culture kept kava supplies low. Between these times, the use of kava spread to common people, who planted and tended their patches deep in the jungles and along hunting and gathering trails. In this way the kava plant became well established in the Hawaiian rain forest. Once planted, kava has a strong ability to survive on its own and slowly spread through the forests.
The current onslaught endangering kava comes from two directions. On one side large-scale commercial developments that destroy rain forests in Hawaii are limiting its natural habitat. On another side poor, often local, people intoxicated by the prospects of finding plants of 100 pounds or more (worth more than $1,000 each) have been stripping the jungles and often their neighbors’ lands. It is hard work to drag 100-pound roots through miles of rough, slippery trails, and it is simple work to replant an area that has been harvested or leave enough plants to regrow in an area. The intentions of the harvesters have changed from a deep cultural reverence for the plant to exploitation of it for quick hard cash. This is the core reason for the endangerment of wild kava in Hawaii.
Balancing these destructive forces has been a slow but steady resurgence of the Hawaiian culture in language, dance, politics, kahuna teachings, unity, and spirit. The Hawaiian culture teaches its members to do what is right in your heart and to conserve and replenish what is taken from the forests and the oceans. The state motto translated from the Hawaiian is, “The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness.” Also balancing these destructive forces has been the commercial development of kava as an alternative crop to defunct sugar. Some of the new kava plantations are using certified organic production systems. There also has been organization among kava growers to share markets, stop theft, and create standards that will make Hawaiian kava consistently the highest quality available in the world.
Few plants in the world have such great dependence on humans and such a great effect on humans. It is easy to replant any plant harvested if the harvester cares at all about kava and its environment: It is a matter of simply putting the stems back in the hole left by the removed root and covering them back up. The reasons kava has not been replanted in the wild and the steps now being taken to reestablish and develop kava as a crop in Hawaii may provide understanding that can help some of the other plants on the UpS threatened list. Some of the keys to the protection of kava are:
The increase in kava’s market value is ironic, because the increase in demand for this plant was the driving force in the destruction of wild kava plantings to begin with. Yet the kava market also gives an economic base for the preservation of the plant. Kava’s ability to live well as an understory plant in undisturbed rain forest increases the value of undisturbed rain forest, possibly to the point of protecting this ecosystem.
The increase in market demand for kava, properly handled, may increase its abundance and protect its natural environment. This may also be true for other medicinal plants facing similar pressures. Kava production in Hawaii may become a model for sustainable development in which a combination of local growers, government, consumers, pharmaceutical companies, the natural environment, and herbal companies increase the abundance of a plant along with the economic and cultural stability of the residents.
REFERENCES
Blumenthal, Mark, and Yadhu Singh. “Kava: An overview.” HerbalGram 39 (1997): 33–55.
Petersen, Andrea. “The making of an herbal superstar.” The Wall Street Journal, 26 Feb. 1998 p. 1 Sec. B1.
Lebot, Vincent. “Kava: The Polynesian dispersal of an oceanian plant.” Chapter 9 in Islands, Plants, Polynesians: Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany, edited by Paul Alan Cox and Sandra Anne Banack. Proceedings of a symposium sponsored by the Institute of Polynesian Studies, Brigham Young University, Hawaii Campus. Laie, Hawaii: Dioscorides Press, 1991.