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§18 Live Wholly for God (1 Pet. 4:1–6)

4:1 / What are the practical implications for Christians of Christ’s suffering and consequent triumph over death and the powers of evil? Recalling the opening of this section, back in 3:18, Peter reverts to the death of Christ. This is the example that believers should follow. They must turn their backs on the immoral practices of their pagan neighbors, formerly their own life-style, and wholeheartedly follow their Master by copying him. Christ suffered in his body, that is, he gave his all, including his very life, in carrying out the will of God. His followers must resolve to go to the same lengths: Arm yourselves also with the same attitude—a military metaphor; but the NT is not averse to using such language, for believers are indeed engaged in warfare, albeit in the spiritual realm.

By his death, Jesus is done with sin. The meaning, of course, is not that Jesus now stopped sinning—Peter has already reminded his readers of Christ’s sinlessness (2:22)—but that he dealt once and for all with the world’s sin when he took it upon himself on the cross (2:24). The problem of dealing with sin is now over and done with. Peter’s readers are to adopt the same attitude. Believers are to recognize that in view of their new birth spiritually (1:3), by which they now partake in the risen life of Christ, they are to reckon themselves dead to the blandishments of sin, presented to them by their “evil human desires,” but alive to the creative and positive urgings of God. It is the same thought that Paul puts forward: “Count yourselves dead to sin but alive to God in Christ Jesus. Therefore do not let sin reign in your mortal body so that you obey its evil desires” (Rom. 6:11–12). That is the “will of God” for all believers.

4:2 / As they live the rest of their earthly life, they must constantly remind themselves that the power of the risen Christ is sufficient to enable them to pass each day in a manner pleasing to God. To strive to be perfect in God’s sight was Christ’s instruction (Matt. 5:48) and this must be their aim, even if they cannot achieve sinlessness in this life (1 John 1:8). At least they can be assured that as Christians they now possess the spiritual power to resist sin. They must resolve to make use of it.

4:3 / This verse implies that Peter’s readers came from a pagan background. But it would be wrong to infer from the way he writes that they were all Gentiles. The many references to the Hebrew OT suggest otherwise, for Peter would hardly inject an important letter with frequent allusions which his readers might have little chance to appreciate.

With a touch of ironical understatement, Peter reminds them that they have spent enough time in the past filling their hours with immoral pagan practices. What those practices were accurately reflects what is known of the contemporary situation in Asia Minor. The acts of immorality listed fall into three groups: sexual misconduct (debauchery, lust), intemperance (drunkenness, orgies, carousing), and misdirected worship (detestable idolatry). The last would often have involved all the other malpractices. The Christians’ unconverted lives have in that respect been utterly wasted. Less of their earthly life now remains for the Lord’s work to be carried out, so the fulfilling of God’s will is all the more urgent.

4:4 / The lives of the Christians have been so turned around by their conversion to Jesus Christ that pagan neighbors are thoroughly bewildered. They cannot understand how it is that their former boon companions are no longer wanting to join them in the old reckless rush into a flood of dissipation, a way of life abandoned to debauchery. And since they cannot comprehend what has happened, their resentful response is to heap abuse on you. Vilification was an aspect of suffering evidently all too common an experience for Peter’s readers, for he mentions it no less than four times in this letter.

4:5 / Those who assail God’s servants will one day undoubtedly have to give account at the divine tribunal when they stand before him who is ready to judge. The charge they will have to try to answer relates both to their own God-ignoring lives and to their reviling of Christ’s followers. The identity of the one who is to judge is left unclear. It may be God himself (1:17; 2:23) or, as many references in the rest of the NT indicate, the glorified Christ (e.g., Matt. 25:32; Rom. 2:16; 2 Tim. 4:1). The distinction matters little since God has committed judgment to the Son (John 5:22), who will therefore be acting with the Father’s authority. The statement that the divine judge stands ready to act is in line with the topic coloring the whole letter: the imminent return of Christ in power and great glory (4:7). The judgment will involve the living and the dead (Acts 10:42, an address of Peter’s). Whenever the moment of Christ’s second coming arrives, some people of course will on that particular day in history be alive on the earth, others will have died—all will have to face judgment. But all can be assured that the divine judgment will be impartial (1:17), fair (2:23), inexorable (4:5), and full (4:6). Christians already have had their sins dealt with by the sacrifice of Christ upon the cross (2:24). The judgment of believers, therefore, concerns not their past sins but what they have achieved for God in their lives following their conversion to Christ (2 Cor. 5:10).

4:6 / In verse 5, Peter has mentioned the coming judgment of the living and the dead. Now he adds what amounts to a postscript concerning those who are now dead. It must be said straight away that no fully satisfactory explanation of this verse has ever been given. We can but seek to sense the drift of Peter’s meaning.

Although Peter has previously referred to the preaching to some who were no longer on earth (the “spirits in prison,” 3:19), we should not assume that the preaching here in 4:6 harks back to exactly the same topic. In 3:19, the Greek verb for “preach” is kēryssein, to proclaim; here in 4:6 it is euangelizesthai, to evangelize, preach good news. While the former Greek term is often used in the sense of “proclaim the gospel,” the use in 4:6 of euangelizesthai, the more usual NT verb for preaching the gospel, is almost certainly deliberate (it also appears in 1:12, 25, where Peter refers to the first preaching heard by his readers). By those who are now dead Peter appears to have in mind men and women who were once friends and relatives of his present readers, who heard the gospel in their lifetime and responded to it, but who have since died. What is their situation?

On the one hand, as is the case with all human beings, they too face judgment (according to men in regard to the body: lit. “according to men in flesh”). But on the other hand, something else applies to believers who have passed on from this life, those who are now dead. Because they responded to the gospel during their earthly lives, they enjoy the supreme benefit of that gospel—eternal life: they … live according to God in regard to the spirit. So those who have been left behind on earth for a while longer need have no anxiety about their dead loved ones in Christ. They are safe with him and enjoying a full life in the spirit. Death is certainly not the last word for the Christian, any more than it was for Christ.

Additional Notes §18

4:1 / Arm yourselves: The NT makes use of military metaphors, for Christians are involved in spiritual warfare (Rom. 6:13; 13:12; 2 Cor. 6:7; 10:4; Eph. 6:11–17; 1 Thess. 5:8; 1 Tim. 1:18; 6:12; 2 Tim. 2:4; Rev. 12:17).

He who has suffered in his body: cf. Gal. 2:19–20

Is done with sin: cf. Rom. 6:7

4:2 / Evil human desires (anthrōpōn epithymiais): lit. “for impulses of human beings.” NIV adds evil by way of interpretation since this is clearly what is meant (v. 3). The human impulses are based on ignorance of God’s standards (1:14) and are antagonistic to the soul’s welfare (2:11); cf. 1 John 2:16.

The will of God is a regular theme in this letter (2:15; 3:17; 4:2, 19).

4:3 / Pagans translates ethnōn, nations, the usual biblical term when non-Jews are meant.

Living is peporeumenous, from poreuesthai, to go along. Pagans travel a road in life which is filled with all kinds of immoral engagements.

Debauchery (aselgeiai): sexual excesses, resulting in grossly indecent behavior.

Lust (epithymiai): translated “evil human desires” in v. 2. The word also occurs in 1:14; 2:11.

Drunkenness: The Greek oinophlygiai implies habitual intoxication (from oinos, wine; phlyein, to bubble up, overflow).

Orgies (kōmoi): the result of excessive drinking (“wild parties,” JB).

Carousing (potoi): This word can refer to drinking competitions to see who can down the most.

Detestable idolatries (athemitoi eidōlolatriai, “lawless idolatry” [RSV]): practices forbidden by the Mosaic law (Acts 10:28), “which outrage common decency” (Barclay).

4:4 / Plunge (lit. “run together”) paints a picture of people rushing forward from all directions in order to see something untoward (Mark 6:33; Acts 3:11).

Flood of dissipation: Anachysis means a pouring out, an excess; asōtia, a life given up to profligacy (Eph. 5:18; Titus 1:6), implying a waste of time, energy, and resources. The cognate term asōtōs is used of the prodigal son’s “wild living,” which included lavishing his money on harlots (Luke 15:13). In T. Asher 5.1 asōtia is significantly contrasted with “wedlock.”

Heap abuse on you translates one word, lit. “blaspheme.” The Greek means to speak lightly or profanely of sacred things, especially of God; but it can also, as here, refer to the reviling of people. Evil-speaking against Christian believers is mentioned several times in this letter (2:12; 3:9; 4:4, 14). It was by no means a novel experience for the godly: see Wisd. of Sol. 2:12–20, where the situation is graphically described.

4:5 / Give account is an expression used in the NT of an employee in relation to his employer (Luke 16:2) and of rioters being answerable to civil authorities (Acts 19:40); and, in the spiritual field, it can describe Christian leaders in respect of their flock (Heb. 13:17). Each individual bears responsibility for his or her life and actions and will eventually have to answer for both.

The living and the dead: On whatever date in history Christ makes his return, many people will be alive on the earth, of course, and many others will have died. A similar thought lies behind Christ’s statement to Martha: “I am the resurrection [in respect to dead believers] and the life [in respect to those living on earth at the second coming, and who will not need to go through the experience of death]” (John 11:25–26). The fate of believers who had already died before the second coming may have been causing concern to their surviving loved ones, as in the case of the Thessalonian Christians (1 Thess. 4:13–17). Peter’s words here may in part be intended to encourage any of his readers faced with such a worry. Cf. Wisd. of Sol. 3:1–4.

4:6 / The gospel was preached. The verb euangelizesthai is used also in 1:12, 25, where it refers to the first preaching of the gospel to Peter’s readers. The verb kēryssein, to proclaim, occurs in Peter’s writings only in 3:19.

To those who are now dead has been taken in several ways. It might mean (1) the spiritually dead (Eph. 2:1); but this involves giving a different sense to the “dead” in v. 5. (2) OT saints, who waited in the abode of the dead (“Hades”) for Christ (= Messiah) to come. His preaching enabled them to respond to the gospel. This interpretation, like the first, also requires a different meaning for “dead” in v. 5. (3) The dead in general, taking “the spirits in prison” of 3:19–20 to be good and bad people alike, waiting in the abode of the dead. Or (4), the Christian dead, i.e., those who responded to the gospel during their lifetime.

Judged according to men could perhaps relate to judgment at the hands of the civil authorities that Christians (now dead) had suffered during their days on earth. This might also suggest that some believers had therefore died as martyrs. Or the phrase may simply be a reference to the experience of death through which all human beings have to pass (Rom. 5:12; Heb. 9:27).

§19 Love Heartily for God (1 Pet. 4:7–11)

4:7 / The end of all things is near: The second coming is not in view here as much as is the transience of all that pertains to the closing present age. When he goes on to admonish readers to be clear minded and self-controlled, Peter is not seeking to calm over-excited readers keyed up by the anticipation of Christ’s return, a situation Paul once had to address (2 Thess. 2:1–2). The readers are bidden to hold loosely to earthly commitments and not to let their attention be unduly absorbed by them. They are to be clear minded about their true priorities and self-controlled, calm, in their consideration of all that concerns their life. The reason for this watchful self-discipline? So … you can pray. This maintains uncluttered lines of communication with the Lord, both to discern his will and to receive his directions for carrying it out. Being too caught up with worldly affairs and being confused by their attendant worries can ruin prayer-life and spoil spiritual relationships, both with God and with fellow Christians.

4:8 / Above all, as far as fellow believers are concerned, right relationships between them are paramount. The importance of the old tag “unity is strength” became increasingly obvious to the early Christians as members of their community faced hardening antagonism from neighbors and officials. The vital link between Christians is expressed by Peter’s admonition to his readers: above all, love each other deeply. And by way of supporting explanation, he once again turns to the OT for a proof-text: because love covers over a multitude of sins (Prov. 10:12). As a proverb, the expression perhaps originally meant “Love is blind to the faults of others.” It came to be interpreted by Jews as referring to deeds of love, especially almsgiving, that in the Jewish view helped to atone for an individual’s own sins. Significantly, in taking over the OT citation Peter changes the word for “love” to the usual NT term (agapē), and so points to the Christian understanding of the proverb. Love here refers to Christ’s love. At best, a Christian’s love is but a reflection of that of the Lord Jesus, and that is unique because it alone can “cover over sins.” Only Christ’s love is able to hide an individual’s sins from God’s consciousness (Rom. 5:9).

4:9 / Love is to be expressed in practical ways. For example, Christians are to offer hospitality to one another. In the early days of the church especially, hospitality was far from being merely a matter of occasional friendly entertainment. Peter bids his readers to be ready to open their homes and offer a necessary service to fellow Christians. In a world dominated by paganism in employment and culture, living the Christian faith would often entail temporal loss. Mutual support was therefore vital. Traveling missionaries in particular were dependent upon local believers for their food and lodging. But in the absence of church buildings, believers met for worship in private houses (Rom. 16:5; 1 Cor. 16:10, 19; Col. 4:15), and this is probably what Peter primarily has in mind when he speaks here of offering hospitality to one another. He is mainly addressing the local situation. Having to stretch resources to provide for others could on occasions lead to irritation, so Peter adds the warning without grumbling. “True Christian hospitality is making people feel at home, when you wish they were at home” (Donald Coggan, former Archbishop of Canterbury).

4:10 / Christian service takes a multitude of forms, and everyone in God’s family has a part to play. Whatever may be the feelings of inadequacy, none is too weak or incapable of contributing something to the community, for the Lord has seen to it that each believer has one gift or another to employ for the common good. Peter does not mention the Holy Spirit in this connection, as Paul does when he discusses the subject of gifts (1 Cor. 12–14). But he uses the Greek word (charisma) and makes it clear that every such gift comes from God. The purpose of his bestowing such gifts on Christians is to enable them to serve others in the community of believers, a service of trust that they are supposed to carry out faithfully, as good administrators of the divine estate in its various forms (Matt. 25:14; Rom. 12:6; 1 Cor. 4:2).

4:11 / Not everyone has the gift of preaching. But each believer who does have that God-given ability should always use it bearing in mind the awesome responsibility that goes with it. He or she opens the mouth as one speaking the very words of God. To one conscious of being inspired by the gift of prophecy (1 Cor. 14:1), it should not be difficult to remember the divine source, even though a human channel is being used. But the speaking referred to here covers any public pronouncements of Christian truth. All who claim to be speaking in the name of God should do so only if they are aware of having a divine commission.

A believer’s ministry may lie not in words but in what we tend to regard as more practical fields. If anyone serves, then that service is to be carried out with the strength God provides, though not thoughtlessly taking on any and every job that sails into view. God gives strength for the tasks he wants particular individuals to carry out. The word for serving is a general one and covers all manner of contributions to the good of the Christian community. From the first days of the early church, such free and cheerful service included providing for the hungry, caring for the sick and needy, succoring those suffering for their faith, and welcoming strangers (Matt. 10:8; 25:35; Acts 2:45).

At the end of the day, the right and successful application of all gifts depends not on the individual’s natural abilities but on God working in and through the believer. As Christians come to appreciate that any success attending their labors is due to the effectiveness of divine resources rather than to any innate abilities, then they will see that the praise is addressed to the one to whom it is due, to God. The employment of gifts in service is not to promote any pride in human achievement (1 Cor. 4:7), but to further God’s glory through Jesus Christ. Peter brings the thought back yet again to his Lord, who is at the heart of every Christian life and whose glory is the object of all Christian work. The sounding out of a paean of praise in a doxology therefore follows naturally: To him be the glory and the power for ever and ever. Amen. Attention is turned away from any human effort to the divine figure who has both prompted and brought to fruition a portion of service.

Additional Notes §19

4:7 / Be clear minded: The Greek verb sōphronein means to have a sober attitude, to keep one’s head—it can contrast being demon-possessed (Mark 5:15) or being out of one’s mind (2 Cor. 5:13), or overproud, too high-minded (Rom. 12:3).

Self-controlled, from nēphein, to abstain from wine; metaphorically, to be calm, circumspect. The verb is also used in 1:13 and 5:8.

4:8 / Deeply (ektenē): “Stretched out,” in today’s jargon, “going all out,” like a sportsman or a race car driver. The corresponding adverb occurs in 1:22, again in reference to Christian love between believers.

Love covers over a multitude of sins. The quotation (for a NT writer, unusually cited from the Hebrew not the Greek OT) is from Prov. 10:12 (also used in James 5:20). A similar thought is in T. Joseph 17.2, “Therefore love one another, brethren, and with longsuffering hide one another’s faults.” On a Christian interpretation of the proverb, see S. Kierkegaard, For Self-Examination, and Judge for Yourselves (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1941), pp. 18–25.

4:9 / Israel was always distinguished for its hospitality. It was said that during the great national feasts, no pilgrim in Jerusalem ever wanted for hospitality without charge. Nearby Bethphage and Bethany were renowned for their generosity in this respect. The rabbis declared that hospitality involved even greater merit than early morning attendance at an academy of learning—praise indeed from such a source. Understandably, the rabbis also taught that to entertain a sage and to send him away with presents was as meritorious as offering the daily sacrifices (b. Ber. 10b). See Edersheim, Sketches of Jewish Social Life, pp. 47–48.

Without grumbling: The splendidly onomatapoeic gongysmos is the word used of the murmuring of the Israelites in the wilderness (Num. 17:5, 10 LXX).

4:10 / Gift is charisma, a gift of charis, grace, i.e., something bestowed freely and without merit on the believer by God that is to be used for the good of the community of believers. See Rom. 12:3–8; 1 Cor. 12:4–11, 27–31.

Faithfully administering is the NIV rendering of hōs kaloi oikonomoi, “as good managers.” Many translations use the term “stewards.” In the Greek world of NT times, the steward was a slave who was entrusted with managing his master’s household and estate (Luke 12:42; 16:1–8).

Grace (charis) can be a synonym for gift (charisma); the latter term occurs only here in 1 Peter, and otherwise in the NT only in Pauline writings (17 times).

In its various forms translates poikiloi, lit. multicolored. Christian gifts of service come in many varieties, but exercised together they form a harmonious pattern. The Greek term is used only in one other place in this letter, in referring to “all kinds of trials.” See commentary on 1:6.

4:11 / Words is logia, sayings, divine oracles.

Serves translates diakonein, the usual NT verb for Christian ministry in all its forms (also in 1:12; 4:10).

With the strength God provides: The Greek verb is chorēgein (which occurs in the NT only here and in 2 Cor. 9:10). It is used of defraying the expenses of the Greek chorus in dramatic productions, an act of munificence possible only to the wealthiest citizens. The word therefore conveys the idea of liberal giving for the public good.

In the doxology power (kratos) refers to the all-sufficient and inexhaustible divine ability to create and control (Eph. 1:19; 6:10; Col. 1:11).

Amen (“So it is!” or “It is true!”) usually concludes doxologies (5:11; Rom. 11:36; 16:27; Gal. 1:5; Eph. 3:21; Phil. 4:20; 1 Tim. 1:17; 6:16; Heb. 13:21; 2 Pet. 3:18; Jude 25; Rev. 1:6; 7:12).

§20 Suffer Cheerfully for God (1 Pet. 4:12–19)

4:12 / Dear friends signals the beginning of a new section, as Peter returns to the subject of suffering, though in particular to suffering on account of being a Christian. That a painful trial should come to those who have committed their lives to God’s keeping should not cause surprise. Conversion does not bring exemption from troubles, though it does assure believers of divine assistance through troubles. To have been born again into new spiritual life (1:3) will inevitably arouse opposition (1:6). This is because spiritual agencies antagonistic to Christ stir up the enmity of pagan neighbors and authorities. Believers should not conclude that something strange is happening to them. Now that Jesus himself is no longer on earth in human form, the spiritual onslaught falls upon his followers.

The painful trial is a less dramatic rendering than the Greek warrants, for the expression suggests an ordeal by fire—a purifying in a furnace (a “fiery trial,” KJV). Evidently Peter had heard of some experience of suffering his readers were facing beyond what might be expected in the course of their everyday life among unsympathetic pagans, who naturally disliked people who were different. It could possibly indicate some form of more or less official persecution.

4:13 / A further cause of pagan bewilderment at the way Christians behave is their cheerful attitude toward suffering. When Peter tells his readers to rejoice in such circumstances, he is not only alluding to an earlier remark (1:6) but remembering his own experience of years before (Acts 5:41). He assures his friends that they can joyfully accept persecution on account of their faith because what they go through is a sharing in the sufferings of Christ. What happened to him is happening to them. Far from being upset by such treatment, Christians should be glad that they are considered worthy to be set alongside their Master in this respect. But there is more to it than the fact that their suffering, like his, is unmerited.

To share in Christ’s sufferings means also to benefit from their consequences (Rom. 8:17; 2 Cor. 4:10; Phil. 3:10), for when his glory is revealed at the second coming, believers will have every reason to be overjoyed. They will not simply be spectators, so to speak, but be privileged in some way to partake in Christ’s glory (Peter spells this out in 5:10). Even the English terms “rejoice” and “be overjoyed” make it clear that Peter is far from merely advising his Christian friends to fix on a brave smile when suffering for Christ comes their way. The Greek words convey the idea of overwhelming delight, a great burst of joy that will fill the jubilant hearts of God’s people to overflowing when they greet Christ on his triumphant return in glory (1:6).

4:14 / One form of suffering may be verbal abuse hurled at them because they are associated with the name of Christ: “they belong to that evil gang!” Jesus forewarned the disciples of this type of persecution (Matt. 5:11; John 15:2), and it came to pass from the earliest days (Acts 5:41; 9:16; 21:13; James 5:10; 3 John 7; Rev. 2:3).

The proverb may claim that “Hard words break no bones,” but something more injurious is meant by Peter’s reference to Christians being insulted. Their very characters are being assailed, and this in itself could easily lead on to mistrust or worse. Many social and civic activities of the day involved pagan practices in which Christians could not in conscience take part (4:4). This led not merely to misunderstanding and resentment by uncomprehending pagan neighbors; it could readily be interpreted as antisocial at best or treasonable at worst.

All the same, being reviled for the name of Christ is still to be viewed positively when it comes. The experience, far from being a negative and useless one, brings a blessing with it through divine action, for the Spirit of glory and of God rests on believers who suffer in this way. The expression alludes to the messianic passage “The Spirit of the Lord will rest on him” (Isa. 11:2). This text was, of course, one which Jesus claimed in the Nazareth synagogue to be fulfilled in himself (Luke 4:18). Now Peter boldly applies the same prophecy to Christians, but with a significant amplification. The Spirit is the Spirit of glory, literally of the glory, which almost certainly is an allusion to the Shekinah, the glory cloud signifying the divine presence (Exod. 40:34–35; 1 Kings 8:11; Matt. 17:5). This makes it clear why believers are to realize that they are blessed: the very reviling is a proof that Christ is in them, and God’s enemies intuitively recognize this and react accordingly. It is worthy of notice that Peter declares that the divine Spirit of glory rests on believers. The expression implies a contrast between the storm of abuse and calumny raging around a Christian life and the peace enjoyed within the soul where the Spirit of God makes his resting place.

4:15 / There is perhaps a little smile on Peter’s face as he continues: “Only make sure you don’t deserve suffering!” Anyone who commits crimes like murder or theft can expect to pay the penalty—nothing unjust about that. Let any suffering faced by Christians be for the right reason: their loyalty to God in faithfully following Jesus Christ.

4:16 / While it is obviously a disgrace if a professing believer is guilty of besmirching the name of Christ by getting involved in any sort of civil crime, there is no cause for shame if suffering is due solely on account of being a Christian. The earliest disciples were known as Nazarenes, after the home-town of their Master Jesus (Acts 24:5). The nickname Christian was first popularly applied to his followers at Antioch on the Orontes in Syria (Acts 11:26). That was no doubt due to the name Christ being frequently used by believers when referring to their Master, but it will also reflect the fact that the messiahship of Jesus was recognized by the general public as a prominent factor in the apostolic preaching (“Christ” is, of course, simply the Greek version of the Hebrew term “Messiah”). Whatever the reason for opponents calling them by the name Christian, let believers praise God when they are so labeled.

By the translation that you bear that name, the NIV has paraphrased the Greek (which literally is simply “in this name”) and assumes that name refers back to the title Christian earlier in the verse. For readers familiar with the OT, however, name can be a technical term for the presence of God (Deut. 12:11; Ps. 74:7; Isa. 18:7; Jer. 7:10–14 and passim). Peter’s assurance that you can praise God “in this name” may therefore be intended to convey the meaning “the divine presence is evident in your lives, and you can rejoice in relying on the presence of God being with you through whatever suffering you may face on account of your faith.”

4:17 / Peter returns to the theme of divine judgment (4:5–6). That judgment is imminent. The last times are here. Furthermore, and this may have come as a surprise to Peter’s readers in view of all they were already going through, the judgment will begin with the family of God. Christians are not exempt. But what is the purpose behind the judgment of believers? Peter has already touched on this at the beginning of his letter: it is to refine faith, for faith in God’s sight is infinitely precious. On the human level, even gold has to go through the crucible (1:7).

But there is another aspect to the judgment faced by believers. They will have to give account of the response they have made to the privilege of knowing God and his grace: “Every one to whom much is given, of him will much be required” (Luke 12:48 RSV). The judgment that begins at the house of God will mean a refining of God’s people (Mal. 3:3). No purifying process can ever be painless, but believers can take heart from the knowledge that all that they suffer has an end, a goal: it is for their ultimate good in the purposes of God (Rom. 8:18).

Judgment is to be universal. It will also extend to unbelievers, which would of course include those persecuting Peter’s readers, and the outcome for them can scarcely be imagined. The offer of the good news of the gospel of God is not an offer of good advice, to be accepted or disregarded at will. It is a matter of obeying a divine order. God has commanded all people everywhere to repent (Acts 17:30), so those who do not obey the gospel of God, and persist in their disobedience, are rebels against the Most High, and they will be treated as such. A clear understanding that there is a life to come in the immediate presence of the Lord provides a powerful stimulus to living a godly life in the present world. Conversely, a lack of belief in any hereafter will confirm the godless in applying their thoughts and actions to making the best they can of their own material situation in the present world, for this, in their view, is all that there is. There is no place in their scheme of things for an ultimate reckoning.

4:18 / Once again Peter supports his statement with a quotation, this time from Prov. 11:31 LXX. “If it is hard for the righteous to be saved …” does not, of course, imply that it is difficult for God to save, or that there is any uncertainty about the destiny of believers. The words mean that the believer must not expect the road to ultimate full salvation to be uneventfully smooth and easy. Spiritual adversaries will see to that, quite apart from the common ills to which anyone living in this world may be subject. But if it is far from roses all the way for the godly, the quotation goes on with the rhetorical question “what will become of the ungodly and the sinner?” What indeed! The outlook for one who acts contemptuously toward God (such is the implication of the word for ungodly: impious) is left hanging threateningly in the air.

4:19 / Summing up, Peter declares that all this means that believers who suffer in the course of following God’s will are to express their trust in the Lord by a deliberate handing over of their lives to him. Meanwhile, regardless of discouragements, they are to carry on with the good work he wants them to do.

Those who commit themselves to God can be assured that, far more faithfully than the most loyal of human beings, he will accept each one of them individually as a sacred and inviolate trust. Believers can be as utterly confident about this as their Master was, when on the cross he committed his spirit to his Father (Luke 23:46). Their own act of committal is to their faithful Creator, to one who not only brought them into this world in the first place, but was responsible for their second birth, when they were reborn of the Spirit (1:3). They are therefore doubly God’s and can unreservedly depend upon his care and protection. God is faithful. He always keeps his promises to do what he says he will do. For their part, believers are not to droop in a resigned fashion under persecution, but to respond to it positively, however difficult that may be, by continuing to do good—and perhaps having Christ’s words in mind Peter means “especially to persecutors” (2:12; 3:9; Matt. 5:16; Luke 6:27).

Additional Notes §20

4:12 / Dear friends translates agapētoi, beloved (by God), as in 2:11; 2 Pet. 3:1, 8, 14, 17. See Additional Note on 2:11.

Surprised (xenizein): to astonish by the unexpected.

Painful trial renders pyrōsis, a refining or trial by fire. “Fire (pyrōsis) is the trial for silver and gold” (Prov. 27:21). In the Dead Sea Scrolls the corresponding Hebrew word maṣrēp̱, which occurs quite frequently, has shifted in meaning to become virtually a technical term in the Qumran community for the eschatological ordeal, after which the elect will be saved. This is the sense reflected by Peter.

Suffering is part of the inescapable order of things in the present world. Christians will have their share (5:9). But in their case the purpose in suffering is the proving of faith. But for all the value that Peter sees in the suffering of Christians, he is under no illusions as to whose sufferings were needed to bring us to God (3:18). This contrasts with the view in Judaism. Rabbis viewed personal sufferings as a means of atonement. “A man should rejoice at chastisements more than at prosperity, for chastisements bring forgiveness for his transgressions” (Sifre Deut. 32 on Deut. 6:5). “Beloved are chastisements, for just as sacrifices atone, so also chastisements atone” (Midrash Ps. 94.2).

4:13 / Sufferings for Christ’s sake is also a prominent theme in Paul’s letters (Rom. 8:17; 2 Cor. 1:5, 7; Phil. 1:29; 3:10; Col. 1:24; 2 Tim. 2:12).

Sufferings of Christ is lit. “sufferings of the Christ,” and could be taken as a reference to the “messianic woes,” a time of suffering preceding Messiah’s advent, which was expected in Judaism. The emphasis in rabbinic teaching, however, was not on the sufferings of Messiah himself but on the experience of Israel during years of great distress (b. Šabb 118a) and suffering (b. Pesaḥ. 118a), for this is the period of Mother Zion’s “birthpangs” ushering in a new era. The parallels with NT teaching about the second coming of Christ are patent. See G. F. Moore, Judaism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1927), vol. 2, p. 361.

Be overjoyed (charēte agalliōmenoi, lit. “you may rejoice exulting”): This recalls Christ’s “rejoice (chairete) and be glad (agalliasthe)” in Matt. 5:12, where again the context concerns persecution. Peter has also combined the two terms in 1:8. See commentary and Additional Note on 1:6.

4:14 / Insulted (oneidizein): to revile, slander. This particular term occurs only here in 1 Peter, but the theme of verbal abuse suffered by believers is mentioned several times. Evidently it was an all too common experience (2:12, 15; 3:16; 4:4).

Blessed (makarioi): The same word is used in the Beatitudes (Matt. 5:3); see commentary and Additional Note on 3:14.

The Spirit of glory and of God may be an example of hendiadys, and so be translated “the glorious divine Spirit.” On the literary figure of hendiadys, see Additional Note on 2:25.

The presence of the Spirit is promised to believers in times of persecution (Matt. 10:20; Mark 13:11; Luke 12:11–12; John 14:26; 16:7–11. Before the Sanhedrin, Stephen’s face is said be like an angel’s (Acts 6:15); and at Stephen’s subsequent martyrdom, the Spirit and the glory of God are specially mentioned (Acts 7:55).

Rests (anapauetai): “makes for himself a place of rest.” “The Holy Spirit does not rest where there is idleness, or sadness, or ribaldry, or frivolity, or empty speech, but only where there is joy” (Midrash Psalms 24.3.3).

4:15 / The list of misdemeanors includes the obvious like murder and theft, a general term kakopoios, evildoer (rendered by NIV as any other kind of criminal), and a fourth word, the meaning of which is something of a puzzle. The term allotriepiskopos is unique in Greek literature—apart from references to this verse in the early fathers—and may even be a word Peter has coined. The translators vary widely in their efforts: from busybody (KJV) and mischief-maker (RSV) to informer (JB) and sorcery (NEB). The Greek word itself is made up of terms meaning roughly “one who looks upon what is rightly the business of others,” “a self-appointed overseer.” So NIV’s meddler is as good a suggestion as any, even if the nature of the meddling is left obscure to us. See Turner, p. 332; NIDNTT, vol. 2, p. 742; TDNT, vol. 2, pp. 620–22.

4:16 / Christian: The followers of Jesus are called by various names in the early days, as recorded in Acts: saved (Acts 2:47), disciples (6:1), saints (9:13), brothers (9:30), believers (10:45), Nazarenes (24:5), Christians (26:28). Perhaps the earliest reference to “Christian” in non-Christian literature is in Josephus, Ant. 18.63–64, where “the tribe of Christians” is said to be named after “the so-called Christ.” Even the Josephus reference, however, is part of a passage generally thought to be a Christian addition (Testimonium Flavianum). The emperor Claudius banished Jews from Rome in A.D. 49 for rioting “at the instigation of Chrestus,” according to Suetonius (Life of Claudius 25.4), by which the writer (seventy years after the event) appears to think that the leader of the Christians was in Rome at the time.

Nearly fifty years after the probable date of 1 Peter, Pliny the Younger (A.D. 62–113), the Roman governor of Bithynia-Pontus (109–111), one of the provinces to which this letter was addressed, wrote to the emperor Trajan for advice on how to deal with Christians:

“I have never taken part in investigations of Christians, so I do not know what charge is usually brought against them. Neither do I know whether punishment is given just for the name [of Christian], apart from secret crimes connected with the name. This is the course I have taken: I asked them if they were Christians. If they said yes, I asked them a second and a third time, with threats of punishment. If they still said yes, I ordered them to be executed. Those who denied being Christians, I thought it right to let go. They recited a prayer to the gods at my dictation, offered incense and wine to your statue, and cursed Christ. Those who are really Christians cannot be made to do these things.” (Pliny, Letters 10.96)

4:17 / Time (kairos): a definite fixed time or season.

For judgment to begin alludes to Mal. 3:1–3. The Greek word for judgment here is not condemnation but rather a judicial decision made on the evidence. God will reward or punish as he sees fit.

Family of God (oikos tou theou): lit. house of God. Peter has the spiritual temple in view (2:4–5). That judgment begins with God’s own people is an OT theme (Jer. 25:29; 49:12; Ezek. 9:6; Mal. 3:1–5). Paul refers to this as the judgment seat of Christ (2 Cor. 5:10).

If it begins with us, not “with you,” as would be expected if Peter were referring to some particular local persecution faced by his readers.

“Then shall all people rise, some to glory and some to shame [Dan. 12:2]. And the Lord shall judge Israel first, for their unrighteousness” (T. Benjamin 10.8), to which a later Christian hand has added: “for when He appeared as God in the flesh to deliver them, they believed Him not.”

“If the earth trembled when he gave life to the world [a reference to the giving of the law on Mount Sinai, Exod. 19:16, 18], how much the more so when He comes to punish the wicked for transgressing the words of the law? If no creature can stand before Him when He is pleased [at the giving of revelation], then who can stand before Him when He rises in His fierce wrath?” (Midrash Rabbah 29.9 on Exod. 20:1).

The phrase the gospel of God (the revelation made by God of his own character and his required response from human beings) appears in this letter only here (also Mark 1:14; six times in Paul), although the corresponding verb occurs in 1:12, 25; 4:6).

4:18 / The righteous is singular, the righteous one. In 1 Enoch 38:2 the term is a messianic title: “When the Righteous One appears before the eyes of the elect righteous whose works are wrought in dependence upon the Lord of Spirits … where then will be the dwelling of sinners or the resting place of those who have denied the Lord of Spirits?”

4:19 / God’s will is a repeated theme of the letter: explicitly in 2:15; 3:17; 4:2 and implicitly in 2:19; 3:16, 21.

The Greek verb in commit themselves means “to make a deposit,” as in the safe-keeping of a bank. The same Greek verb is used of Jesus on the cross committing his spirit to his Father (Luke 23:46). Peter spoke from experience. When in prison facing execution (Acts 12:6), he was soundly asleep, unworried and undisturbed. A blow from the angel was necessary to awaken him.

The theme of believers committing themselves in trust to God is frequent in the Bible: Ps. 31:5; 34:22; 37:5; Prov. 3:5; Acts 7:59; 1 Cor. 10:13; 1 Thess. 5:23–24; 2 Thess. 3:3; 2 Tim. 1:12; 2:13; Heb. 10:23.

Creator: Only here in the NT is God so called. The one who is responsible for the whole of creation and for its care can be relied upon to provide the needs of all who put their trust in him (Matt. 6:25–33).

§21 A Special Charge to Elders (1 Pet. 5:1–5a)

5:1 / Peter now turns to address the local church leaders, the elders among you. The term elders can indicate those senior in age (as in v. 5) or as here, senior in experience. In the nature of the case, of course, the latter meaning will often include the former. Hints of the function of elders can be gleaned from verses 2–3. Their duties include leading and pastoring church members, taking financial responsibility, and living exemplary lives that match up to Christian teaching. With many of the first believers coming from a background of Judaism, it would be natural for the early churches to be organized on the well-established model found in the Diaspora, Jewish settlements scattered abroad. This was the Sanhedrin, a council of elders under a president, who together looked after the corporate life of the Jewish community. Later in Asia Minor, the area to which 1 Peter is addressed, a clearer hierarchical structure has been established, according to the letters of Ignatius (martyred ca. A.D. 107), but the present letter does not suggest a rigid ecclesiastical system.

Peter makes his appeal to the church leaders as a fellow elder, one of them in some respects, although as an apostle (1:1) he is able to speak with special authority. Referring to himself as a fellow elder expresses a certain humility, although he does go on to refer to the privilege he has of being a firsthand witness of Christ’s sufferings (Acts 10:39). But Peter’s use of the term fellow elder is probably intended to convey that he too considers himself to be a pastor; thus he can speak from experience and with a sympathetic understanding of their responsibilities.

While a witness of Christ’s sufferings will include the sense of being an eyewitness of what went on, the term witness also means “one who testifies.” Peter qualifies on both counts.

Furthermore, he can claim to be one who also will share in the glory to be revealed. The reference may be to the second coming of Christ at which his glory, glimpsed during his earthly life at the transfiguration (Matt. 17:2; 2 Pet. 1:18), will be made manifest to believing eyes. Or Peter may have in mind the glory that believers themselves will together enjoy when they finally go to be with the Lord. Either way, the shortness of the time-factor is evident from the Greek, which literally means “about to be revealed.” The sufferings that Christ went through ended in glory. So will it be for faithful believers (4:13–14).

5:2 / Not surprisingly, after his unforgettable interview with the risen Lord on the shore (John 21:15–17), Peter again employs pastoral language. The church leaders are to be shepherds of God’s flock that is under your care (lit. “to shepherd God’s flock among you”). The symbol of shepherd/sheep appeared in 2:25, where it corresponds to Christ/Christians, echoing the frequent OT picture of God as the Shepherd of his people (Ps. 23:1; 80:1; Isa. 40:11; Zech. 9:16). But the image is also applied in the NT to Christian leaders/other believers (Acts 20:28; Eph. 4:11). The transfer is natural enough, for Christian leaders are acting on behalf of the Chief Shepherd, Jesus himself (5:4), and they are to pattern their ministry after his.

A shepherd is responsible for the total well-being of the flock committed by an employer into his charge. He must see to it that the sheep are fed, watered, and protected at all times, and that, as necessary, they are led from place to place to find fresh pasture. The task can involve not simply the personal inconvenience of putting the sheep before his own comfort, but hardship and danger, even at the risk to his own life (John 10:11). The appropriateness of the metaphor is apparent in the harsh and wild rural economy of Bible days, even if the city-dweller of today may have to make a special effort to appreciate its application to a modern situation.

The flock of church members is described as God’s. The flock belongs to him: it is his property. Elders in their shepherding are to keep that fact always in mind, for they are engaged in fulfilling a divine trust, and in due course they will be answerable to God for what they do—or fail to do—with it.

The elders do not own the sheep, but are serving as overseers, exercising oversight in the church fellowship. But they are not to carry out this responsibility with any unworthy motives. It must be voluntary service (not because you must) and willingly and eagerly given, for such is the true nature of Christian love. Neither must there be any idea of doing for getting, no notion of serving only for what they can squeeze out of it: not greedy for money (1 Tim. 3:8; Titus 1:7). The inclusion of such a warning suggests that it was not unnecessary. Probably since being known as a committed believer meant almost certain ostracism from employment and social life in the general pagan community, the opportunities for grasping money entrusted to Christians in a position of authority might become all too tempting.

5:3 / Neither must elders display any misplaced attitude of overbearing superiority by lording it over those entrusted to them. On the contrary, the life of each elder must be a shining example to the rest of the fellowship, for if that example is to reflect Christ (as it should), then the note sounded will rather be one of humility. They are not to be high-handed or autocratic. The Greek for those entrusted to you is literally “the lots.” One implication of the choice of such a term could be that the care of a group of believers in the Christian community was allocated to each elder—though it must be added that there is no evidence from other sources that this sort of organization existed.

More profoundly, the Greek word for “lot” is applied in the OT to God’s choice of Israel: it is as if God assigned Israel to himself as his special responsibility (Deut. 9:29). Now in the Christian dispensation, God is handing on a similar charge to elders called to look after the people of the new covenant inaugurated by Jesus Christ. It follows that each elder’s attitude toward the members of the church allocated to the elder for oversight must reflect the divine attitude—and show God’s love, forbearance, forgiveness, sympathetic understanding, not to mention God’s tireless service at all times. It is a tall order for any elder. No wonder Peter has made a special point of it all in these few words.

5:4 / The elders’ reward will not be in terms of this world but in a form appropriate to the life to come. At the opening of the books at the last judgment, the faithful elder will be abundantly recompensed. The elder will receive reward far beyond the value of any earthly remuneration, which, however great, would be liable to moth and rust and thieves (Matt. 6:19), and which would be useless in a spiritual sphere.

The reference to the occasion when the Chief Shepherd appears is a reminder that elders are not acting independently. They are answerable to the One who has delegated the work to them. But the reward for faithful service will surpass our imagining. At the second coming, when all Christians are summoned before the judgment seat of Christ (2 Cor. 5:10), the elders who have been true to their commission will receive the crown of glory. That can never be subject to the ravages of time, for it belongs to another world-order, and it can never, like earthly things, fade away (1:4). What form a crown of glory will take is not explained, and indeed it could not be. Earthly words are totally inadequate to describe spiritual realities of the next life. The grammar of the expression crown of glory allows for interpretations that include a crown which is in some way composed of glory (4:14), a glorious crown (one that will never lose its dazzling brightness), or a crown symbolizing a share in the divine glory (2 Pet. 1:4). There may even be a hint, if a royal crown is in mind, of greater responsibilities in the world to come (Matt. 19:28; 25:21; cf. 1 Pet. 2:9). Whatever the nature of that crown, it is clearly intended as a symbol of triumph and represents a sharing in the victory of Jesus Christ over all suffering and over death itself (5:1).

5:5a / Young men are to be submissive to those who are older. The nouns young men and older can, of course, refer to relative age. But in the context of a charge to elders as church officials, it seems more likely that here the term young men (lit. “younger men”) means those more recently appointed to the office of elder. They are warned not to let their new position go to their heads, but to be prepared to bow to the experience and guidance of those who are older, senior in experience.

Additional Notes §21

5:1–3 / Qualifications for a Jewish sanhedrin (governing council) are echoed in these verses. According to rabbinic writings, members of a sanhedrin must be God-fearing (cf. 1 Pet. 5:1), not greedy for money (5:2), and humble and modest (5:3). They were termed elders (5:1), overseers (5:2), shepherds of the flock (5:2), guides (5:3, examples). See Edersheim, Sketches of Jewish Social Life, p. 282.

5:1 / Elders are frequently mentioned; e.g., in Jewish communities: Exod. 3:16; Lev. 9:1; Num. 11:24; 1 Sam. 4:3; Ezek. 8:1; Matt. 26:47; Acts 4:5); and in Christian fellowships: Acts 15:2; 1 Tim. 4:14; Titus 1:5. The term is also applied to certain heavenly beings (e.g., Rev. 4:4; 5:8; 7:11; 11:16).

Appeal is the Greek verb parakalein, to exhort.

Fellow elder: This verse, together with 1:1, offer the only direct clues to the identity of the author of 1 Peter.

Witness (martys): not necessarily an eyewitness (as it is in Acts 1:22; 2:32; 3:15), but one who gives testimony (as in Matt. 26:65; Acts 7:58; 2 Cor. 13:1). In the latter sense, martys eventually came to be used in the early church to mean “martyr,” one who held firm to testimony to Jesus even at the cost of life (Rev. 2:13).

Christ’s sufferings is lit. “the sufferings of the Christ” and could be another reference to the messianic woes, the period of suffering prior to the return of Christ (Messiah). The word witness in this case would carry the meaning of “one who testifies.” See Additional Note on 4:13.

5:2 / Be shepherds: Peter, a fisherman, has been recommissioned as a shepherd (John 21:15–17).

Serving as overseers (episkopountes): (Not in some important MSS: it may be a later exegetical expansion based on 2:25). The corresponding noun episkopos, overseer, later gave us the title “bishop.” A near parallel is found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, where the mebaqqer, or overseer, “shall love them [the members of the Qumran community] as a father loves his children, and shall carry them in all their distress like a shepherd his sheep” (CD 13.7).

Not because you must (mē anankastōs): Not by way of compulsion; the Greek word is rare, and in the NT only here. The direct opposite of hekousiōs, voluntarily, because you are willing: Christian service of every kind must be freely given out of love and not wrung unwillingly from reluctant hands.

Not greedy for money (mē aischrokerdōs): Not from eagerness for sordid gain. The corresponding adjective occurs in 1 Tim. 3:8 and Titus 1:7, both in a similar context of a character-sketch of a worthy Christian office-bearer. At least some church leaders were supported financially from the early days (Matt. 10:10; 1 Cor. 9:12; 1 Tim. 5:17–18).

Eager to serve translates one Greek word prothymōs, zealously. Emotion is implied because in ministering to God’s people they are in truth serving God himself.

5:3 / Lording it: The Greek verb katakyrieunein includes a derivative of kyrios, lord, plus the prefix kata, down upon, the two together implying an overbearing and oppressive attitude.

Those entrusted to you renders one Greek word klērōn, lots, allocations; its earlier sense of “dice” occurs in Matt. 27:35. In secular Greek klēros meant an estate. Peter may have in mind Deut. 9:29 LXX, in which the people of Israel are called God’s klēros, since that verse includes the phrase “the mighty hand of God,” which Peter goes on to use in v. 6.

5:4 / The Chief Shepherd is described in Heb. 13:20 as the “great Shepherd of the sheep.” In the OT, the promised Messiah is termed the shepherd of God’s people (like David, Ezek. 34:23). The messianic prophecy of Mic. 5:4 speaks of the ruler of Israel coming from Bethlehem to shepherd God’s flock. In Matt. 26:31, Jesus applies to himself the reference in Zech. 13:7 to the shepherd being struck down and the sheep scattered, a prophecy understood by the Qumran community as referring to some eschatological figure (CD 19.5–9).

The book of Enoch speaks of Israel in the days of the exodus as sheep escaping from the wolves of Egypt (1 Enoch 89:10), and goes on in similar terms to describe the wanderings in the wilderness: “The sheep escaped from that water [the Red Sea that overwhelmed the wolves of Egypt pursuing Israel], and went forth into the wilderness, where there was no water and no grass … and I saw the Lord of the sheep pasturing them and giving them water and grass … His appearance was great and terrible and majestic” (1 Enoch 89:28–30).

You will receive: Komizein (occurring again in 1:9) is a verb regularly used in the NT for the bestowing of the ultimate recompense of reward or punishment at the last judgment (2 Cor. 5:10; Eph. 6:8; Col. 3:25; Heb. 10:36; 2 Pet. 2:13).

Crown (stephanos, derived from stephein, to encircle): The word can mean a wreath, garland, or chaplet awarded as the winner’s prize, or an honor for distinguished public service, or a golden royal crown. A laurel wreath can soon wither, public acclaim can be short-lived, and a royal crown lost. But the crown of glory, in whatever form that may take, is unfading, eternal in quality. There could also be a link with the joy of the wedding supper of the Lamb (Rev. 19:7), for a crown was also worn by Jewish bridegrooms. Also in the Greek world crowns denoted the joy that comes at weddings, and they were common objects in pagan religions (TDNT, vol. 7, pp. 616–24). For both Jew and Greek, the dominant idea was of the recognition of victorious achievement, with its associated themes of honoring and joyful celebration, rather than any reference to a symbol of the autocratic rule of a king.

That will never fade away (amarantinos): unfading, unlike the garlands of flowers and leaves awarded at the Greek games—which were in any case competitive, a thought alien to the message of 1 Peter.

A parallel notion is found in the Dead Sea Scrolls: “All who walk in the ways of the spirit of truth [receive] eternal blessings and everlasting joy in the life everlasting, and a crown of glory and a robe of honor amid light perpetual” (1QS 4.7).

5:5a / Young men is lit. younger men (neōteroi). The comparative can refer to age, rank, or a recent appointment, “young in the job.”

§22 The Great Virtue of Humility (1 Pet. 5:5b–7)

5:5b / In his earlier exhortation to slaves (2:18), Peter slipped almost imperceptibly into addressing all his readers (if not in 2:21, then certainly by 2:25). So here, the apostle moves on from speaking to elders in particular to church members in general, all of you.

All believers are to clothe yourselves with humility toward one another. They are to put on, as though it were a garment, the Christlike character of humble service. By his choice of metaphor, Peter is no doubt reflecting on the scene in the Upper Room, when Jesus took up the menial task of washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4). The Greek verb Peter uses for clothe yourselves is a vivid one, for it is derived from a series of words implying clothing that is tightly wrapped, or rolled up, or knotted. The picture is of donning a slave’s apron, tied on tightly so as to leave the body free for action. “Do not use humility as the usual loose-fitting garment, so readily put on or taken off according to whim, but as a close-fitting overall intended for work and wear.” Humility is a matter not of downcast eyes, or of the mentality of a Uriah Heep (“I’m only an ’umble clerk, Mr. Copperfield”), but of active selfless service toward one another.

Once again, Peter quotes a supporting word from the OT (Prov. 3:34 LXX), “God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble,” a point frequently made in the OT and memorably expressed in the Magnificat (Luke 1:51–53). God, as the Greek implies, sends his armed forces against those who consider themselves far superior to others and treat the common herd with contempt. The implication is that the proud are those who ridicule and despise Christian believers (2:12; 3:16; 4:4–5). Such people are oblivious of the fact that by their attitude they are foolishly pitting their puny selves against the overwhelming might of God. By contrast, the divine favor of special blessing is bestowed upon believers who seek to follow the example of their Master in his selfless lowliness (Matt. 11:29).

5:6 / While the previous verse spoke of the expression of humility toward those who share the common faith, Peter now goes more deeply. The foundation of Christian humility is a dependent attitude toward God and his ability to rescue. That involves turning one’s attention away from self and away from circumstances, however pressing and however painful. The believer’s attitude must be one of taking it for granted that God’s hand remains in control of events. In the OT, the expression the mighty hand of God almost always refers to divine deliverance. His power to deliver can still be relied upon, says Peter, provided there is trust on the believer’s part. A drowning man must submit to the one who comes to his aid. If he struggles in his own strength to try to save himself—in effect in the pride of self-sufficiency—he is likely to defeat the best efforts of his would-be rescuer, who in the end may even have to disable him before getting him to safety.

Trust in divine deliverance will be rewarded in due time, not necessarily with the immediacy that one often craves in distress, but at the divinely right moment, as God sees the whole situation. Certainly at the end of days (1:5; 2:12), the believer’s trust will be justified and the persecutor’s stance exposed as one of opposition to almighty God himself.

5:7 / However trying the circumstances, therefore, believers are to look to God alone: Cast all your anxiety on him. Far from being an attitude of resignation, humility for the Christian has this very practical aspect. In response to humble trust, God is not only able to deliver his own, but is at all times ready and willing to do so: he cares for you. Without drawing attention to the fact, Peter is again quoting from the OT—this time from Psalm 55:22 LXX. Believers can safely leave all anxieties with their heavenly Father (Matt. 6:25–34). He will care about their cares. For their part, believers are to be care-free. It is one of the distinctive treasures which Christianity has inherited from Judaism that God is known to be concerned with the personal care of his people. Other religions at best see God as aloof, as one who, while good and perfect, keeps his distance from human beings.

Additional Notes §22

5:5b / All of you was omitted from the earlier NIV edition.

Clothe yourselves with humility: The Greek verb enkomboomai is rare and occurs in the NT only here. It is formed from kombos, a knot; cf. the noun enkombōma, a garment tied over other clothing, especially the apron worn by slaves (LSJ).

“When a man thinks much of the glory of heaven and little of his own glory, both the glory of heaven and his own glory are magnified. If, however, a man thinks little of the glory of heaven and much of his own glory, the glory of heaven remains unimpaired but his own glory wanes” (Midrash Rabbah 4.20 on Num. 4:16).

“God opposes …”: The quotation, from Prov. 3:34 LXX, is also used in the same Greek form in James 4:6, with both writers replacing “Lord” with “God” to avoid suggesting to Christian readers that Jesus is meant.

Opposes (antitassein): A military term, used of an army drawn up ready for battle.

Proud (hyperēphos): One who seeks to show himself above others, haughty, disdainful.

5:6 / Humble yourselves: “Ever be more and more lowly in spirit, since the expectancy of man is to become the food of worms” (Aboth 4.4). The downcast pessimism of the rabbis contrasts with the opening Beatitude which bids the believer to look up: “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” (Matt. 5:3). See Edersheim, Life and Times, vol. 1, p. 531.

Under God’s mighty hand: A frequent OT metaphor for divine deliverance (Exod. 3:19; 6:1; Deut. 7:8; 9:26; Neh. 1:10; Ps. 136:12; Jer. 32:21; Dan. 9:15).

That he may lift you up uses the same Greek verb as in Christ’s declaration, “He who humbles himself will be exalted” (Luke 14:11). The Greek word suggests the bestowal of honor, position, fortune.

In due time (en kairō): Used also in 1:5, although there with the adjective “last” to make the eschatological note explicit.

5:7 / Cast is a participle in the Greek, not a separate imperative (as taken by NIV and many modern translations). The injunction therefore is closely connected with the theme of humility in v. 6. The Greek verb is an aorist participle, signifying a definite act of handing over the burden of anxiety. The only other NT occurrence of epiriptein is in Luke 19:35, where the disciples cast their clothes upon the animal, so letting it carry the garments.

Anxieties: The Greek implies being pulled in several different directions at once, a vivid impression of what worry means. A version of the text is found in Hermas: “Cast your cares upon the Lord, and he will set them straight” (Shepherd of Hermas, Visions 4.2.5).

§23 Orders for Active Service (1 Pet. 5:8–11)

5:8 / The exhortations to humility in verses 5b–7 are not to be taken as recommending an attitude of passive resignation, or even of stoic indifference, to painful events. Neither does the emphasis on the reality of God’s care mean that Christians are to be careless—not least about spiritual perils. While the sufferings that afflict believers in the present life may come to them through the agency of other human beings, whom they can see and hear, God’s people must at all times remember that behind the seen is the unseen. As part of Christ’s army, they are all the time caught up in a spiritual war (Eph. 6:12).

The standing orders for Christians in this conflict include the need to be self-controlled and alert. As in 1 Thessalonians 5:6–8, where the same Greek terms are used, the notions of wakefulness and sobriety imply the need to avoid the opposite states of sleep and drunkenness. Drunkenness expresses the clouding of the senses, and so a lack of apprehending spiritual realities. Peter’s exhortation to self-control (also in 1:13; 4:7) is always a positive one, with a view to action. Similarly, believers are to be alert, to be on the watch like keen sentinels, aware that the foe may attack at any time and from any quarter.

Unseen he may be, but the spiritual fact is that their enemy the devil is forever seeking a way to infiltrate and take advantage of any weakness among God’s army of believers. The devil prowls around like a roaring lion, a simile chosen because of the brute’s nature as a cruel and ferocious beast of prey. Believers facing distress and persecution are not to be frightened into apostasy by the fierce threats of their enemies. Only if sheep forsake the fold are they at the mercy of a prowling lion. This is not to suggest that if believers do suffer physical or material hurt, or even death, because they are Christians, they must be in some way to blame, being in sin or lacking in personal faith. Their spiritual safety is what is all-important, and provided they are loyal to God, this is beyond the reach of their enemies (1:5). Peter is addressing his readers’ immediate situation and warning that the devil is constantly engaged in looking for someone in God’s army to devour, any he can ruin and destroy spiritually.

5:9 / What are believers to do about the attacks of the devil? They are to resist him, to stand fearlessly up to him. Christians are not to fear the devil, but neither are they to underestimate him. Yet they are not to rely upon their own strength, for of themselves they are no match for the devil’s capacity and skill. The devil is conquered only in Jesus Christ. So the resistance Peter urges is a standing firm in the faith, immovable in their steadfast reliance on the Lord and his victory. They can encourage themselves in the knowledge of two facts: (1) it is entirely possible for Christians to resist the devil—it is never a hopeless situation; and (2) they are not isolated and on their own in their struggles. Their Christian brothers and sisters throughout the world are also caught up in the conflict as fellow-members of the same spiritual army. They too are even now undergoing the same kind of sufferings, not necessarily the particular persecutions facing Peter’s readers, but suffering nonetheless because they live the Christian life in a hostile, ungodly environment.

5:10 / Any suffering seems interminable at the time. But it does have an end, in both senses of that word. In terms of time, it will not go on forever: suffering will be only for a little while. That is not to be taken as an assurance that their suffering will be brief, which would probably be contradicted by the experience of at least some of Peter’s readers, but it is temporary. Paul expresses a parallel thought: “I consider that our present sufferings are not worth comparing with the glory that will be revealed in us” (Rom. 8:18). And suffering also has an end in the sense of purpose, as Peter has been at pains many times to stress (1:7; 2:12, 15, 19; 3:9, 14, 16; 4:13–16). God is using every experience, especially perhaps the more unpleasant ones, to further his loving purpose in the lives of his people and to enable them to grow in grace and in their knowledge of him (2 Pet. 3:18).

God is the God of all grace, the source of all sufficiency for every demand made upon his own (2 Cor. 12:9). The goal he has in view for his people is for them to share in his eternal glory in Christ. That is the reason for his call. The experiences of this life are limited. What lies ahead in the purposes of God for believers is eternal: their coming salvation in all its fullness (1:5).

The clear object God keeps in view through all that believers face in this world should be a matter for great encouragement when days are dark and threatening. God himself is purposing to restore you and make you strong, firm and steadfast. Is Peter thinking of the old days, remembering how his fishing nets continually needed reinforcement and repair? The Greek he employs is reminiscent of what he used to have to do in his fishing business. The situation, spiritually speaking, is similar for all believers. After the wear and tear of daily living for God in a hostile environment, they need to be renewed, restored, fully re-equipped. Personal divine action will attend to this very need. Believers will be made strong, firm and steadfast—the virtual synonyms pile up as Peter strives to make the point for those who are perhaps feeling all too conscious of their present weakness and helplessness. Strength comes through growth and development, no less in the spiritual and moral field than in the physical. Experiences of whatever sort, faced in the right way and with God’s help, will enable each and every Christian to grow ever stronger in and closer to the Lord.

5:11 / Having lifted his readers thoughts upward and onward, beyond present difficulties and trials to the glory that lies in the future, Peter crowns his exhortation with a doxology in praise of what will ensure that it all comes to pass: the divine power, rule, and sovereignty—for all these aspects are included in the Greek term—and closes with a resounding Amen! “It is so!”

Additional Notes §23

5:8 / Be self-controlled (lit. “be sober”): This is the third time Peter’s readers have been so exhorted (1:13; 4:7), on each occasion in an eschatological context.

Both enemy (Matt. 5:25) and devil (false accuser, Rev. 12:10) are, strictly speaking, forensic terms meaning adversary (i.e., against God and his people).

According to the NT, the devil is allowed temporary dominion over the present world (Job 1:12; Luke 4:6; John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; Acts 26:18; 2 Cor. 4:4; Heb. 2:14; 1 John 5:19), with his power becoming increasingly evident as the end-time approaches (Matt. 24:4–25; 2 Thess. 2:3–12; 2 Tim. 3:1–8; Rev. 20:7–8).

Like a roaring lion: The simile is also found in Ps. 91:13, but when the devil quotes this passage to Jesus during the wilderness temptations, the reference in the psalm to the overthrow of the lion is carefully omitted. In the natural world, different types of lions use different hunting methods. While one seeks to paralyze its prey by a terrifying noise, another stalks its victim silently. The devil is a master of arts. The comparison of the enemy of souls to a lion is suggested by Ps. 7:2; 10:9; 22:13. The simile refers to spiritual death, apostasy. See Horsley, New Documents, vol. 3, pp. 50–51. In Judaism, persecutors are often likened to lions: Jer. 4:7; Ezek. 19:6; 1QH 5.5; 4Q169 on Nah. 2:11–12.

Devour (katapiein): lit. “to swallow down.”

5:9 / Resist here means to withstand, not to fight against, for that is beyond the ability of human beings faced by a spiritual foe like the devil. Only in Christ is there victory (Luke 10:17).

Standing firm translates one Greek word, stereoi, solid, firm; the corresponding verb occurs in Acts 16:5, “the churches were strengthened in the faith.” See Eph. 6:10–18.

Brothers (adelphotēs, brotherhood, but including both men and women [as in 2:17]): Peter’s choice of the collective term emphasizes the common bond of experience shared by all Christian believers, even those unknown to the readers.

Throughout the world is lit. the curious phrase “in the world.” This could be a Latinism, a stock expression contrasting “in town” (i.e., in the metropolis, Rome; cf. Rom. 1:8), pointing to Rome as the place of writing for 1 Peter. See Robinson, Redating the New Testament, p. 160.

5:10 / Grace (“what God gives”) is frequently mentioned in this letter, for everything depends upon it (1:2, 10, 13; 2:20; 3:7; 4:10; 5:5, 10, 12).

Who called you: The call of God recurs as a theme at regular intervals: 1:15; 2:9, 21; 3:9; 5:10.

Restore (katartizein): This word ranges in meaning from mend, furnish completely, complete, to set right (as a bone). The word is used in Mark 1:19 of James and John mending their nets in preparation for further service.

Make you strong (stērizein): to fix, set fast, establish firmly (cf. “steroids,” body-building substances). It is the word used by Jesus when warning Peter about his coming denial: “When you are restored, give strength to your brothers” (Luke 22:32, REB).

Firm (sthenooun, in the NT only here): to fill with strength.

Steadfast (themeliooun): To lay the foundation of, settle firmly (Eph. 3:17; Col. 1:23).

5:11 / Power (kratos, “strength” in 4:11): often used in NT doxologies of the incomparable mighty power of God (1 Tim. 6:16; Jude 25; Rev. 1:6; 5:13).

§24 And Now, Farewell! (1 Pet. 5:12–14)

5:12 / It was common practice at the time this letter was written for the real author to take over the pen of the amanuensis and add the final words of personal greeting (Gal. 6:11). This may have happened here. Peter says he has written his letter with the help of Silas, an expression that, according to examples in Greek literature, can have several interpretations. Literally, the Greek is simply “through Silas.” That can mean that Silas was the bearer of the letter, or that he was the writer under Peter’s dictation, or that he composed the letter as a ghost-writer, embodying Peter’s thoughts.

The identity of Silas is not altogether certain, but most assume that he is Paul’s colleague Silvanus, the latter name being a Latinized form of “Silas.” No other Silvanus is known. In A.D. 48 Silas was commissioned by the Jerusalem church, where the apostle Peter was a leading figure at the time, to tell the believers at Antioch in Syria about the settlement between Jewish and Gentile Christians (Acts 15:22, 27). Later he accompanied Paul to Asia Minor and Greece (Acts 15:40) and is named as the co-author of two Pauline letters (1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1).

After these important responsibilities, it is no surprise that Silas is regarded by Peter as a faithful brother, a loyal fellow-believer. He is one who can be trusted not only to deliver the letter safely to distant churches scattered over a large area, but also to enlarge upon its message and answer questions as necessary, for he is one who knows the apostle’s mind.

As letters go, to describe 105 verses as having written to you briefly may seem surprising (Heb. 13:22, where a similar comment occurs, is even more so). It was conventional politeness to proclaim one’s brevity (Acts 24:4), though Peter may have in mind the vastness of the subjects he has tackled. How much more could have been said! But what he has written is intended to be encouraging to his readers in their tribulation, and all through the letter he has sought to draw attention to spiritual facts in order to strengthen faith and to uplift sorely tried spirits. He has been testifying that what he has written is his personal experience of the true grace of God. It is as if he were saying “I know at first hand that the grace of God, what he gives, is completely sufficient for every demand made upon a Christian life: that grace is true, ‘the genuine article.’ So, stand fast in it! Persevere to the very end along the Christian way, regardless of what happens.”

5:13 / Finally, Peter conveys greetings from she who is in Babylon. The pronoun she almost certainly refers to a church (a feminine noun in Greek) and not to an individual, especially as the subsequent phrase chosen together with you more appropriately relates to a community of believers parallel to those to whom the letter is addressed. Babylon means Rome, although the name is not used (as in the book of Revelation) as a coded term intended to conceal the writer’s whereabouts. If the letter had fallen into the hands of a Pliny (see Additional Note on 4:16), the Roman official would have applauded the exhortation to good citizenship (2:13–17). Peter’s motive in using Babylon to mean Rome is homiletic. Babylon in the OT was notorious as the place of exile. Now all Christians, whether Jewish or Gentile, are, as it were, exiles so far as the world in which they live is concerned, as Peter pointed out in his opening greeting (1:1), and later (2:11). The Christians in Rome with Peter as he writes and the Christians in Asia Minor to whom his letter is addressed share the same status: their true home is in heaven.

Peter also includes a greeting from my son Mark, a term of endearment, not a reference to blood ties. But it may also imply that Peter brought Mark to faith in Christ and thus into the Christian family. The relationship clearly continued to be a close one. It is widely accepted that the second of the four Gospels in the NT was compiled by John Mark in Rome, and that it is largely based on Peter’s preaching and on the apostle’s memories of what Jesus said and did.

5:14 / When in conclusion Peter bids his readers to greet one another with a kiss of love, he is using an expression that frequently closes NT letters (Rom. 16:16; 1 Cor. 16:20; 2 Cor. 13:12; 1 Thess. 5:26). It reflects the custom of believers embracing each other during their meetings for worship, a sign of their loving relationship in the divine family. Television pictures from the Middle East have made the practice a familiar one. It corresponds to the less demonstrative handshake in the West, which is brought out by some modern translators who are also perhaps seeking to avoid romantic overtones: “Give each other a handshake all round as a sign of love” (Phillips). This scarcely conveys the emotion intended. A warm charismatic hug is nearer the mark! Whether by kiss, handshake, or hug, one implication of the action is the same for Christians: those involved are relating to one another on equal terms before God.

Peter’s last word, peace, echoes his opening greeting (1:2). Despite their trials and tribulations, his readers are wrapped in divine peace from beginning to end. That peace is a divine gift (Phil. 4:7) and not of human generation, which is liable to be superficial, fragile, or short-lived. God’s peace is for all who are in Christ, for all believers: it is their divinely bestowed privilege as members of God’s family. The Father will see to it by his concern, his governing, and his power, that whatever testings of faith come to his children, they will ultimately share in the complete triumph of their risen and glorified Lord. On that their hearts can utterly rely in peace.

Additional Notes §24

5:12 / The name Silas in its Latin form is Silvanus, and in Aramaic še’îlā’, which corresponds to the Hebrew name “Saul.” A Jewish Christian, he was also a Roman citizen (Acts 16:37).

Testifying (epimartyrein, yet another Greek word occurring in the NT only here): To declare emphatically, to speak clearly of what one knows to be true. In the OT, the word is used for the testimony of witnesses to a land-sale (Jer. 39:25 LXX = 32:10 in Hebrew text).

5:13 / The pronoun she is unlikely to refer to an individual (Peter’s wife, for example: 1 Cor. 9:5), but means church (a feminine noun in Greek), as in 2 John 1, 13.

Babylon is a coded reference to Rome in the book of Revelation (Rev. 14:8, and five other verses), where other aspects of the OT city on the Euphrates are in view—its pride and godlessness—a character now taken on by Rome in the eyes of both Jews and Christians by the late first century.

Chosen together echoes the description of Peter’s readers, as indeed of all Christians, as “chosen” (1:2; 2:9), i.e., by God.

Mark is John Mark (Acts 12:12), one of Paul’s companions on his first missionary journey (Acts 13:5). Paul mentions him several times in his letters (Col. 4:10; 2 Tim. 4:11; Philem. 24).

5:14 / There is no verb expressed in peace to all of you. The expression can certainly be taken as a prayer (“May peace be to all of you”), but equally it may be a bold statement of fact: “Peace is (at all times and in all circumstances) with you.” Such an interpretation is entirely appropriate to the encouraging purpose of the letter as a whole.